ILLUSTRATED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 




I \ 



The £(3inl)urg}i Gpograptical Institu-te 



ILLUSTRATED 

Bible Dictionary 

AND TREASURY OF 

Biblical Ibistory, Biograpby, (Beograpb^, 
Doctrine, anb Xitetature 

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 

AXD 

IMPORTANT CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES AND MAPS 



/ 



BY 



M. G. EASTOxN, M.A., D.D, 




s> 






HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 



NOV 2 1893^. 



1893 



^7 



iliiiilllllilllil!liil!'''l!iillMlaiIiigJ^^ [ 7^;^^lll!llliil!lll!!lM 










Copyright, 1893, by Harper & Brothers. 



PREFACE. 




HE Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible is the fruit of 
many years of loving labour. No pains hav^e been spared 
to make it in all respects reliable and complete. The author 
has sought to embody in the work, in as compact a form as 
possible, the results of the most recent research in all departments of Biblical 
literature — doctrinal, historical, biographical, archseological, and geographical. 

The learned research and criticism which resulted in the Eevised Ver- 
sion of the Scriptures have, probably for the first time, been here utilized in 
a systematic way in a Bible Dictionary. 

The abundant use of illustrations and sketch-maps, and the introduction 
of chronological and other tables, will, it is believed, be found to add greatly 
to the value of the book. 

The author offers this work to the public in the hope that it may prove 
to be worthy of a place on the table of all students of the Bible, and par- 
ticularly of those who are engaged in the religious instruction of the young 
in Sabbath schools, and be helpful as a convenient and trustworthy book of 
reference on all Biblical subjects. He has taken cognizance of modern con- 
troversies bearing on the character and claims of the Word of God and on the 
doctrines of the gospel, and, while avoiding everything of a sectarian char- 
acter, has freely stated the conclusions he has reached, under the deep 
impression that further study and research will only the more fully confirm 
the truth of "those things which are most surely believed among us." 

May the Lord, whose Word this book is intended to elucidate, graciously 
vouchsafe His blessing with it, to His own glory ! 



M. G. E. 



Darvel. 



LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED. 




HE books the author lias had occasion to consult in the prepara- 
tion of this Dictionary have been very numerous. Besides 
those quoted or referred to in the work itself, the following 
may be mentioned : — 

The Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statements. 
The Memoirs of the Surve-i/ of Weste7'n Palestine. 
The Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund. 

The Negeh or South Country of Scripture, by Rev, E. Wilton, M.A. 
The Desert of the Exodus, by E. H. Palmer, M.A. 
Durch Gosen zum Sinai, von Dr. Georg Ebers. 
JEgypten und die Bilcher Mose's, von Dr. Georg Ebers. 
Zeitschrift des Dcutschen Paldstina-Vereins. 

Die Keilinschriften u. das Alte Testament, ^^^ A., von Eberhard Schrader. 
Zeitschrift fur Assyviologie u. Vcrivandte Gehiete. 

Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung : Ein Beitrag zur Monumcntalen Geog- 
raphic der Assyrer, von Eberhard Schrader. 
Die hibl. Altertilmer, von Kinzler. 
Die hibl. Naturgeschichte u. die hill. Geographic, Herausg. von deni Calwer 

Verlagsverein. 
Bibel-Atlas u. hibl. Geographic, von Dr. R, v. Riess. 
Handioorterbuch des hibl. Alterthums, von E. C. H. Riehm; 2te Auflage, von 

Dr. F. Baethgen. 
Eealencyclopddie fiir Protest. Theol. v.. Kirche, von Herzog, Plttt, u. Hauck. 

2te Auflage. 
La Trouvaille de Deir-el-Behari, vingt Photographies, par M. E. Brugsch, 

Texte par G. jVIaspero. 
Hist. Ancienne de V Orient, par M. Lenormant. 
The Hibbcrt Lectures. Lectures on the origin and growth of religion as illustrated 

by the religion of the ancient Babylonians. By A. H. Sayce. 
A Manual of Ancient History, by George Rawlinson, M.A. 
The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern. World, by George Rawlin- 

SON, M.A. 
History of Ancient Egypt, by George Rawlinson, M.A. 
A History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria, by Georges Perrot and Charles 

Clupiez. 



VIU 



ARABIC WORDS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 



The Bible and Modern Discovery, by Haepek. 

The Holy Land and the Bible, by Geikie. 

The Student's Edition of the Speaker's Commentary, by M. Fullek, M. A., Professor 

of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, London. 
Biblischer Commentar u. d. A. T., von Keil u. Delitzsch. 
The By-Paths of Bible Knowledge. 
Smith's Bible Dictionary. 
Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible. 
Schaff's Bible Dictionary. 

FausseVs Critical and Expository Bible Cyclopaedia. 
Edersheim's Bible History. 
M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical 

Literature. 



ARABIC WORDS USED IN THE MODERN 
NAMES OF PLACES, ETC. 



Ah, father. Abu, father of. 

'Ain or en, a well; lit. the "eye" 
of the desert. "Ayiin (pi. ), wells. 

Amir or ameer, prince. 

Ard, earth. 

Bohr, sea. 

Beit, house. 

Beni, sons of. Ibn, son. 

Bir or beer, fountain ; an artifi- 
cially sunk and enclosed well, as 
distinguished from 'am. 

Birket, pool. 

Dan, dwelling. 

Deir, convent. 

Derb, way. 



Kalat, castle or fort. 

Kafr, village. 

Kasr, palace ; pi. kusiir. 

Khurbet, ruins. 

Kurm, vineyard. 

Malek, king. 

Kahr, river. 

Nebi, prophet. 

Bds, headland ; cape ; summit. 

Said, lord. 

Tell, mound ; hill. 

Umm, mother. 

Wddy, rain stream, or the 

channel through which it 

flows. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



A. V Authorized Version of 

the Bible. 
R. V Revised Version of the 

Bible. 
LXX Septuagint Version of 

the Bible. 

Lat Latin. 

Gr. Greek. 

Heb Hebrew. 

Arab Arabic. 



Aram Aramaic or Chaldee. 

N.T New Testament. 

O.T Old Testament. 

n.p proper name. 

cf. compare. 

i.e that is. 

ibid the same. 

q.v which see. 

l.c in the passage quoted. 

e.g for example. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



SCENES. 



Absalom's Tomb, Jerusalem, 

Aceldama, 

Acropolis, Athens, . . 

Akker Kuf (Accacl), 

Ararat, 

Areopagus (Mars' Hill), 

Bethany (El- Azariyeh), 

Bethlehem (Beit-Lahm), 

BirEyub, .. 

Birket el-Mamilla, 

Birs Nimrud, 

Damascus, 

Eastern Sheep a,nd Shepherd, 

El Haram (Machpelah), Hebron, 

Er-Riha, .. 

Fountain of the Virgin, 

Gethsemane at the Present Day, 

Hebron, 

Jacob's AVell, 

Jaffa from the Harbour, 

Jebel-esh-Sheikh (Hermon), from Temple 

at Thelthatha, . . 
Jebel Usdum, 

Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives, 
Jews' Wailing-place, 
Magdala, . . 
Modern Tyre, 
Mole and Harbour of Caesarea (Palestinse), 



12 


Mount Carmel from Haifa, 


127 


15 


Mount Hor, 


336 


65 


Mouth of one of the "Wells at Beersheba 


89 


14 


Nablus or Shechem, 


620 


51 


Nazareth, . . 


491 


54 


Neby Samwil, 


470 


93 


Nein (Nain), 


488 


96 


North End of the Dead Sea, . . 


188 


228 


Patmos, 


525 


288 


Philadelphia (AUah-shehr), 


545 


72 


Place of Elijah's Sacrifice, Carmel, 


221 


176 


Plain of Gennesaret, 


281 


621 


Pools of Solomon, . . 


556 


435 


Quay at Puteoli, 


567 


370 


Road between Jerusalem and Jericho, . 


22 


266 


Rock Temple, Petra, 


612 


284 


Ruins of Askelon, . . 


60 


321 


Ruins of Baalbec, 


70 


356 


Ruins of Tadmor, 


653 


386 


Ruins of Theatre at Ephesus, 


232 




Ruins of Um-Keis (Gadara), . . 


271 


325 


Source of the Jordan near Banias, 


388 


638 


Sphinx and Pyramids, 


214 


375 


Supposed Tomb of David, Mount Zion, 


186 


687 


Tantiira (Dor), 


201 


437 


Tell Hum, 


124 


678 


Tombs in the Kidron Valley, 


407 


114 


Valley of Elah (Wady es-Sunt), 


216 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 



Almond Tree, Branch of, 


32 


Bittern, 


101 


Anemone coronaria. 


424 


Box-tree, Branch of. 


106 


Arabian Camel, 


118 


Caraphire, 


120 


Aspen, or Trembling Poplar, 


481 


Carob Tree, Pod, Leaves, and Flower of. 


340 


Bactrian Camel, 


118 


Cedars of Lebanon, . . 


131 


Balm of Gilead, 


77 


Chameleon, 


136 


Balsamodendron Myrrha, 


483 


Cinnamon, 


147 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Conies, 


157 


Lilium Chalcedonicum, 


423 


Coriander, 


160 


Locust, 


426 


Cormorant, 


162 


Lot or Ladanuni, 


483 


Cummin, .. 


170 


Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis), 


443 


Cypress Tree, Branch of, 


172 


Manna Ash, Flower of. 


443 


Date Palm, 


181 


Manna-Tamarisk Tree {Tamarix manni- 




Desert Partridge {Aiamoiierdix heyi), . 


523 


fera), Branch of. 


444 


Dill (Peucedanum graveolens), 


44 


Millet (Panicum miliaceum), 


466 


Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje), . . 


19 


Mint (^fentfl a sylvestris), 


467 


Egyptian Papyrus, . . 


111 


Murex Trunculus, . . 


154 


Fallow-deer, 


252 


Myrtle, 


484 


Fig-tree, Branch of. 


257 


Olive-tree, 


511 


Fitches {Nlgella sativo), 


260 


Oriental Plane Tree, Branch of, 


140 


Flav, 


261 


Pelican (Pelicanus onocrotalus). 


531 


Frankincense iBoswellia thurifera), 


267 


Pomegranate Branch and Fruit, 


555 


Gazelles, . . 


587 


Quail (Coturnix vulgaris), 


569 


Gecko, . . . . . . . 


255 


Rose-bay Oleander, 


691 


Great Eagle-Owl {Bubo maximus). 


516 


"Rmq {Ruta graveohns), 


589 


Griffon Vulture, 


207 


Saffron {Crocus sativus). 


593 


Heron, 


327 


Scorpion, . . 


608 


Ibex, 


292 


Shittah Tree (Acacia seyaO. •• 


13 


Juniper, 


400 


Star-of-Bethlehera, . . 


202 


Juniperus Sabina or Savin, 


317 


Sweet-scented Narcissus (Narcissvs ta- 




Kestrel, 


314 


zetta), .. 


589 


Lentil, 


419 


Syrian Fox, 


267 



ANTIQUARIAN. 



Altar, Brazen and Golden, 

Ancient Books, 

Ancient Jewish Seals, 

Ancient Persian Kings, Persepolis, 

Antiochus Epiphanes, 

Antiochus the Great, 

Arch, Temple Wall, Jerusalem, Remains 

of, 

Ark of the Covenant, 

Ashtoreth, 

Assarion, . . 

Assyrian Temple Restored (Khorsabad), 

Athenian Tetradrachm, 

Brick of Sun-dried Clay and Straw, with 

Cartouche of Rameses II., 
Cameo of Nebuchadnezzar, 
Chaldean Account of Babel, . . 
Coin of Csesar Augustus, 
Cuneiform Writing, 
Cylinder recording the Conquest 

Samaria by Sargon, 
Daric, 

Denarius, . . 
Esarhaddon, 
Egyptian Brick-making, 
Egyptian Signet-rings, 
Flesh-hooks, 
Golden Candlestick, 
Group of Roman Standards, . . 
Haggai's Seal, 
Head of Nefert-ari, 



34 


Head of Sphinx of Zoan, 


391 


104 


Kodrantes, 


253 


610 


Labarum, . . 


167 


535 


Moabite Stone, 


472 


46 


Modern Asiatic Crowns, 


168 


46 


Mummy Case of Queen Nefert-ari, 


226 


s 


Mummy Head of Rameses II., 


542 


52 


Mummy Head of Seti I., 


540 


55 


Nebo, 


493 


61 


Nisroch, 


504 


253 


Priests, 


330 


503 


Prostrate Statue of Rameses the Great 




473 


at Memphis, 


456 


h 


Sanctuary Half- shekel, 


621 


573 


Sculptured Slab fi-om Nineveh, 


502 


494 


Sennacherib in Chariot, 


613 


134 


Siloam Inscription, . . 


630 


67 


Statue of Cyrus, 


535 


74 
f 


Statue of Diana, 

Statue of Rameses II., the Pharaoh of 


197 


604 


the Oppression, 


541 


180 


Stone with Hieroglyphics, 


215 


532 


Supposed Form of the Molten Sea, 


610 


235 


Tabernacle in the Wilderness, 


650 


108 


Tabernacle Unveiled, 


651 


610 


Table with Shewbread, 


624 


262 


Tephillah on the Arm, 


549 


122 


Teraphim, 


662 


10 


ThothmesIIL, 


540 


629 


Tomb of Cyrus at Mourgbab, 


174 


543 


Zuza, or Quarter-shekel, 


621 



LIST OF MAPS AXl) PLANS. 



XI 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Amphora, . . 


258 


Ancient Musical Instruments, 


482 


Archer, 


53 


Assyrian Modes of wearing Beard, 


87 


Balance, 


76 


Battlement on House-top, 


85 


Bottles, 


105 


Eastern Beds, 


88 


Egyptian Modes of wearing Beard, 


87 


Horned Head-dress of Druse Ladies, 


316 


Inkhorn and Reed Pen, 


345 


Latchet, 


416 


Laver, 


416 


Lodge in a Garden, 


163 


Oriental Ox-cart, 


129 



Orientals sitting at Meat, 

Ploughing, 

Roman Triclinium, .. 

Samaritan Priest and Pentateuch, 

Sandals, 

Section of Oven for Baking Bread, 

Sheep-fold, 

Tambourine, 

Tephillah or Phylactery, 

Threshing-floor, 

War Chariots, 

"Washing the Hands, 

AVine-press, 

Winnowing, 

"Women Grinding at the Mill, 



78 

24 
452 
597 
602 
270 
263 
668 
268 

25 
137 
688 
694 

25 
465 



LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS. 



Coloured Map of Palestine and Environs, 

Course of the Abana (Barada), 

Ancient Alexandria, 

Map showing Position of Syrian Antioch, 

Plan showing the Position of Antonia, 

Map of Arabia, 

Map showing the Territory of Asher, 

Proconsular Asia and the Seven Churches, 

Map of Assyria, 

Map of Babylonia, 

Probable Pool of Bethesda, 

Canaan in the Patriarchal Ages, 

Canaan as divided among the Tribes, 

Map showing the Territory of Dan, 

Map of the District of Decapolis, 

The Ancient World, showing the Dispersion of the Nations after the 

Journeying of the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan, 

The Nile Valley, 

Plain of Esdraelon, 

Map showing Course of Euphrates, 

Map of the Sea of Galilee, 

The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel, 

Plan of Ancient Jerusalem, 

Plan of Modern Jerusalem, 

Map showing Course of Jaffa and Jerusalem Railway, 

Map of Malta, 

Physical Map of Palestine, 

Palestine under Herod, 

Paul's First Missionary Journey, 

Paul's Second Missionary Journey, 

Paul's Third Missionary Journey, . . 

Paul's Voyage to Rome, . . 

The Persian Empire in its Greatest Extent, 

The Roman Empire under Augustus, 

The Dominions of Solomon, 





opposite Title 






3 






31 






45 






47 






50 






59 






61 






64 






73 






95 






121 






122 






177 






191 


od, 




199 
199 
213 
237 
241 
274 
350 
373 
373 
387 
455 
518 
519 
526 
526 
527 
527 
534 
534 
639 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AARON 




A, Alpha, the first letter of the Greek 
alphabet, as Omega is the last. These 
letters occur in the text of Rev. 1:8, 11 ; 
21 : 6 ; 22 : 13, and are represented by 
"Alpha" and "Omega" respectively 
(omitted in R. V., 1 : 11). They mean " the 
first and the last." (Comp. Heb. 12:2; 

Isa. 41:4; 44:6; Rev. 1:11, 

17; 2:8.) 
In the sjTnbols of the early 

Christian Church these two 

letters are frequently com- 
bined with the cross or wdth Christ's mono- 
gram to denote his divinity. 

Aharon, the eldest son of Amram and 
Jochebed, a daughter of Levi (Ex. 6 : 20). 
Some explain the name as meaning mount- 
aineer, others mountain of strength, illum- 
inator. He was bom in Egypt three years 
before his brother Moses, and a number of 
years after his sister Miriam (2 : 1, 4 ; 7:7). 
He married Elisheba, the daughter of 
Amminadab of the house of Judah (6 : 23 ; 
1 Chr. 2 : 10), by whom he had four sons — 
Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. 
When the time for the deliverance of Israel 
out of Egypt drew nigh, he was sent by God 
(Ex. 4 : 14, 27-30) to meet his long-absent 
brother, that he might co-operate with him 
in all that they were required to do in 
bringing about the Exodus. He was to be 
the "mouth" or "prophet" of Moses — i.e., 
was to speak for him, because he was a 
man of a ready iitterance (7:1, 2, 9, 10, 19). 
He was faithful to his trust, and stood by 
Moses in all his interviews with Pharaoh. 

When the ransomed tribes fought their 
first battle with Amalek in Rephidim, 
Moses stood on a hill overlooking the scene 
of the conflict with the rod of God in his 
outstretched hand. On this occasion he 



was attended by Aaron and Hur, his 
sister's husband, who held up his wearied 
hands tiU Joshua and the chosen warriors 
of Israel gained the victory (17 : 8-13). 

Afterwards, when encamped before 
Sinai, and when Moses at the command 
of God ascended the mount to receive the 
tables of the law, Aaron and his two sons — 
Nadab and Abihu — along with seventy of 
the elders of Israel, were permitted to ac- 
company him part of the way, and to behold 
afar off the manifestation of the glorj' of 
Israel's God (Ex. 19 : 24 ; 24 : 9-11). ^Vhile 
Moses remained on the mountain with 
God, Aaron returned unto the people ; 
and yielding through fear, or ignorance, 
or instability of character, to their clamour, 
made unto them a golden calf, and set it 
up as an object of worship (Ex. 32 : 4 ; 
Ps. 106 : 19). On the return of Moses to 
the camp, Aaron was sternly rebuked by 
him for the part he had acted in this 
matter ; but he interceded for him before 
God, who forgave his sin (Deut. 9 : 20). 

On the mount, Moses received instrvic- 
tions regarding the system of worship 
which was to be set up among the people ; 
and in accordance therewith Aaron and 
his sons were consecrated to the priest's 
office (Lev. 8 ; 9). Aaron, as high priest, 
held henceforth the prominent place ap- 
pertaining to that office. 

When Israel had reached Hazeroth, in 
"the wilderness of Paran," Aaron joined 
with his sister Miriam in murmming 
against Moses, "because of the Ethiopian 
woman whom he had married," probably 
after the death of Zipporah, But the 
Lord vindicated his servant IMoses, and 
punished Miriam with leprosy (Num. 12). 
Aaron acknowledged his own and his 

1 



AARON 



ABANA 



sister's guilt, and at the intercession of 
Moses they were forgiven. 

Twenty years after this, when the chil- 
dren of Israel were encamped in the wilder- 
ness of Paran, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram 
conspired against Aaron and his sons ; but 
a fearful judgment from God fell upon 
them, and they were destroyed, and the 
next day thousands of the people also per- 
ished by a fierce pestilence, the ravages of 
which were only stayed by the interpo- 
sition of Aaron (Num. 16). That there 
might be further evidence of the divine 
appointment of Aaron to the priestly office, 
the chiefs of the tribes were each required 
to bring to Moses a rod bearing on it the 
name of his tribe. And these, along with 
the rod of Aaron for the tribe of Levi, were 
laid up overnight in the tabernacle, and 
in the morning it was found that while 
the other rods remained unchanged, that 
of Aaron " for the house of Levi " budded, 
blossomed, and yielded almonds (Num. 
17 : 1-10). This rod was afterwards pre- 
served in the tabernacle (Heb. 9:4) as a 
memorial of the divine attestation of his 
appointment to the priesthood. 

Aaron was implicated in the sin of his 
brother at Meribah (Num. 20 : 8-13), and 
on that account was not permitted to enter 
the Promised Land. When the tribes ar- 
rived at Mount Hor, "in the edge of the 
land of Edom," at the command of God 
Moses led Aaron and his son Eleazar to 
the top of that mountain, in the sight of 
all the people. There he stripped Aaron 
of his priestly vestments, and put them 
upon Eleazar ; and there Aaron died on the 
top of the mount, being 123 years old (Num. 
20 : 23-29. Comp. Deut. 10 : 6 ; 33 : 50), and 
was "gathered unto his people." The people, 
"even all the house of Israel," mourned 
for him thirty days. Of Aaron's sons 
two survived him— Eleazar, whose family 
held the high-priesthood till the time of 
Eli ; and Ithamar, in whose family, begin- 
ning with Eli, the high - priesthood was 
held till the time of Solomon. Aaron's 
other two sons had been struck dead (Lev. 
10 : 1, 2) for the daring impiety of offering 
" strange fire " on the altar of incense. 

The Arabs still show with veneration 



the traditionary site of Aaron's grave on 
one of the two summits of Mount Hor, 
which is marked by a Mohammedan 
chapel. His name is mentioned in the 
Koran, and there are found in the writings 
of the rabbins many fabulous stories re- 
garding him. 

He was the first anointed priest. His 
descendants, "the house of Aaron," con- 
stituted the priesthood in general. In the 
time of David they were very numerous 
(1 Chr. 12 : 27). The other branches of the 
tribe of Levi held subordinate positions in 
connection with the sacred office. 

Aaron was a type of Christ in his official 
character as the high priest. His priest- 
hood was a "shadow of heavenly things," 
and was intended to lead the people of 
Israel to look forward to the time when 
"another priest" would arise "after the 
order of Melchizedek " (Heb. 6 : 20). (See 
Moses. ) 

A''aronites, the descendants of Aaron, 
and therefore priests. Jehoiada, the father 
of Benaiah, led 3,700 Aaronites as "fight- 
ing men " to the support of David at 
Hebron (1 Chr. 12:27). Eleazar (Num. 
4 : 16), and at a later period Zadok (1 Chr. 
27 : 17), was their chief, 

Abad^don — ■ destruction — the Hebrew 
name (equivalent to the Greek Apollyon — 
i.e., destroyer) of " the angel of the bottom- 
less pit " (Bev. 9 : 11). It is rendered "de- 
struction " in Job 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; 
Prov. 15 : 11 ; 27 : 20. In the last three of 
these passages the Bevised Version retains 
the word "Abaddon." We may regard 
this Avord as a personification of the idea 
of destruction, . or as sheol, the realm of 
the dead. 

Abag^tha, one of the seven eunuchs in 
Ahasuerus's court (Esther 1 : 10; 2 : 21). 

Ab^ana — stonj/ (Heb. marg. "Amanah," 
perennial) — the chief river of Damascus 
(2 Kings 5 : 12). Its modern name is 
Barada, the Chrysorrhoas, or "golden 
stream," of the Greeks. It rises in a cleft 
of the Anti-Lebanon range, about 23 miles 
north-west of Damascvis, and after flowing 
soiithward for a little way parts into three 
smaller streams — the central one flowing 
through Damascus, and the other two on 



ABARIM 



3 



ABEL 



each side of the city, diffusing beauty and 
fertility where otherwise there would be 
barrenness such as characterizes the con- 




COITRSE OK THK ABAXA (baU.AD.v). 

tigaious plain. The river disappears in the 
marshy lakes on the east of the city. (See 
Am AX A.) 

Ab^arim— regions beyond; i.e., on the 
east of Jordan — a mountain, or rather a 
mountain-chain, over against Jericho, to the 
east and south-east of the Dead Sea, in the 
land of Moab. From " the top of Pisgah " 
— i.e., Mount Nebo {q.v.) — one of its sum- 
mits, Moses surveyed the Promised Land 
(Deut. 3 : 27 ; 32 : 49), and there he died 
(34 : 1, 5). The Israelites had one of their 
encampments in the mountains of Abarim 
(Xum. 33 : 47, 48) after crossing the Arnon. 

Ab'ba. This Sjnriac or Chaldee word is 
found three times in the Xew Testament 
(Mark 14 : 36 ; Rom. 8 : 15 ; Gal. 4 : 6), and 
in each case is followed by its Greek 
equivalent, which is translated "father." 
It is a term expressing warm affection and 
filial confidence. It has no perfect equiva- 
lent in our language. It has passed into 
European languages as an ecclesiastical 
term, "abbot." 

AW da.— servant. (1.) The father of Ado- 
niram, whom Solomon set over the tribute 
(1 Kings 4 : G) ; i.e., the forced laboiir 
(R.V., "levy"). 

(2. ) A Levite of the family of Jeduthun 
(Xeh. 11 : 17), also called Obadiah (1 Chr. 
9 : 16). 

AWdeel— servant of God— {Jer. 36:26), 
the father of Shelemiah. 



Ab^di — ynij servant. (1.) 1 Chr. 6:44. 
(2. ) 2 Chr. 29 : 12. (3. ) Ezra 10 : 26. 

AX>'6\e\— servant of God— (I Chr. 5 : 15), 
a Gadite chief. 

Ab^don — servile. (1.) The son of Hillel. 
a Pirathonite, the tenth judge of Israel 
(Judg. 12:13-15). He is probably the 
Bedan of 1 Sam. 12 : 11. 

(2.) The first-born of Gibeon of the tribe 
of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8 : 30 ; 9 : 36). 

(3.) The son of Micah, one of those 
whom Josiah sent to the prophetess 
Huldah to ascertain from her the meaning 
of the recently discovered book of the law 
(2 Chr. 34:20). He is called Achbor in 
2 Kings 22 : 12. 

(4.) One of the "sons" of Shashak 
(1 Chr. 8 : 23). 

This is the name also of a Levitical town 
of the Gershonites, in the tribe of Asher 
(Josh. 21 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 74). The ruins of 
Ahdeh, some 8 miles north-east of Accho, 
probably mark its site. 

Abed'nego— serran^ of Nego= Neho—ihe 
Chaldee name given to Azariah, one of 
Daniel's three companions (Dan. 2 : 49). 
With Shadrach and Meshach, he was de- 
livered from the burning fiery furnace 
(3 : 12-30). 

AHbel (Heb. Hehhel) — a breath, ox vanity — 
the second son of Adam and Eve. He 
was put to death by his brother Cain 
(Gen. 4 : 1-16). Guided by the instruction 
of their father, the two brothers were 
trained in the diity of worshipping God. 
"And in process of time" (marg. "at the 
end of days" — i.e., on the Sabbath) each 
of them offered up to God of the first- 
fruits of his labours. Cain, as a husband- 
man, offered the fruits of the field ; Abel, 
as a shepherd, of the firstlings of his flock. 
"The Lord had respect unto Abel and his 
offering ; but unto Cain and his offering he 
had not respect " (Gen. 4 : 3-5). On this 
account Cain was angry with his brother, 
and formed the design of putting him to 
death ; a design which he at length found an 
opportunity of carrying into effect (Gen. 4:8, 
9. Comp. 1 John 3 : 12). There are several 
references to Abel in the Xew Testament. 
Our Saviour speaks of him as "righteous " 
(Matt. 23 : 35). ' ' The blood of sprinkling '" 



ABEL 



ABIASAPH 



is said to speak "better things than that 
of Abel" (Heb. 12 : 24) ; i.e., the blood of 
Jesus is the reality of which the blood of 
the offering made by Abel was only the 
type. The comparison here is between 
the sacrifice offered by Christ and that of- 
fered by Abel, and not between the blood 
of Christ calling for mercy and the blood of 
the murdered Abel calling for vengeance, 
as has sometimes been supposed. It is also 
said (Heb. 11:4) that "Abel offered unto 
God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain." 
This sacrifice was made "by faith;" this 
faith rested in God, not only as the Creator 
and the God of providence, but especially 
in God as the great E-edeemer, whose sacri- 
fice was typified by the sacrifices which, no 
doubt by the divine institution, were offered 
from the days of Adam downward. On 
account of that "faith" which looked 
forward to the great atoning sacrifice, 
Abel's offering was accepted of God. 
Cain's offering had no such reference, and 
therefore was rejected. Abel was the first 
martyr, as he was the first of our race to 
die. 

A^'bel (Heb, 'abhel) — lamentation (1 Sam. 
6 : 18) — the name given to the great stone 
in Joshua's field whereon the ark was 
"set down." The Revised Version, how- 
ever, following the Targum and the LXX., 
reads in the Hebrew text 'ebhen (=a stone), 
and accordingly translates "unto the great 
stone, whereon they set down the ark." 
This reading is to be preferred. 

A'bel (Heb. 'abhel), a grassy place, a 
meadow. This word enters into the com- 
position of the following words : — 

A''bel-beth-ma'achah — meadoio of the 
house of Maachah — a city in the north of 
Palestine, in the neighbourhood of Dan 
and Ijon, in the tribe of Naphtali. It 
was a place of considerable strength and 
importance. It is called a "mother in 
Israel" — i.e., a metropolis (2 Sam. 20:19). 
It was besieged by Joab (2 Sam. 20 : 14), 
by Benhadad (1 Kings 15:20), and by 
Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 15 : 29) about B.C. 
734. It is elsewhere called A'bel-maim 
— meadow of the boaters — (2 Chr. 16:4). 
Its site is occupied by the modern Abil or 
Abil-el-kamh, on a rising ground to the east 



of the brook Derd^rah, which flows through 
the plain of Htileh into the Jordan, about 
6 miles to the west-north-west of Dan. 

A'bel-chera'mim (Judg. 11:33, KV.; 
A. v., "plain of the vineyards "), a village 
of the Ammonites, whither Jephthah pur- 
sued their forces. 

A''bel-ineho''lah — meadoio of dancing, 
or the dancing -meadow — the birth-place and 
residence of the prophet Elisha, not far 
from Beth-shean (1 Kings 4 : 12), in the 
tribe of Issachar, near where the Wady 
el-Maleh emerges into the valley of the 
Jordan — "the rich meadow -land which 
extends about 4 miles south of Beth-shean ; 
moist and luxuriant." Here Elisha was 
found at his plough by Elijah on his re- 
turn up the Jordan valley from Horeb 
(1 Kings 19 : 16). It is now called ^Ain 
Helweh. 

A''bel-miz^raiin — meadoio of Egypt, or 
mourning of Egypt — a place "beyond," 
i.e., on the west of Jordan, at the "thresh- 
ing-floor of Atad." Here the Egyptians 
mourned seventy days for Jacob (Gen. 50 : 
4-11). Its site is unknown. 

A''bel-shit''tiin — meadoio of the acacias, 
frequently called simply " Shittim " (Num. 
25 : 1 ; Josh. 2:1; Micah 6 : 5) — a town on 
the east of Jordan, in the plain of Moab, 
nearly opposite Jericho. It was the fortj'^- 
second encampment of the Israelites, their 
last resting-place before they crossed the 
Jordan (Num. 33 : 49 ; 22 : 1 ; 26 : 3 ; 31 : 12; 
comp. 25 : 1 ; 31 : 16). 

A^bez — tin, or xohite — a town in the tribe 
of Issachar (Josh. 19 : 20), at the north of 
the plain of Esdraelon. It is probably 
identified with the ruins of el-Beida. 

Abi^a — my father in the Lord — the Greek 
form of Abijah, or Abijam (Matt, 1 : 7), 
instead of Abiah (1 Chr. 3 : 10). In Luke 
1 : 5, the name refers to the head of the 
eighth of the twenty -four courses into which 
David divided the priests (1 Chr. 24 : 10). 

A''bi-al'bon— /a^/ie?' of strength ; i. e. , " val - 
iant " — one of David's body-guard of thirty 
mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 31) ; called also 
Abiel (1 Chr. 11 : 32). 

Abi'asaph— /o^Aer of gathering; the gath- 
ers — the youngest of the three sons of 
Korah the Levite, head of a family of 



ABIATHAR 



ABIGAIL 



Korhites (Ex. 6 : 24) ; called Ebiasaph (1 
Chr. 6 : 37). 

Abi'athar— /ai/jer of abundance, or viy 
father excels — the son of Ahimelech the 
high priest. He was the tenth high priest, 
and the fourth in descent from Eli, When 
his father was slain with the priests of 
Nob, he escaped, and bearing with him 
the ephod, he joined David, who was then 
in the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. 22 : 20-23 ; 
23 : 6). He remained with David, and be- 
came priest of the party of which he was 
the leader (1 Sam. 30 : 7). When David 
ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar 
was appointed high priest (1 Chr. 15 : 11 ; 
1 Kings 2 : 26) and the "king's companion" 
(1 Chr. 27 : 33). Meanwhile Zadok, of the 
house of Eleazar, had been made high 
priest. These appointments continued in 
force till the end of David's reign (1 
Kings 4 : 4). Abiathar was deposed (the 
sole historical instance of the deposition 
of a high priest) and banished to his home 
at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took 
part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to 
the throne. The priesthood thus passed 
from the house of Ithamar (1 Sam. 2 : 30- 
3C ; 1 Kings 1 : 19 ; 2 : 26, 27). Zadok now 
became sole high priest. In Mark 2 : 26, 
reference is made to an occurrence in "the 
days of Abiathar the high priest." But 
from 1 Sam. 22, we learn explicitly that 
this event took place when Ahimelech, the 
father of Abiathar, was high priest. The 
apparent discrepancy is satisfactorily ex- 
plained by interpreting the words in Mark 
as referring to the life-time of Abiathar, 
and not to the term of his holding the 
office of high priest. It is not implied in 
Mark that he was actual high priest at the 
time referred to. Others, however, think 
that the loaves belonged to Abiathar, who 
was at that time (Lev. 24 : 9) a priest, and 
that he either himself gave them to David, 
or persuaded his father to give them. 

A1)ib — the month of ears — the month of 
newly-ripened grain (Ex. 13 : 4 ; 23 : 15) ; 
the first of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, 
and the seventh of the civil year. It began 
about the time of the vernal equinox, on 
21st March. It was called Nisan, after the 
Captivity (Neh. 2 : 1). On the fifteenth day 



of the month, harvest was begun by gather- 
ing a sheaf of barley, which was offered 
unto the Lord on the sixteenth (Lev. 
23 : 4-11). 

Jvv Abi^da or Abi'dah— /ai^er of Tcnoioledfje; 
knoioing — one of the five sons of Midian, 
who was the son of Abraham by Keturah 
(1 Chr. 1 : 33), and apparently the chief of 
an Arab tribe. 

A\ii' Asm— father of judgment; judge— hesid. 
of the tribe of Benjamin at the Exodus 
(Num. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 22). 

A'^biel — father {i.e., "possessor") of God 
==" pious." (1.) The son of Zerorand father 
of Ner, who was the grandfather of Saul 
(1 Sam. 14 : 51 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 33 ; 9 : 39). In 1 
Sam. 9:1, he is called the "father," prob- 
ably meaning the grandfather, of Kish. 

(2.) An Arbathite, one of David's war- 
riors (1 Chr. 11 : 32) ; called also Abi-albon 
(2 Sam. 23 : 31). 

Abie'zer— /«^^er of help; i.e., "helpful." 
(1.) The second of the three sons of Ham- 
moleketh, the sister of Gilead. He was 
the grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr. 7 : 18). 
From his family Gideon sprang (Josh. 
17 : 2 ; comp. Judg. 6 : 34 ; 8 : 2). He was 
also called Jeezer (Num. 26 : 30). 

(2.) One of David's thirty warriors (2 
Sam. 23 : 27 ; comp. 1 Chr. 27 : 12). 

(3, ) The prince of the tribe of Dan at the 
Exodus (Num. 1 : 12). 

Abi'ezrite— /a^Aer of help — a descendant 
of Abiezer (Judg. 6 : 11, 24 ; 8 : 32). 

Abigail — father {i.e., "leader") of the 
dance, or "of joy." (1.) The sister of 
David, and wife of Jether an Ishmaelite 
(1 Chr. 2 : 16, 17). She was the mother of 
Amasa (2 Sam. 17 : 25). 

(2.) The w*ife of the churlish Nabal, who 
dwelt in the district of Carmel (1 Sam. 
25 : 3). She showed great prudence and 
delicate management at a critical period of 
her husband's life. She was " a woman of 
good understanding, and of a beautiful 
countenance." After Nabal's death she 
became the wife of David (1 Sam. 25 : 14-42), 
and was his companion in all his future 
fortunes (1 Sam. 27 : 3 ; 30 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 2). 
By her David had a son called Chileab 
(2 Sam. 3 : 3), elsewhere called Daniel (1 
Chr. 3:1). 



ABIHAIL 



6 



ABIJAH 



Abihsi'il-father of might. (1.) Num. 3: 35. 
(2.) IChr. 2:21). (3.) 1 Chr. 5:14. 

(4.) The second wife of King Rehoboam 
(2 Chr. 11 : 18), a descendant of Eliab, 
David's eldest brother. 

(5.) 'Tha father of Esther and uncle of 
Mordecai (Esther 2 : 15). 

AbVhvi— father of Him ; i. e. , " worshipper 
of God " — the second of the sons of Aaron 
(Ex. 6 : 23; Num. 3 : 2; 26 : 60; 1 Chr. G : 3). 
Along with his two brothers he was conse- 
crated to the priest's office (Ex. 28 : 1). With 
his father and elder brother he accom- 
panied the seventy elders part of the way 
up the mount with Moses (Ex. 24 : 1, 9). 
On one occasion he and Nadab his brother 
offered incense in their censers filled with 
"strange" {i.e., common) fire — i.e., not 
with fire taken from the great brazen altar 
(Lev. 6 : 9, etc. ) — and for this offence they 
were struck dead, and were taken out and 
buried without the camp (Lev. 10 : 1-11 ; 
comp. Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1 Chr. 24:2). 
It is probable that when they committed 
this offence they were intoxicated, for im- 
mediately after is given the law prohibiting 
the use of wine or strong drink to the priests. 

A'bVb.VLd—fathe7- [i.e., "possessor") of re- 
noivn. (1.) One of the sons of Bela, the 
son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:3); called also 
Ahihud (ver. 7). 

(2.) A descendant of Zerubbabel and 
father of EHakim (Matt. 1 : 13, "Abiud") ; 
called also Juda (Luke 3 : 26), and Obadiah 
(1 Chr. 3 : 21). 

Abi^jah — father- [i.e., "possessor or wor- 
shipper") of Jehovah. (1.) 1 Chr. 7 : 8. (2.) 
1 Chr. 2 : 24. 

(3.) The second son of Samuel (1 Sam. 
8:2; 1 Chr. 6 : 12). His conduct, along 
with that of his brother, as a judge in 
Beer-sheba, to which office his father had 
appointed him, led to popular discontent, 
and ultimately provoked the people to de- 
mand a royal form of government. 

(4. ) A descendant of Eleazar, the son of 
Aaron, a chief of one of the twenty-four 
orders into which the priesthood was di- 
vided by David (1 Chr. 24 : 10). The order 
of Abijah was one of those which did not 
return from the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 36-39 ; 
Neh. 7 : 39-42 ; 12 : 1). 



(5. ) The son of Rehoboam, whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne of Judah (1 Chr. 3 : 10). 
He is also called Abijam (1 Kings 14 : 31 ; 
15 : 1-8). He began his three years' reign 
(2 Chr. 12 : 16 ; 13 : 1, 2) with a strenuous 
but \xnsuccessful effort to bring back the 
ten tribes to their allegiance. His address 
to "Jeroboam and all Israel," before en- 
countering them in battle, is worthy of 
being specially noticed (2 Chr. 13 : 5-12). 
It was a very bloody battle, no fewer 
than 500,000 of the army of Israel having 
perished on the field. He is described 
as having walked "in all the sins of his 
father" (1 Kings 15:3; 2 Chr. 13:20-22). 
It is said in 1 Kings 15:2 that "his 
mother's name was Maachah, the daughter 
of Abishalom ; " but in 2 Chr. 13 : 2 we 
read, "his mother's name was Michaiah, 
the daughter of Uriel of Gibeah." The 
explanation is that Maachah is just a va- 
riation of the name Michaiah, and that 
Abishalom is probably the same as Ab- 
salom, the son of David. It is probable 
that "Uriel of Gibeah" married Tamar, 
the daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. 14 : 27), 
and by her had Maachah. The word 
"daughter" in 1 Kings 15:2 will thus, 
as it frequently elsewhere does, mean 
grand -davxghter. 

(6.) A son of Jeroboam, the first king of 
Israel. On account of his severe illness 
when a youth, his father sent his wife to 
consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his 
recovery. The prophet, though blind with 
old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as 
soon as she approached, and under a divine 
impulse he announced to her that inas- 
much as in Abijah alone of all the house 
of Jeroboam there was found "some good 
thing toward the Lord," he only would 
come to his grave in peace. As his mother 
crossed the threshold of the door on her 
return, the youth died, and "all Israel 
mourned for him " (1 Kings 14 : 1-18). 

(7.) The daughter of Zechariah (2 Chr. 
29 : 1 ; comp. Isa. 8 : 2), and afterwards the 
wife of Ahaz. She is also called Abi (2 
Kings 18 : 2). 

(8.) One of the priests who "sealed the 
covenant" made by Nehemiah (Neh. 10:7 ; 
12 : 4). 



ABIJAM 



ABINADAB 



Abi^'jam— /ai/ier of the sea; i. e. , " seaman " 
— the name always used in Kings (except 
1 Kings 14 : 1, which refers to another per- 
son) of the king of Judah elsewhere called 
Abijah (1 Kings 15 : 1, 7, 8). 

Abile'ne— a plain— a. district lying on the 
east slope of the Anti-Lebanon range ; so 
called from its chief town, Abila (Luke 3 : 1), 
which stood in the Suk Wady Barada, be- 
tween Heliopolis (Baalbec) and Damascus, 
38 miles from the former and 18 from the 
latter. Lysanias was governor or tetrarch 
of this province. 

Atoima'el— /ai/ier of Mael — one of the 
sons or descendants of Joktan, in Northern 
Arabia (Gen. 10 : 28; 1 Chr. 1 : 22). 

Abiin''elecli — my father a king, or father 
of a king—a. common name of the Philistine 
kings, as "Pharaoh" was of the Egyptian 
kings. (1.) The Philistine king of Gerar 
in the time of Abraham (Gen. 20:1-18). 
By an interposition of Providence, Sarah 
was delivered from his harem, and was re- 
stored to her husband Abraham. As a 
mark of respect he gave to Abraham valu- 
able gifts, and offered him a settlement in 
any part of his country ; while at the same 
time he delicately and yet severely rebuked 
him for having practised a deception upon 
him in pretending that Sarah was only his 
sister. Among the gifts presented by the 
king were a thousand pieces of silver as a 
"covering of the eyes" for Sarah; i.e., 
either as an atoning gift and a testimony 
of her innocence in the sight of all, or 
rather for the purpose of procuring a veil 
for Sarah to conceal her beauty, and thus 
as a reproof to her for not having worn a 
veil which, as a married woman, she ought 
to have done. A few years after this Abim- 
elech visited Abraham, who had removed 
southward beyond his territory, and there 
entered into a league of peace and friend- 
ship with him. This league was the first of 
which we have any record. It was con- 
firmed by a mutual oath at Beer-sheba 
(Gen. 21 : 22-34). 

(2.) A king of Gerar in the time of Isaac, 
probably the son of the preceding (Gen, 
26 : 1-22). Isaac sought refuge in his ter- 
ritory during a famine, and there he acted 
a part with reference to his wife Rebekah 



similar to that of his father Abraham with 
reference to Sarah. Abimelech rebuked 
him for the deception, which he accident- 
ally discovered. Isaac settled for a while 
here, and prospered. Abimelech desired 
him, however, to leave his territory, which 
Isaac did. Abimelech afterwards visited 
him when he was encamped at Beer-sheba, 
and expressed a desire to renew the cove- 
nant which had been entered into between 
their fathers (Gen. 26 : 26-31). 

(3.) A son of Gideon (Judg. 9:1), who 
was proclaimed king after the death of his 
father (Judg. 8 : 33-9 : 6). One of his first 
acts was to murder his brothers, seventy in 
numbei', "on onestone," at Ophrah. Only 
one named Jotham escaped. He was an 
imjirincipled, ambitioxis ruler, often en- 
gaged in war with his own subjects. When 
engaged in reducing the town of Thebez, 
which had revolted, he was struck mot- 
tally on his head by a mill-stone, thrown 
by the hand of a woman from the wall 
above. Perceiving that the wound was 
mortal, he desired his armour-bearer to 
thrust him through with his sword, that it 
might not be said he had perished by the 
hand of a woman (Judg. 9 : 54-57 ; comp. 
2 Sam. 11 : 21). 

(4.) The son of Abiathar, and high priest 
in the time of David (1 Chr. 18 : 16). In 
the parallel passage, 2 Sam. 8 : 17, we have 
the name Ahimelecli. 

(5. ) The name given to Achish, king of 
Gath, in the title of Ps. 34. (Comp. 1 Sam. 
21:10-15.) 

Abin^adab — father of nobleness; i.e., 
"noble." (1.) A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, 
in whose house the ark of the covenant 
was deposited after having been brought 
back from the land of the Philistines (1 
Sam. 7:1). It remained there twenty years, 
till it was at length removed by David (1 
Sam. 7 : 1, 2 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 7). 

(2.) The second of the eight sons of Jesse 
(1 Sam. 16 : 8). He was with Saul in the 
campaign against the Philistines in which 
Goliath was slain (1 Sam. 17 : 13). 

(3. ) One of Saul's sons, who perished with 
his father in the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 
31:2; 1 Chr. 10:2). 

(4.) One of Solomon's officers, who "pro- 



ABINOAM 



8 



ABLUTION 



vided victuals for the king and his house- 
hold." He presided, for this purpose, over 
the district of Dor (1 Kings 4 : 11). 

Abin^oam — father of kindness — the fa- 
ther of Barak ( Judg. 4:6; 5:1). 

Abi^rara— father of height ; i.e., "proud." 
(1.) One of the sons of Eliab, who joined 
Korah in the conspiracy against Moses and 
Aaron. He and all the conspirators, with 
their families and possessions (except the 
children of Korah), were swallowed up by 
an earthquake (Num. 16:1-27; 26:9; Ps. 
106 : 17). 

(2. ) The eldest son of Hiel the Bethelite, 
who perished prematurely in consequence 
of his father's undertaking to rebuild Jer- 
icho (1 Kings 16 : 34), according to the 
words of Joshua (6 : 26). (See Jekicho.) 

Ablshag — father of {i.e., "given to") 
error — a young woman of Shunem, dis- 
tinguished for her beauty. She was chosen 
to minister to David in his old age. She 
became his wife (1 Kings 1 : 3, 4, 15). After 
David's death Adonijah persuaded Bath- 
sheba, Solomon's mother, to entreat the 
king to permit him to marry Abishag. 
Solomon suspected in this request an as- 
piration to the throne, and therefore caused 
him to be put to death (1 Kings 2 : 17-25). 

AhVshsA— father of {i.e., "desirous of") 
a gift— the eldest son of Zeruiah, David's 
sister. He was the brother of Joab and 
Asahel (2 Sam. 2 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 16). The 
three brothers were devoted to their uncle 
David during his wanderings. Abishai 
was the only one who accompanied him 
when he went to the camp of Saul and 
took the spear and the cruse of water from 
Saul's bolster (1 Sam. 26:5-9). He had 
the command of one of the three divisions 
of David's army at the battle with Ab- 
salom (2 Sam. 18:2-12). He slew the 
Philistine giant Ishbi-benob, who threat- 
ened David's life (2 Sam. 21 : 15-17). He 
was the chief of the second rank of the 
three "mighties"(2 Sam. 23:18; 1 Chr. 
11 : 20) ; and on one occasion withstood 300 
men, and slew them with his own spear 
(2 Sam. 23 : 18). 

Abish^ua — father of welfare; i.e., "for- 
tunate." (1.) The grandson of Benjamin 
(1 Chr. 8 : 4). 



(2.) The son of Phinehas the high priest 
(IChr. 6:4, 5, 50; Ezra 7: 5). 

Ab''ishur — father of the wall; i.e., 
"mason" — one of the two sons of Shammai 
of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 2 : 28, 29). 

Ab^ital — father of dew; i.e., "fresh" — 
David's fifth wife (2 Sam. 3 : 4). 

AWitnh— father of goodness— 2i Benja- 
mite (1 Chr. 8 : 11). 

Ab^jects (Ps. 35:15), the translation of a 
Hebrew word meaning smiters; probably, in 
allusion to the tongue, slanderers. (Comp. 
Jer. 18:18.) 

Ablu^tion, or washing, was practised — 
(1.) When a person was initiated into a 
higher state: e.g., when Aaron and his 
sons were set apart to the priest's ofl&ce, 
they were washed with water previous to 
their investiture with the priestly robes 
(Lev. 8 : 6). 

(2.) Before the priests approached the 
altar of God, they were required, on pain 
of death, to wash their hands and their 
feet to cleanse them from the soil of com- 
mon life (Ex. 30 : 17-21). To this practice 
the Psalmist alludes, Ps. 26 : 6. 

(3.) There were washings prescribed for 
the purpose of cleansing from positive de- 
filement contracted by particular acts. Of 
such washings eleven different species are 
prescribed in the Levitical law (Lev. 12-15). 

(4.) A fourth class of ablutions is men- 
tioned, by which a person purified or ab- 
solved himself from the guilt of some par- 
ticular act. For example, the elders of the 
nearest village where some murder was 
committed were required, when the mur- 
derer was unknown, to wash their hands 
over the expiatory heifer which was be- 
headed, and in doing so to say, ' ' Our hands 
have not shed this blood, neither have our 
eyes seen it" (Deut. 21 : 1-9). So also Pi- 
late declared himself innocent of the blood 
of Jesus by washing his hands (Matt. 27 : 
24). This act of Pilate may not, however, 
have been borrowed from the custom of 
the Jews. The same practice was common 
among the Greeks and Romans. 

The Pharisees carried the practice of 
ablution to great excess, thereby claiming 
extraordinary purity (Matt. 23 : 25). Mark 
(7 : 1-5) refers to the ceremonial ablutions. 



ABNER 



ABOMINATION 



The Pharisees washed their hands "oft," 
more correctly, "with the fist" (R.V., 
"diligently"), or as an old father, Theo- 
phylact, explains it, "up to the elbow." 
(Compare also Mark 7:4; Lev. 6:28; 11: 
32-36 ; 15 : 22. ) (See Washing. ) 

Ab'ner^ather of light; i.e., "enlight- 
ening " — the son of Ner and uncle of Saul. 
He was commander-in-chief of Saul's army 
(1 Sam. 14 : 50 ; 17 : 55 ; 20 : 25). He first 
introduced David to the court of Saul after 
the victory over Goliath (1 Sam. 17 : 57). 
After the death of Saul, David was made 
king over Judah, and reigned in Hebron. 
Among the other tribes there was a feeling 
of hostility to Judah ; and Abner, at the 
head of Ephraim, fostered this hostility 
in the interest of the house of Saul, 
whose son Ish-bosheth he caused to be 
proclaimed king (2 Sam. 2:8). A state 
of war existed between these two kings. 
A battle fatal to Abner, who was the 
leader of Ish-bosheth's army, was fought 
with David's army under Joab at Gibeon 
(2 Sam. 2 : 12). Abner, escaping from the 
field, was overtaken by Asahel, who was 
"light of foot as a wild roe," the brother of 
Joab and Abishai, whom he thrust through 
with a back stroke of his spear (2 Sam. 2 : 
18-32). 

Being rebuked by Ish-bosheth for the 
impropriety of taking to wife Rizpah, who 
had been a concubine of King Saul, he 
found an excuse for going over to the side 
of David, whom he now professed to regard 
as anointed by the Lord to reign over all 
Israel. David received him favourably, 
and promised that he would have command 
of the armies. At this time Joab was absent 
from Hebron, but on his return he found 
what had happened. Abner had just left 
the city ; but Joab by a stratagem recalled 
him, and meeting him at the gate of the 
city on his return, thrust him through with 
his sword (2 Sam. 3:27; 31-39; 4:12. 
Comp. 1 Kings 2 : 5, 32). David lamented 
in pathetic words the death of Abner — 
"Know ye not that there is a prince and 
a great man fallen this day in Israel ? " (2 
Sam. 3:33-38.) 

Abomina'tion. This word is used — 
(1. ) To express the idea that the Egyptians 



considered themselves as defiled when they 
ate with strangers (Gen. 43 : 32). The 
Jews subsequently followed the same prac- 
tice, holding it unlawful to eat or drink 
with foreigners (John 18 : 28 ; Acts 10 : 28 ; 
11 : 3). 

(2.) Every shepherd was "an abomi- 
nation " unto the Egyptians (Gen. 46 : 34). 
This aversion to shepherds, such as the 
Hebrews, arose probably from the fact that 
Lower and Middle Egypt had formerly 
been held in oppressive subjection by a tribe 
of nomad shepherds (the Hyksos), who 
had only recently been expelled, and partly 
also perhaps from this other fact that the 
Egyptians detested the lawless habits of 
these wandering shepherds. 

(3. ) Pharaoh was so moved by the fourth 
plague, that while he refused the demand 
of Moses, he offered a compromise, granting 
to the Israelites permission to hold their 
festival and offer their sacrifices in Egypt. 
This permission could not be accepted, be- 
cause Moses said they would have to sacri- 
fice " the abomination of the Egyptians " 
(Ex. 8:26); i.e., the cow or ox, which all 
the Egyptians held as sacred, and which 
they regarded it as sacrilegious to kill. 

(4. ) Daniel (11 : 31), in that section of his 
prophecies which is generally interpreted as 
referring to the fearful calamities that were 
to fall on the Jews in the time of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, says, "And they shall place 
the abomination that maketh desolate." 
Antiochus Epiphanes caused an altar to be 
erected on the altar of burnt-offering, on 
which sacrifices were offered to Jupiter 
Olympus. (Comp, 1 Mace. 1 : 54). This 
was the abomination of the desolation of 
Jerusalem. The same language is em- 
ployed in Dan. 9 : 27 (comp. Matt. 24 : 15), 
where the reference is probably to the 
image - crowned standards which the 
Romans set up at the east gate of the 
temple (a.d. 70), and to which they paid 
idolatrous honours. "Almost the entire 
religion of the Roman camp consisted in 
worshipping the ensign, swearing by the 
ensign, and in preferring the ensign before 
all other gods." These ensigns were an 
' ' abomination " to the Jews — the ' ' abomi* 
nation of desolation." 



ABRAM 



10 



ABRAM 




GROUP OF KOMaX standards. 

This word is also used symbolically of 
sin in general (Isa. 66 : 3) ; an idol (44 : 19) ; 
the ceremonies of the apostate Church of 
Rome (Rev. 17 : 4) ; a detestable act (Ezek. 
22 : 11). 

A^bram — exalted father; A'^braham — 
father of a multitude — son of Terah, named 
(Gen. 11 : 27) before his older brothers Na- 
hor and Haran, because he was the heir 
of the promises. Till the age of seventy, 
Abram sojourned among his kindred in his 
native country of Chaldea. He then, with 
his father and his family and household, 
quitted the city of Ur, in which he had hith- 
erto dwelt, and went some 300 miles north 
to Haran, where he abode fifteen years. 
The cause of his migration was a call from 
God (Acts 7 : 2-4). There is no mention of 
this first call in the Old Testament ; it is 
implied, however, in Gen. 12. While they 
tarried at Haran, Terah died at the age of 
205 years. Abram now received a second 
and more definite call, accompanied by a 
promise from God (Gen. 12 : 1, 2) ; where- 
upon he took his departure, taking his 
nephew Lot with him, "not knowing 
whither he went " (Heb. 11 : 8). He trusted 
implicitly to the guidance of Him who had 
called him. 

Abram now, with a large household of 
probably a thousand souls, entered on a 
migratory life, and dwelt in tents. Pass- 



ing along the valley of the Jabbok, in the 
land of Canaan, he formed his first en- 
campment at Sichem (Gen. 12 : 6), in the 
vale or oak-grove of Moreh, between Ebal on 
the north and Gerizim on the south. Here 
he received the great promise, "I will make 
of thee a great nation," etc. (Gen. 12 : 2, 3, 
7). This promise comprehended not only 
temporal but also spiritual blessings. It 
implied that he was the chosen ancestor 
of the great Deliverer whose coming had 
been long ago predicted (Gen. 3 : 15). Soon 
after this, for some reason not mentioned, 
he removed his tent to the mountain dis- 
trict between Bethel, then called Luz, and 
Ai, towns about two miles apart, where he 
built an altar to "Jehovah." He again 
moved into the southern tract of Pales- 
tine, called by the Hebrews the Neyeh ; 
and was at length, on account of a famine, 
compelled to go down into Egypt. This 
took place in the time of the Hyksos, a 
Semitic race which now held the Egyptians 
in bondage. Here occurred that case of 
deception on the part of Abram which 
exposed him to the rebuke of Pharaoh 
(Gen. 12 : 18). Sarai was restored to him ; 
and Pharaoh loaded him with presents, 
recommending him to withdraw from the 
country. He returned to Canaan richer 
than when he left it, ' ' in cattle, in silver, 
and in gold " (Gen. 12 : 8 ; 13 : 2. Comp. 
Ps. 105:13, 14). The whole party then 
moved northward, and returned to their 
previous station near Bethel. Here dis- 
putes arose between Lot's shepherds and 
those of Abram about water and pastur- 
age. Abram generously gave Lot his 
choice of the pasture-ground. (Comp. 1 
Cor. 6:7.) He chose the well-watered 
plain in which Sodom was situated, and 
removed thither ; and thus the uncle and 
nephew were separated. Immediately 
after this Abram was cheered by a repeti- 
tion of the promises already made to him, 
and then removed to the plain or "oak- 
grove " of Mamre, which is in Hebron. 
He finally settled here, pitching his tent 
under a famous oak or terebinth tree, called 
" the oak of Mamre " (Gen. 13 : 18). This 
was his third resting-place in the land. 
Some fourteen years before this, while 



ABRAM 



11 



ABRAM 



Abram was still in Chaldea, Palestine 
had been invaded by Chedorlaomer, king 
of Elam, who brought under tribute to 
him the five cities in the plain to which 
Lot had removed. This tribute was felt 
by the inhabitants of these cities to be 
a heavy burden, and after twelve years 
they revolted. This brought upon them 
the vengeance of Chedorlaomer, who had 
in league with him four other kings. He 
ravaged the whole countrj', ijlundering 
the towns, and carrying the inhabitants 
away as slaves. Among those thus treated 
was Lot. Hearing of the disaster that 
had fallen on his nej^hew, Abram immedi- 
ately gathered from his own household a 
band of 318 armed men, and being joined 
by the Amoritish chiefs INIamre, Aner, 
and Eshcol, he pursued after Chedorla- 
omer, and overtook him near the springs 
of the Jordan. They attacked and routed 
his army, and pursued it over the range 
of Anti-Libanus as far as to Hobah, near 
Damascus, and then returned, bringing 
back all the spoils that had been carried 
away. Returning by way of Salem — i.e., 
Jerusalem — the king of that place, Mel- 
chizedek, came forth to meet them with 
refreshments. To him Abram presented 
a tenth of the spoils, in recognition of his 
character as a priest of the most high God 
(Gen. 14 : 18-20). 

The history of this warlike exploit shows 
Abram as a great chief, having other 
chiefs in friendly alliance with him, and 
as a man of great power and social in- 
fluence. 

Havdng returned to his home at Mamre, 
the promises already made to him by God 
were repeated and enlarged (Gen. 14). 
"The word of the Lord" (an expression 
occurring here for the first time) " came to 
him " (15 : 1). He now imderstood better 
the future that lay before the nation that 
was to spring from him. Sarai, now 
seventy-five j'-ears old, in her impatience, 
persuaded Abram to take Hagar, her Egyp- 
tian maid, as a concubine, intending that 
whatever child might be born should be 
reckoned as her own. Ishmael was ac- 
cordingly thus brought up, and was re- 
garded as the heir of these promises 



(Gen. 16). When Ishmael was thirteen 
years old, God again revealed yet more 
explicitly and fully his gracious purpose ; 
and in token of the sure fulfilment of that 
purpose the patriarch's name was now 
changed from Abram to Abraham (Gen. 
17 : 4, .5), and the rite of circumcision was 
instituted as a sign of the covenant. It 
was then announced that the heir to these 
covenant promises would be the son of 
Sarai, though she was now ninety years old ; 
and it was directed that his name should 
be Isaac. At the same time, in com- 
memoration of the promises, Sarai's name 
w^as changed to Sarah. On that memor- 
able day of God's thus revealing his design, 
Abraham and his son Ishmael and all the 
males of his house were circumcised (Gen. 
17). Three months after this, as Abraham 
sat in his tent door, he saw three men ap- 
l^roaching. They accepted his proffered 
hospitalitj', and, seated under an oak-tree, 
partook of the fare which Abraham and 
Sarah provided. One of the three visit- 
ants was none other than the Lord, and 
the other two were angels in the guise of 
men. The Lord renewed on this occasion 
his promise of a son by Sarah, Mho was 
rebuked for her unbelief. Abraham ac- 
companied the three as they proceeded on 
their journey. The two angels went on 
toward Sodom ; while the Lord tarried 
behind and talked A\dth Abraham, making 
known to him the destruction that was 
about to fall on that guilty city. The 
patriarch interceded earnestly in behalf 
of the doomed city. But as not even ten 
righteous persons were found in it, for 
whose sake the city would have been 
spared, the threatened destruction fell 
upon it ; and early next morning Abraham 
saw the smoke of the fire that consumed 
it as the "smoke of a furnace " (Gen. 19 : 
1-28). 

After fifteen years' residence at Mamre, 
Abraham moved southward, and pitched 
his tent among the Philistines, near to 
Gerar. Here occurred that sad instance 
of prevarication on his part in his rela- 
tion to Abimelech the king (Gen. 20 ; 24). 
(See Abimelech.) Soon after this event, 
the patriarch left the vicinity of Gerar, and 



ABRAM 



12 



ABSALOM 



moved down the fertile valley about 25 
miles to Beer-sheba. It was probably 
here that Isaac was born, Abraham being 
now an hundred years old. A feeling of 
jealousy now arose between Sarah and 
Hagar, whose son, Ishmael, was no longer 
to be regarded as Abraham's heir, Sarah 
insisted that both Hagar and her son 
should be sent away. This was done, al- 
though it was a hard trial to Abraham 
(Gen. 21 : 12). (See Hagak ; Ishmael. ) 

At this point there is a blank in the patri- 
arch's history of perhaps twenty-five years. 
These years of peace and happiness were 
spent at Beer-sheba. The next time we 
see him his faith is put to a severe test by 
the command that suddenly came to him 
to go and offer up Isaac, the heir of all the 
promises, as a sacrifice on one of the moun- 
tains of Moriah. His faith stood the test 
(Heb. 11 : 17-19). He proceeded in a spirit 
of unhesitating obedience to carry out the 
command ; and when about to slay his son, 
whom he had laid on the altar, his uplifted 
hand was arrested by the angel of Jeho- 
vah, and a ram, which was entangled in 
a thicket near at hand, was seized and of- 
fered in his stead. From this circumstance 
that place was called Jehovah-jireh — i.e., 
"The Lord will provide." The promises 
made to Abraham were again confirmed 
((and this was the last recorded word of 
God to the patriarch) ; and he descended 
the mount with his son, and returned to 
his home at Beer-sheba (Gen. 22:19), where 
he resided for some years, and then moved 
northward to Hebron. 

Some years after this Sarah died at He- 
bron, being 120 years old. Abraham ac- 
quired now the needful possession of a 
burying-place, the cave of Machpelah, by 
purchase from the owner of it, Ephron 
the Hittite (Gen. 23) ; and there he buried 
Sarah. His next care was to provide a 
wife for Isaac, and for this j)urpose he sent 
his steward, Eliezer, to Haran (or Charran, 
Acts 7 : 2), where his brother Nahor and his 
family resided (Gen. 11 : 31). The result 
was that Hebekah, the daughter of Nahor's 
son Bethuel, became the wife of Isaac 
(Gen. 24). Abraham then himself took to 
wife Keturah, who became the mother of 



six sons, whose descendants were after- 
wards known as the "children of the 
east" (Judg. 6:3), and later as "Sara- 
cens. " At length all his wanderings came 
to an end. At the age of 175 years, 100 
years after he had first entered the land of 
Canaan, he died, and was buried in the 
old family burying-place at Machpelah 
(Gen. 25 : 1-10). 

The history of Abrahami made a wide 
and deep impression on the ancient world, 
and references to it are interwoven in the 
religious traditions of almost all Eastern 
nations. He is called "the friend of God " 
(James 2:23), "faithful Abraham" (Gal. 
3 : 9), " the father of us all " (Rom. 4 : 16). 

A^braham's bosom (Luke 16 : 22, 23) 
refers to the custom of reclining on couches 
at table, which was prevalent among the 
Jews — an arrangement which brought the 
head of one person almost into the bosom 
of the one who sat or reclined above him. 
To "be in Abraham's bosom" thus meant 
to enjoy happiness and rest (Matt. 8 : 11 ; 
Luke 16 : 23) at the banquet in Paradise. 
(See Banquet ; Meal.) 

Ab^ronah, one of Israel's halting-places 
in the desert (Num. 33 : 34, 35), just be- 
fore Ezion-gaber. 

Ab'ssbloia—fathei' of peace ; i.e., "peace- 
ful" — David's son by Maacah (2 Sam. 
3:3; comp. 1 Kings 1 : 6). He was noted 




Absalom's tomb, jejrusalem. 

for his personal beauty and for the extra- 
ordinary profusion of the hair of his head 
(2 Sam. 14:25, 26). The first public act 



ABSALOM 



13 



ACCAD 



of his life was the blood-revenge he exe- 
cuted against Amnon, David's eldest son, 
who had basely wronged Absalom's sister 
Tamar. This revenge was executed at the 
time of the festivities connected with a great 
sheep-shearing at Baal-hazor. David's 
other sons fled from the place in horror, 
and brought the tidings of the death of 
Amnon to Jerusalem. Alarmed for the 
consequences of the act, Absalom fled to 
his grandfather at Geshur, and there abode 
for three years (2 Sam. 3:3; 13 : 23-38). 

David mourned his absent son, now 
branded with the guilt of fratricide. As 
the result of a stratagem carried out by a 
woman of Tekoah, Joab received David's 
sanction to invite Absalom back to Jeru- 
salem. He returned accordingly, but two 
years elapsed before his father admitted 
him into his presence (2 Sam. 14 : 28). 
Absalom was now probably the oldest 
surviving son of David, and as he was 
of royal descent by his mother as well as 
by his father, he began to aspire to the 
throne. His pretensions were favoured 
by the people. By many arts he gained 
their affection ; and after his return from 
Geshur (2 Sam. 15:7; marg., R.V.) he 
went up to Hebron, the old capital of 
Judah, along with a great body of the 
people, and there proclaimed himseK king. 
The revolt was so successful that David 
found it necessary to quit Jerusalem and 
flee to Mahanaim, beyond Jordan ; where- 
upon Absalom returned to Jerusalem and 
took possession of the throne without op- 
position. Ahithophel, who had been David's 
chief counsellor, deserted him and joined 
Absalom, whose chief counsellor he now 
became. Hushai also joined Absalom, 
but only for the purpose of trj^ng to coun- 
teract the counsels of Ahithophel, and so 
to advantage David's cause. He was so 
far successful that by his advice, which 
was preferred to that of Ahithophel, Ab- 
salom delayed to march an army against 
his father, who thus gained time to pre- 
pare for the defence. 

Absalom at length marched out against 
his father, whose army, under the com- 
mand of Joab, he encountered on the bor- 
ders of the forest of Ephraim. Twenty 



thousand of Absalom's army were slain 
in that fatal battle, and the rest fled. 
Absalom fled on a swift mule ; but his 
long flowing hair, or more probably his 
head, was caught- in the bough of an oak, 
and there he was left suspended till Joab 
came up and- pierced him through with 
three darts. His body was then taken 
down and cast into a pit dug in the forest, 
and a heap of stones was raised over his 
grave. When the tidings of the result of 
that battle were brought to David, as he 
sat impatiently at the gate of Mahanaim, 
and he was told that Absalom had been 
slain, he gave way to the bitter lamenta- 
tion : " O my son Absalom, my son, my 
son Absalom ! would God I had died for 
thee, O Absalom, my son, my son ! " (2 Sam. 
18 : 33. Comp. Ex. 32 : 32 ; Rom. 9:3). 

Absalom's three sons (2 Sam. 14 : 27 ; 
comp. 18 : 18) had all died before him, so 
that he left only a daughter, Tamar, who 
became the grandmother of Abijah. 

Aca''cia(Heb. shittim) — Ex. 25 : 5, R.Y. — 
probably the Acacia seyal (the gum-arabic 




SHITTAH TREE (aCACIA SEYAL). 

tree); called the "shittah" tree (Isa. 41: 
19). Its wood is called shittim wood (Ex. 
26:15, 26; 25:10, 13, 23, 28, etc.). This 
species {A. seyal) is like the hawthorn, a 
gnarled and thorny tree. It yields the 
gum-arabic of commerce. It is found in 
abundance in the Sinaitic peninsula. 

Ac^cad — the high land or mountains — a 
city in the land of Shinar, generally identi- 



ACCAD 



14 



ACCUSER 



fied with the mounds of Akker Kuf, some 
50 miles to the north of Babylon, It was 
one of the cities of Nimrod's kingdom (Gen. 
10 : 10). It stood close to the Euphrates, 
opposite Sippara. (See Sepharvaim.) 

It is also the name of the country of 
which this city was the capital — namely, 
northern or upper Babylonia. The Ac- 
cadians who came from the ' ' mountains 
of the east," where the ark rested, at- 
tained to a high degree of civilization. In 
the Babylonian inscriptions they are called 
" the black heads " and " the black faces," 
in contrast to " the white race " of Semitic 




AKKER KUF (aCCAd). 

descent. They invented the form of writ- 
ing in pictorial hieroglyphics, and also the 
cuneiform system, in which they wrote 
many books partly on papyrus and partly 
on clay. The Semitic Babylonians ("the 
white race "), or, as some scholars think, 
first the Cushites, and afterwards, as a 
second immigration, the Semites, invaded 
and conquered this country ; and then the 
Accadian language ceased to be a spoken 
language, although for the sake of its 
literary treasures it continued to be studied 
by the educated classes of Babylonia. A 
large portion of the Ninevite tablets 



brought to light by Oriental research con- 
sists of interlinear or parallel translations 
from Accadian into Assyrian ; and thus 
that long-forgotten language has been re- 
covered by scholars. It belongs to the 
class of languages called agglutinative, 
common to the Tauranian race ; i.e., it 
consists of words "glued together," with- 
out declension or conjugation. These tab- 
lets in a remarkable manner illustrate 
ancient history. Among other notable 
records, they contain an account of the 
Creation which closely resembles that 
given in the book of Genesis, of the Sab- 
bath as a day of rest, and of the Deluge 
and its cause. (See Babylonia.) 

Accept^able year, primarily the year 
of jubilee (Lev. 25 : 8-10), but only as a 
type of the true jubilee of the reign of 
Christ (Luke 4 : 19). 

Ac'cess (Rom. 5:2; Eph. 2 : 18 ; 3 : 12), 
the privilege of free admission into the pres- 
ence of God in the exercise of prayer and 
in the enjoyment of fellowship in conse- 
quence of our reconciliation to him by the 
blood of Jesus Christ. Under the law the 
high priest alone had access into the holy 
of holies ; but now a new and living way 
has been opened through the rent veil, 
and we all have free access by " one Spirit 
unto the Father " — "we have boldness and 
access with confidence." 

Ac'cho — sultry or sandy — a town and 
harbour of PhcBnicia, in the tribe of Asher, 
but never acquired by them ( Judg. 1 : 31). 
It was known by the ancient Greeks and 
Romans by the name of Ptolemais, from 
Ptolemy the king of Egypt, who rebuilt it 
about B.C. 100. Here Paul landed on his 
last journey to Jerusalem (Acts 21 : 7). Dur- 
ing the crusades of the Middle Ages it was 
called Acra ; and subsequently, on account 
of its being occupied by the Knights Hos- 
pitallers of Jerusalem, it was called St. Jean 
d'Acre, or simply Acre. It is 30 miles 
south of Tyre, and 10 miles north of Mount 
Carmel. " It is the only city of Palestine 
which has acquired distinct relations with 
the Western world of modern history. " 

Accursed. See Anathema. 

Accus^er. Satan is styled the "accuser 
of the brethren" (Rev. 12:10. Comp. 



ACELDAMA 



15 



ACHAN 



Job 1:6; Zech. 3 : 1), as seeking to uphold 
his influence among men by bringing false 
charges against Christians, with the view 
of weakening their influence and injuring 
the cause with which they are identified. 
He was regarded by the Jews as the ac- 
cuser of men before God, laying to their 
charge the violations of the law of which 
they were guilty, and demanding their 
punishment. 

The same Greek word, rendered "ac- 
cuser," is found in John 8 : 10 (but omitted 
in the Revised Version) ; Acts 23 : 30, 35 ; 
24 : 8 ; 25 : 16, 18, in all of which places it 



is used of one who brings a charge against 
another. 

Acel^daxna, the name which the Jews 
gave in their proper tongue, i.e., in Ara- 
maic, to the field which was purchased 
with the money which had been given to 
the betrayer of our Lord. The word 
means "field of blood." It was previ- 
ously called "the potter's field" (Matt. 
27 : 7, 8 ; Acts 1 : 19), and was appropri- 
ated as the burial-place for strangers. It 
lies on a narrow level terrace on the south 
face of the valley of Hinnom. Its modern 
name is Jffak ed-damm. 




ACELDAMA. 



Achai'a, the name originally of a narrow 
strip of territory in Greece, on the north- 
west of the Peloponnesus. Subsequently 
it was applied by the Romans to the whole 
Peloponnesus, now called the Morea, and 
the south of Greece. It was then one of 
the two provinces (Macedonia being the 
other) into which they divided the country 
when it fell under their dominion. It is 
in this latter enlarged meaning that the 
name is always used in the New Testa- 
ment (Acts 18:12, 16; 19:21; Rom. 15: 
26 ; 16 : 5, etc.). It was at the time when 
Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles'under 
the proconsular form of government ; hence 
the appropriate title given to Gallio as the 
" deputy," i.e., proconsul, of Achaia (Acts 
18 : 12). 



Acha'ichus (1 Cor. 16:17), one of the 
members of the church of Corinth who, 
with Portunatus and Stephanas, visited 
Paul while he was at Ephesus, for the 
purpose of consulting him on the affairs 
of the church. These two probably were 
the bearers of the letter from Corinth to 
the apostle to which he alludes in 1 Cor. 
7:L 

A^chan, called also Achar — i.e., one tcho 
troubles (1 Chr. 2 : 7) — in commemoration 
of his crime, which brought upon him an 
awful destruction (Josh. 7:1). On the 
occasion of the fall of Jericho, he seized, 
contrary to the divine command, an ingot 
of gold, a. quantity of silver, and a costly 
Babylonish garment, which he hid in his 
tent. Joshua was convinced that the 



ACHBOR 



16 



ACTS 



defeat which the Israelites afterwards sus- 
tained before Ai was a proof of the divine 
displeasure on account of some crime, and 
he at once adopted means by the use of 
the lot for discovering the criminal. It 
was then found that Achan was guilty, 
and he was stoned to death in the valley of 
Achor. He and all that belonged to him 
were then consumed by fire, and a heap of 
stones was raised over the ashes. 

Ach^bor — gnaioing=mouse. (1.) An Ed- 
omitish king (Gen. 36 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 49). 

(2.) One of Josiah's officers sent to the 
prophetess Huldah to inquire regarding 
the newly-discovered book of the law (2 
Kings 22 : 12, 14), He is also called Abdon 
(2 Chr. 34 : 20). 

A^chish — angry — perhaps only a general 
title of royalty applicable to the Philistine 
kings. (1.) The king with whom David 
sought refuge when he fled from Saul (1 
Sam. 21 : 10-15). He is called Abimelech 
in the superscription of Ps. 34. It was prob- 
ably this same king to whom David a sec- 
ond time repaired at the head of a band 
of 600 warriors, and who assigned him 
Ziklag, whence he carried on war against 
the surrounding tribes (1 Sam. 27 : 5-12). 
Achish had great confidence in the valour 
and fidelity of David (1 Sam. 28 : 1, 2), but 
at the instigation of his courtiers did not 
permit him to go up to battle along with 
the Philistine hosts (1 Sam. 29:2-11). 
David remained with Achish a year and 
four months. 

(2.) Another king of Gath, probably 
grandson of the foregoing, to whom the 
two servants of Shimei fled. This led 
Shimei to go to Gath in pursuit of them, 
and the consequence was that Solomon 
put him to death (1 Kings 2 : 39-46). 

Ach^metha (Ezra 6 : 2), called Ecbatana 
by classical writers, the capital of northern 
Media. Here was the palace which was 
the residence of the old Median monarchs, 
and of Cyrus and Cambyses. In the time 
of Ezra, the Persian kings resided usually 
at Susa or Babylon. But Cyrus held his 
court at Achmetha ; and Ezra, writing a 
century after, correctly mentions the place 
where the decree of Cyrus was found. 

A''chor — trouble — a valley near Jericho, 



so called in consequence of the trouble 
which the sin of Achan caused Israel 
(Josh. 7:24, 26). The expression "valley 
of Achor " probably became proverbial for 
that which caused trouble, and when Isaiah 
(65 : 10) refers to it he uses it in this sense : 
" The valley of Achor, a place for herds to 
lie down in ; " i.e., that which had been a 
source of calamity would become a source 
of blessing. Hosea also (2 : 15) uses the 
expression in the same sense : " The valley 
of Achor, a door of hope;" i.e., trouble 
would be turned into joy, despair into 
hope. This valley has been identified with 
the Wady Kelt. 

Ach^sah — anklet — Caleb's only daughter 
(1 Chr. 2 : 49). She was offered in marriage 
to the man who would lead an attack on 
the city of Debir, or Kirjath-sepher. This 
was done by Othniel [q.v.), who accordingly 
obtained her as his wife (Josh. 15 : 16-19 ; 
Judg. 1 : 9-15). 

Ach^shaph — fascination — a royal city of 
the Canaanites, in the north of Palestine 
(Josh. 11 : 1 ; 12 : 20 ; 19 : 25). It was in 
the eastern boundary of the tribe of Asher, 
and is identified with the modern ruined 
village of Kesaf ov Yasif, N.-E. of Accho. 

Ach^zib— falsehood. (1.) A town in the 
Shephelah, or plain country of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 44) ; probably the same as Chezib of 
Gen. 38 : 5. 

(2.) A Phoenician city (the Gr. Ecdippa), 
always retained in their possession though 
assigned to the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19 : 29 ; 
Judg. 1 : 31). It is identified with the 
modern es-Zih, on the Mediterranean, about 
10 miles north of Accho. 

A^cre is the translation of a word {tse!med), 
which properly means a yoke, and denotes 
a space of groimd that may be ploughed by 
a yoke of oxen in a day. It is about an 
acre of our measure (Isa. 5 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 
14 : 14). 

Acts of the Apostles, the title now 
given to the fifth and last of the historical 
books of the New Testament. The author 
styles ■ it a "treatise " (1 : 1). It was early 
called "The Acts," "The Gospel of the 
Holy Ghost," and "The Gospel of the 
Resurrection." It contains properly no 
account of any of the apostles except Peter 



ACTS 



17 



ACTS 



and Paul. John is noticed only three 
times ; and all that is recorded of James, 
the son of Zebedee, is his execution by 
Herod. It is properly therefore not the 
history of the "Acts of the Apostles," a 
title which was given to the book at a later 
date, but of "Acts of Apostles," or more 
correctly, of "Some Acts of Certain 
Apostles." 

As regards its authorship, it was certainly 
the work of Luke, the " beloved physician " 
(comp. Luke 1 : 1-4 ; Acts 1 : 1). This is 
the uniform tradition of antiquity, although 
the writer nowhere makes mention of him- 
self by name. The style and idiom of the 
Gospel of Luke and of the Acts, and the 
usage of words and phrases common to 
both, strengthen this opinion. The "writer 
first appears in the narrative in 16 : 11, and 
then disappears tiU Paul's return to Phil- 
ippi two years afterwards, when he and 
Paul left that place together (20:6), and 
the two seem henceforth to have been con- 
stant companions to the end. He was cer- 
tainly with Paul at Rome (28 ; Col. 4 : 14). 
Thus he wrote a great portion of that his- 
tory from personal observation. Por what 
lay beyond his own experience he had the 
instruction of Paul, If, as is very prob- 
able, 2 Tim. was \vritten during Paul's 
second imprisonment at Pome, Luke was 
with him then as his faithful companion to 
the last (2 Tim. 4 : 11), Of his subsequent 
history we have no certain information. 

The design of Luke's Gospel was to give 
an exhibition of the character and work of 
Christ as seen in his history till he was 
taken up from his disciples into heaven ; 
and of the Acts, as its sequel, to give an 
illustration of the power and working of 
the gospel when preached among all nations, 
"beginning at Jerusalem." The opening 
sentences of the Acts are just an expansion 
and an explanation of the closing words of 
the Gospel. In this book we have just a 
continuation of the history of the church 
after Christ's ascension. Luke here carries 
on the history in the same spirit in which 
he had commenced it. It is only a book of 
beginnings — a history of the founding of 
churches — the initial steps in the formation 
of the Christian society in the different 



places visited by the apostles. It records 
a cycle of "representative events," 

All through the narrative we see the 
ever-present, all-controlling power of the 
ever-living Saviour. He worketh all and 
in all in spreading abroad his truth among 
men by his Spirit and through the instru- 
mentality of his apostles. 

The time of the writing of this history 
may be gathered from the fact that the 
narrative extends down to the close of the 
second year of Paul's first imprisonment at 
Pome, It coiild not therefore have been 
written earlier than a.d. 61 or 62, nor later 
than about the end of a.d. 63. Paul was 
probably put to death during his second 
imprisonment, about a.d, 64, or, as some 
think, 66. 

The place where the book was written 
was probably Rome, to w-hich Luke accom- 
panied Paul. 

The key to the contents of the book is in 
1:8, "Ye shall be witnesses unto me in 
Jerusalem, and in all Judsea, and in Sa- 
maria, and unto the uttermost part of the 
earth." After referring to what had been 
recorded in a "former treatise " of the say- 
ings and doings of Jesus Christ before his 
ascension, the author proceeds to give an 
account of the circumstances connected 
with that event, and then records the lead- 
ing facts with reference to the spread and 
triumphs of Christianity over the world 
during a period of about thirty years. The 
record begins with Pentecost (a.d. 33) and 
ends with Paul's first imprisonment (a.d. 
63 or 64). The whole contents of the book 
may be divided into these three parts : — 

(1.) Chaps. 1-12, describing the first 
twelve years of the Christian church. This 
section has been entitled "Prom Jerusalem 
to Antioch." It contains the history of 
the planting and extension of the church 
among the Jews by the ministry of Peter. 

(2. ) Chaps. 13-19, Paul's missionary jour- 
neys, giving the history of the extension 
and planting of the church among the 
Gentiles. 

(3.) Chaps. 20-28, Paul at Rome, and 
the events which led to this. Chaps. 13-28 
have been entitled "From Antioch t-o 
Rome. " 



ADAH 



18 



ADAM 



In this book it is worthy of note that no 
mention is made of the writing by Paul of 
any of his epistles. This may be accounted 
for by the fact that the writer confined 
himself to a history of the planting of the 
church, and not to that of its training or 
edification. The relation, however, be- 
tween this history and the epistles of Paul 
is of such a kind — i.e., brings to light so 
many undesigned coincidences — as to prove 
the genuineness and authenticity of both, 
as is so ably shown by Paley in his Hotcb 
Paulince. (See Paul.) 

A^dah — ornament. (1.) The first of 
Lamech's two wives, and the mother of 
Jabal and Jubal (Gen. 4 : 19, 20, 23). 

(2. ) The first of Esau's three wives, the 
daughter of Elon the Hittite (Gen. 36 : 2, 4), 
called also Bashemath (26 : 34). 

Adai'ah — adorned by Jehovah. (1.) 1 
Chr. 6 : 41. (2.) 1 Chr. 8 : 21. (3.) 2 Chr. 
23 : 1. (4. ) King Josiah's grandfather on 
his mother's side (2 Kings 22 : 1). (5. ) Neh, 
11:5. (6. ) A priest (1 Chr. 9:12). (7.) Ezra 
10 : 29, 39. 

Ad^am — red — a Babylonian word, the 
generic name for man, having the same 
meaning in the Hebrew and the Assyrian 
languages. It was the name given to the 
first man, whose creation, fall, and subse- 
quent history and that of his descendants 
are detailed in the first book of Moses (Gen. 
l:27-ch. 5). "God created man [Heb., 
Adam] in his own image, in the image of 
God created he him ; male and female cre- 
ated he them. " 

Adam was absolutely the first man whom 
God created. He was formed out of the 
dust of the earth (and hence his name), and 
God breathed into his nostrils the breath 
of life, and gave him dominion over all the 
lower creatures (Gen. 1 : 26 ; 2 : 7). He was 
placed after his creation in the Garden of 
Eden, to cultivate it, and to enjoy its fruits 
under this one prohibition: "Of the tree 
of the knowledge of good and evil thou 
shalt not eat ; for in the day thou eatest 
thereof thou shalt surely die." 

The first recorded act of Adam Avas his 
giving names to the beasts of the field and 
the fowls of the air, which God brought to 
him for this end. Thereafter the Lord 



caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and 
while in an unconscious state took one of 
his ribs, and closed up his flesh again ; and 
of this rib he made a woman, whom he 
presented to him when he awoke, Adam 
received her as his wife, and said, "This is 
now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh : 
she shall be called Woman, because she was 
taken out of Man." He called her Eve, 
becaiise she was the mother of all living. 

Being induced by the tempter in the 
form of a serpent to eat the forbidden 
fruit. Eve persuaded Adam, and he also 
did eat. Thus man fell, and brought upon 
himself and his posterity all the sad conse- 
quences of his transgression. The narra- 
tive of the Fall comprehends in it the great 
promise of a Deliverer (Gen. 3 : 15), the 
' ' first gospel " message to man. They were 
expelled from Eden, and at the east of the 
garden God placed a flame, which turned 
every way, to prevent access to the tree of 
life (Gen. 3). How long they were in Para- 
dise is matter of mere conjecture. 

Shortly after their expulsion Eve brought 
forth her first-born, and called him Cain. 
Although we have the names of only three 
of Adam's sons — viz., Cain, Abel, and Seth 
— yet it is obvious that he had several sons 
and daughters (Gen, 5 : 4). He died aged 
930 years, 

Adam and Eve were the progenitors of 
the whole human race. Evidences of varied 
kinds are abundant in proving the unity of 
the human race. The investigations of 
science, altogether independent of histori- 
cal evidence, lead to the conclusion that 
God "hath made of one blood all nations 
of men for to dwell on all the face of the 
earth " (Acts 17 : 26. Comp. Rom. 5 : 12- 
21 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 22-47). 

Ad^'am, a type. The apostle Paul speaks 
of Adam as "the figure of him who was to 
come." On this account our Lord is some- 
times called the second Adam. This typi- 
cal relation is described in Rom. 5 : 14-19. 

Ad^am, the city of, is referred to in Josh. 
3 : 16. It stood beside Zarethan, on the 
west bank of Jordan (1 Kings 4 : 12). At 
this city the flow of the water was arrested 
and rose up ' ' upon an heap " at the time 
of the Israelites' passing over (Josh. 3 : 16). 



ADAMAH 



19 



ADINO 



The site of this city is unknown. A trace 
of it has been supposed to be found near 
Kurn Surtabeh, at the Damieh ford of 
Jordan, south-east of Shechem. 

Ad'^amah — ground — a fortified city of 
Naphtali, probably the modern Damieh, on 
the west of the sea of Tiberias (Josh. 
19 : 33, 36). 

Ad^amant (Heb. shamir)—Ezek. 3 : 9— a 
word meaning "unconquerable," used to 
denote hard stones, as the diamond, which 
is just a corruption of this word. It is an 
emblem of firmness in resisting adversaries 
of the truth (Zech. 7 : 12), and of hard- 
heartedness against the truth ( Jer. 17 : 1). 

A'dar — large— the sixth month of the 
civil and the twelfth of the ecclesiastical 
year of the Jews (Esther 3 : 7, 13 ; 8 : 12 ; 
9 : 1, 15, 17, 19, 21). It included the days 
extending from the new moon of our March 
to the new moon of April. This name was 
first used after the Captivity. "When the 
season was backward, and the lambs not 
yet of a paschal size, or the barley not for- 
ward enough for Abib, then a month called 
Veadar, i.e., a second Adar, was inter- 
calated. 

Ad^beel — miracle of God— the third of 
the twelve sons of Ishmael, and head of an 
Arabian tribe (Gen. 25 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 29). 

AA'Aax— ample, splendid— son of Bela (1 
Chr. 8 : 3), called also Ard (Gen. 46 : 21). 

Ad'der (Ps. 140 : 3 ; Rom. 3 : 13, " asp ") 
is the rendering of— (1.) Akshub ("coiling'" 
or "lying in wait"), properly an asp or 
viper, only found in this passage. (2. ) Pethen 
("twisting"), a viper or venomous serpent 
identified with the cobra {Waja haje) (Ps. 
58:4; 91:13; elsewhere "asp"). (3.) 
Tziphoni ("hissing") (Pro v. 23:32; else- 
where rendered "cockatrice," Isa. 11:8; 
14 : 29 ; 59 : 5 ; Jer. 8 : 17), as it is here in 
the margin of the Authorized Version. The 
Revised Version has "basilisk." This may 
have been the yellow viper, the Daboia 
xanthina, the largest and most dangerous 
of the vipers of Palestine. (4. ) Shephiphon 
("creeping"), occurring only in Gen. 
49 : 17, the small speckled venomous snake, 
the "horned snake," or cerastes. Dan is 
compared to this serpent, which springs from 
its hiding-place on the passers-by. 



The terms adder and viper are nearly 
interchangeable, the latter being properly, 
however, the name of a genus of serpents 




EGYPTIAN COBRA (nAJA HAJe). 

which have their heads covered with scales. 
(See Sekpent.) 

A ' ' deaf adder that cannot be charmed " 
is a type of those whom no appeals to 
reason or conscience can restrain from evil 
(Ps. 58 : 4, 5 ; Jer. 8 : 17). 

Ad^di — ornament — (Luke 3 : 28), the son 
of Cosam, and father of Melchi, one of the 
progenitors of Christ. 

Ad'^don — low — one of the persons named 
in Neh. 7 :61 who could not "shew their 
father's house " on the return from cap- 
tivity. This, with similar instances (ver. 
63), indicates the importance the Jews 
attached to their genealogies. 

A^diel — ornament of God. (1. ) The father 
of Azmaveth, who was treasurer under 
David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27 : 25). 

(2. ) A family head of the tribe of Simeon 
(1 Chr. 4 : 36). 

(3.) A priest (1 Chr. 9:12). 

A'din— effeminate. (1.) Ezra 8:6. (2.) 
Neh. 10 : 16. 

Ad^ina — slender — one of David's warriors 
(1 Chr. 11 : 42), a Reubenite. 

Ad^ino, one of David's mighty men (2 
Sam. 23 : 8), the Eznite, the Tachmonite. 
The list here seems to require that Jasho- 
beam and Adino should be regarded as one 
person. Accordingly the word Adino has 
by some (Gesenius) been regarded as not a 
proper name at all, and hence, instead of 



ADJURATION 



20 



ADOPTION 



the translation given in the Authorized 
Version and also in the Revised Version, 
"The same was Adino the Eznite," they 
have substituted the rendering, "he bran- 
dished it, his spear, against," etc. The 
revisers have in the margin the note, " The 
verse is probably corrupt. " 

Ad'^juration, a solemn appeal whereby 
one person imposes on another the obliga- 
tion of speaking or acting as if under an 
oath (1 Sam. 14 : 24 ; Josh. 6 : 26 ; 1 Kings 
22 : 16). 

We have in the New Testament a strik- 
ing example of this (Matt. 26 : 63 ; Mark 
5:7), where the high priest calls upon Christ 
to avow: his true character. It would seem 
that in such a case the person so adjured 
could not refuse to give an answer. 

The word "adjure" is used with refer- 
ence to the casting out of demons (Acts 
19 : 13). 

Ad^lai— just — the father of Shaphat, who 
was herdsman under David (1 Chr. 27 : 29). 

Ad^mah — earth — one of the five cities of 
the vale of Siddim (Gen. 10 : 19). It was 
destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah 
(19 : 24 ; Deut. 29 : 23). It is supposed by 
some to be the same as the Adam of Josh. 
3 : 16, the name of which still lingers in 
Damieh, the ford of the Jordan. 

Ad'^nah — delight. (1.) A chief of the 
tribe of Manasseh who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 20). 

(2.) A general under Jehoshaphat, chief 
over 300,000 men (2 Chr. 17 : 14). 

Adon'^i-be^zek — lord ofBezek — a Canaan- 
itish king who, having subdued seventy of 
the chiefs that were around him, made an 
attack against the armies of Judah and 
Simeon, but was defeated and brought as 
a captive to Jerusalem, where his thumbs 
and great toes were cut off. He confessed 
that God had requited him for his like 
cruelty to the seventy kings whom he had 
subdued ( Judg. 1:4-7; comp. 1 Sam. 15 : 33). 

Adoni^jah — my Lord is Jehovah. (1.) 
The fourth son of David (2 Sam. 3:4). 
After the death of his elder brothers, Am- 
non and Absalom, he became heir-apparent 
to the throne. But Solomon, a younger 
brother, was preferred to him. Adonijah, 
however, when his father was dying, caused 



himself to be proclaimed king. But Na- 
than and Bathsheba induced David to give 
orders that Solomon should at once be 
proclaimed and admitted to the throne. 
Adonijah fled and took refuge at the altar, 
and received pardon for his conduct from 
Solomon on the condition that he showed 
himself " a worthy man " (1 Kings 1 : 5-53). 
He afterwards made a second attempt to 
gain the throne, but was seized and put to 
death (1 Kings 2 : 13-25). 

(2.) A Levite sent with the princes to 
teach the book of the law to the inhabit- 
ants of Judah (2 Chr. 17 : 8). 

(3.) One of the "chiefs of the people" 
after the Captivity (Neh. 10 : 16). 

Adoni''kain — whom the Lord sets up — 
one of those " which came with Zerubba- 
bel " (Ezra 2 : 13). His " children," or re- 
tainers, to the number of 666, came up to 
Jerusalem (8 : 13). 

Adoni''rain (Ado^ram, 1 Kings 12 : 18), 
the son of Abda, was "over the tribute," 
i.e., the levy or forced labour. He was 
stoned to death by the people of Israel 
(1 Kings 4 : 6 ; 5 : 14). 

Adon^'i-ze^dek — lord of justice or right- 
eousness — was king in Jerusalem at the 
time when the Israelites invaded Palestine 
(Josh. 10 : 1, 3). He formed a confederacy 
with the other Canaanitish kings against 
the Israelites, but was utterly routed by 
Joshua when he was engaged in besieging 
the Gibeonites. The history of this victory 
and of the treatment of the five confeder- 
ated kings is recorded in Josh. 10 : 1-27. 
(Comp. Deut. 21:23.) 

Adop'^tion, the giving to any one the 
name and place and privileges of a son who 
is not a son by birth. 

(1. ) Natural. This custom gradually grew 
up and was common among ancient nations. 
Thus Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses. 
The custom did not prevail to any extent 
among the Jews. (Comp. John 8 : 36 ; Heb. 
2 : 11. ) Mordecai's adoption of Esther is the 
only case of the adoption of a female men- 
tioned in Scripture (Esther 2:7). 

(2.) National. God adopted Israel (Ex. 
4 : 22 ; Deut. 7:6; Hos. 11 : 1 ; Rom. 9 : 4). 

(3.) Spiritual. An act of God's grace, 
originating in his eternal counsel, by which 



ADORAM 



21 



ADULTERY 



he brings men into the number of his re- 
deemed family, and makes them partakers 
of all the blessings he has i^rovided for them. 
Adoption represents the new relations into 
which the believer is introduced by justifi- 
cation, and the privileges connected there- 
with — viz., an interest in God's peculiar love 
(John 17 : 23 ; Rom. 5 : 5-8), a spiritual na- 
ture (2 Pet. 1:4; John 1 : 13), the posses- 
sion of a spirit becoming children of God 
(1 Pet. 1 : 14 ; 2 John 6 ; Rom. 8 : 15-21 ; 
Gal, 5:1; Heb. 2 : 15), present protection, 
consolation, supplies (Luke 12 : 27-32 ; John 
14 : 18 ; 1 Cor. 3 : 21-23 ; 2 Cor. 1 : 4), fatherly 
chastisements (Heb. 12 : 5-11), and a future 
glorious inheritance (Rom. 8 : 17, 23 ; James 
2:5; Phil. 3 : 21). 

Ado^ram. See Adonibam. 

Adore'', to worship; to express rever- 
ence and homage. The forms of adoration 
among the Jews were putting off the shoes 
(Ex. 3:5; Josh. 5 : 15), and prostration 
(Gen. 17 : 3 ; Ps. 95 : 6 ; Isa. 44 : 15, 17, 19 ; 
46:6). To "kiss the Son=' in Ps. 2:12 
is to adore and worship him. (See Dan. 
3 : 5, 6. ) The word itself does not occur in 
Scripture. 

Adram^melech — Adar the king. (1.) 
An idol ; a form of the sun-god worshipped 
by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (2 Kings 
17 : 31), and brought by the Sepharvite 
colonists into Samaria. 

(2. ) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria 
(2 Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). 

Adramyftium, a city of Asia Minor on 
the coast of Mysia, which in early times 
was called ^olis. The ship in which Paul 
embarked at Csesarea belonged to this city 
(Acts 27 : 2). He was conveyed in it only 
to Mjrra, in Lycia, whence he sailed in an 
Alexandrian ship to Italy. It was a rare 
thing for a ship to sail from any port of 
Palestine direct for Italy. It still bears 
the name Adramyti, and is a place of some 
traffic. 

A'dria (Acts 27:27; R.V., "the sea of 
Adria"), the Adriatic Sea, including in 
Paul's tim.e the whole of the Mediterranean 
lying between Crete and Sicily. It is the 
modern Gulf of Venice, the Mare Superum 
of the Romans, as distinguished from the 
Mare Inferum or Tyrrhenian Sea. 



A'6xiG\— flock of God — the son of Bar- 
zillai, the Meholathite, to whom Saul gave 
in marriage his daughter Merab (1 Sam. 
18 : 19). The five sons that sprang from this 
union were put to death by the Gibeonites 
(2 Sam. 21 : 8, 9. Here it is said that 
Michal " brought up "[R. v., "bare"] these 
five sons, — either that she treated them as 
if she had been their own mother, or that 
for "Michal" we should read "Merab," as 
in 1 Sam. 18 : 19). 

Adul^lam, one of the royal cities of the 
Canaanites, now ' Aid-el-mfi (Josh. 12 : 15 ; 
15 : 35). It stood on the old Roman road 
in the valley of Elah [q.v.], which was the 
scene of David's memorable victory over 
Goliath (1 Sam, 17 : 4), and not far from 
Gath. It was one of the towns which 
Rehoboam fortified against Egypt (2 Chr. 
11 : 7). It was called "the glory of Israel" 
(Micah 1 : 15). 

The Cave of Adullam has been discovered 
about 2 miles south of the scene of David's 
triumph, and about 13 miles west from 
Bethlehem. At this place is a hill some 
500 feet high pierced with numerous cav- 
erns, in one of which David gathered to- 
gether "every one that was in distress, and 
every one that was in debt, and every one 
that was discontented " (1 Sam. 22 : 2). 
Some of these caverns are large enough to 
hold 200 or 300 men. According to tradi- 
tion this cave was at Wady Khureittin, be- 
tween Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, but 
this view cannot be well maintained. 

Aduriaxnite, an inhabitant of the city 
of Adullam (Gen. 38 : 1, 12, 20). 

Adul^tery, conjugal infidelity. An 
adulterer was a man who had illicit in- 
tercourse with a married or a betrothed 
woman, and such a woman was an adul- 
teress. Intercourse between a married 
man and an unmarried woman was forni- 
cation. Adultery was regarded as a great 
social wrong, as well as a great sin. 

The Mosaic law (Num. 5:11-31) pre- 
scribed that the suspected wife should be 
tried by the ordeal of the "water of jeal- 
ousy." There is, however, no recorded in- 
stance of the application of this law. In 
subsequent times the Rabbis made various 
regulations with the view of discovering 



ADUMMIM 



22 



JENON 



the guilty party, and of bringing about a 
divorce. It has been inferred from John 
8 : 1-8 that this sin became very common 
during the age preceding the destruction 
of Jerusalem. 

Idolatry^ covetousness, and apostasy are 
spoken of as adultery spiritually ( Jer. 3 : 6, 
8, 9; Ezek. 16:32; Hos. 1:2:3; Rev. 
2 : 22). An apostate church is an adulteress 
(Isa. 1:21; Ezek. 23:4, 7, 37), and the 
Jews are styled "an adulterous genera- 
tion " (Matt. 12 : 39). (Comp. Rev. 12. ) 

Adum^mim— i^^e o-ed ones — a place ap- 



parently on the road between Jericho and 
Jerusalem, "on the south side of the tor- 
rent " Wady Kelt, looking toward Gilgal, 
mentioned Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 17. It was 
nearly half-way between Jerusalem and 
Jericho, and bears the modern name of 
KuVat ed-Dem. It is supposed to have 
been the place referred to in the parable 
of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10 : 33-37). 
The order of the "Knights Templars" 
sprang out of an association formed for 
the purpose of guarding this road, which 
was infested by robbers. 




THE ROAD BETWEEN JERUSALEM AND JERICHO. 



Ad'versary (Heb. satan), an opponent 
or foe (1 Kings 5:4; 11:14, 23, 25; 
Luke 13 : 17) ; one that speaks against an- 
other, a complainant (Matt. 5 : 25 ; Luke 
12 : 58) ; an enemy (Luke 18 : 3), and spe- 
cially the devil (1 Pet. 5 : 8). 

Ad''vocate (Gr. parakletos), one who 
pleads another's cause, who helps another 
by defending or comforting him. It is a 
name given by Christ three times to the 
Holy Ghost (John 14:16; 15:26; 16:7, 
where the Greek word is rendered ' ' Com- 
forter," q.v.). It is applied to Christ in 



1 John 2 : 1, where the same Greek word 
is rendered "Advocate," the rendering 
which it should have in all the places 
where it occurs. 

Tertullus " the orator " (Acts 24 : 1) was 
a Roman advocate whom the Jews em- 
ployed to accuse Paul before Pelix. 

^''non — springs — a place near Salim 
w,here John baptized (John 3 : 23). It was 
probably near the upper source of the 
Wady Par'ah, an open valley extending 
from Mount Ebal to the Jordan. It is 
full of springs. A place has been found 



AFFECTION 



23 



AGRICULTURE 



called 'Ainun, four miles north of the 
springs. 

Affec'tion, feeling or emotion. Mention 
is made of "vile affections" (Rom. 1:26) 
and "inordinate affections" (Col. 3:5). 
Christians are exhorted to set their affec- 
tions on things above (Col. 3:2). There is 
a distinction between natural and spiritual 
or gracious affections (Ezek. 33 : 32). 

Affinity, relationship by alliance (2 Chr. 
18 : 1) or by marriage (1 Kings 3 : 1). Mar- 
riages are prohibited within certain de- 
grees of affinity, enumerated Lev. 18:6-17. 
Consanguinity is relationship by blood. 

Afflic^tions — common to all (Job 5:7; 
14:1; Ps. 34:19); are for the good of 
men (James 1 : 2, 3, 12 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 7) and 
the glory of God (2 Cor. 12 : 7-10 ; 1 Pet. 
4 : 14), and are to be borne with patience 
by the Lord's people (Ps. 94 : 12 ; Pro v. 
3 : 12). They are all directed by God (Lam. 
3 : 33), and will result in the everlasting 
good of his people (2 Cor. 4 : 16-18) in 
Christ Jesus (Rom. 8 : 35-39). 

Ag^abus, a "prophet," probably one of 
the seventy disciples of Christ. He prophe- 
sied at Antioch of an approaching famine 
(Acts 11 : 27, 28). Many years afterwards 
he met Paul at Csesarea, and warned him 
of the bonds and affliction that awaited 
him at Jerusalem should he persist in go- 
ing thither (Acts 21 : 10-12). 

A^gag— flame — the usual title of the 
Amalekite kings, as " Pharaoh" was of the 
Egyptian. (1.) A king of the Amalekites 
referred to by Balaam (Num. 24 : 7). He 
lived at the time of the Exodus. 

(2.) Another king of the Amalekites 
whom Saul spared unlawfully, but whom 
Samuel on his arrival in the camp of Saul 
ordered, in retributive justice (Judg. 1), to 
be brought out and cut in pieces (1 Sam. 
15:8-33. Comp. Ex. 17:11; Num. 14: 
45). 

A^gagite, a name applied to Haman 
and also to his father (Esther 3:1, 10 ; 
7 : 3, 5). Probablj^ it was equivalent to 
Amalekite. 

Ag'ate (Heb. shebd), a precious stone in 
the breast -plate of the high priest (Ex. 
28 : 19 ; 39 : 12), the second in the third 
row. This may be the agate properly so 



called, a semi - transparent crystallized 
quartz, probably brought from Sheba, 
whence its name. In Isa, 54 : 12 and Ezek. 
27 : 16, this word is the rendering of the 
Hebrew cadcod, which means ' ' ruddy, " and 
may i^robably denote the rviby or carbuncle, 
or, as others think, the chalcedony. 

This word is from the Greek name given 
to a stone found in the river Achates in 
Sicily. 

Age, used to denote the period of a man's 
life (Gen. 47:28), the maturity of life 
(John 9 : 21), the latter end of life (Job 
11:17), a generation of the human race 
(Job 8 : 8), and an indefinite period (Eph. 
2:7; 3 : 5, 21 ; Col. 1 : 26). Respect to be 
shown to the aged (Lev. 19 : 32). It is a 
blessing to communities when they have old 
men among them (Isa. 65 : 20 ; Zech. 8 : 4). 
The aged supposed to excel in understand- 
ing (Job 12 : 20 ; 15 : 10 ; 32 : 4, 9 ; 1 Kings 
12 : 6, 8). A full age the reward of piety 
(Job 32 : 26 ; Gen. 15 : 15). 

Ag'ee — fugitive — the father of Sham- 
ma h, who was one of David's mighty men 
(2 Sam. 23 : 11). 

Ag'ony, contest ; wrestling ; severe strug- 
gling with pain and suffering. Angxiish is 
the reflection on evil that is already past, 
while agony is a struggle with evil at the 
time present. It is only used in the New 
Testament by Luke (22 : 44) to describe our 
Lord's fearful struggle in Gethsemane. 

The verb from which the noun " agony " 
is derived is used to denote an earnest en- 
deavour or striving, as "Strive [agonize] 
to enter" (Luke 13:24); "Then would 
my servants fight " [agonize] (John 18 : 36). 
Comp. 1 Cor. 9:25; Col. 1:29; 4:12; 

1 Tim. 6 : 12 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 7— where the words 
"striveth," " labour," "conflict," "fight," 
are the renderings of the same Greek verb. 

Ag'riculture. Tilling the ground (Gen. 

2 : 15 ; 4 : 2, 3, 12) and rearing cattle were 
the chief employments in ancient times. 
The Egyptians excelled in agriculture. 
And after the Israelites entered into the 
possession of the Promised Land, their cir- 
cumstances favoured in the highest de- 
gree a remarkable development of this art. 
Agriculture became indeed the basis of the 
Mosaic commonwealth. 



AGRICULTURE 



24 



AGRICULTURE 



due = first 
showers of 
autumn. 



The year in Palestine was divided into 
six agricultural periods : — 

I. SOWING TIME. 
Months. 

r beginning about ^ ^^, ^^.^ 
Tisri, latter half-! the autumnal ^^,p_fl^g^ 

(^ equinox. } 

Marchesvan. 
Kisleu, former half. J 

II. UNRIPE TIME. 

Kisleu, latter half. 

Tebet. 

Sebat, former half. 

III. COLD SEASON. 

Sebat, latter half. '^ Latter rain due (Deut. 11 ; 
Adar. I 14 ; Jer. 5 : 24 ; Hos. 6:3: 

[Veadar.] J Zech. 10:1; James 5:7; 

Msan, former half, j Job 29 : 23). 



IV. HAEVEST TIME. 

MONTHS. 

{Beginning about vernal 
equinox. Barley green. 
Passover. 
Ijar. 
Sivan, former half. — Wheat ripe. Pentecost. 

V. SUMMEE (total absence of rain). 

Sivan, latter half. 

Tammuz. 

Ab, former half. 

VI. SULTEY SEASON. 

Ab, latter half. 

Elul. 

Tisri, former half. — Ingathering of fruits. 

The six months from the middle of 
Tisri to the middle of Nisan were occu- 




PL0X7GHING. 



pied with the work of cultivation, and the 
rest of the year mainly with the gathering 
in of the fruits. The extensive and easily- 
arranged system of irrigation from the rills 
and streams from the mountains made the 
soil in every part of Palestine richly pro- 
ductive (Ps. 1 : 3 ; 65 : 10 ; Prov. 21 : 1 ; Isa. 
30 : 25 ; 32 : 2, 20 ; Hos. 12 : 11), and the ap- 
pliances of careful cultivation and of manure 
increased its fertility to such an extent that 
in the days of Solomon, when there was an 
abundant population, "20,000 measures of 
wheat year by year" were sent to Hiram in 
exchange for timber (1 Kings 5 : 11), and in 
large quantities also wheat was sent to the 
Tyrians for the merchandise in which they 



traded (Ezek. 27:17). The wheat some- 
times produced an hundredfold (Gen. 26 : 12 ; 
Matt. 13 : 23). Figs and pomegranates were 
very plentiful (Num. 13 : 23), and the vine 
and the olive grew luxuriantly and pro- 
duced abundant fruit (Deut. 33 : 24). 

Lest the productiveness of the soil should 
be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole 
land should rest every seventh year, when 
all agricultural labour would entirely cease 
(Lev. 25 : 1-7 ; Deut. 15 : 1-10). 

It was forbidden to sow a field with 
divers seeds (Deut. 22 : 9). A passer-by 
was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn 
or grapes, but he was not permitted to 
carry away any (Deut. 23 : 24, 25 ; Matt. 



AGRICULTURAL 



25 



AGRIPPA 



12 : 1). The poor were permitted to claim 
the corners of the fields and the gleanings. 
A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be 
left also for the poor. (See Lev. 19 : 9, 10 ; 
Deut. 24:19.) 

Agricultural implements and oper- 
ations. The sculptured monuments and 
painted tombs of Egypt and Assyria 
throw much light on this subject, and 
on the general operations of agriculture. 
Ploughs of a simple construction were 
known in the time of Moses (Deut. 22 : 10 ; 
comp. Job 1 : 14). They were very light, 
and required great attention to keep them 
in the ground (Luke 9 : 62). They were 
drawn by oxen (Job 1 : 14), cows (1 Sam. 
6 : 7), and asses (Isa. 30 : 24) ; but an ox 
and an ass must not be yoked together in 
the same plough (Deut. 22:10). Men 
sometimes followed the plough with a hoe 
to break the clods (Isa. 28 : 24). The oxen 
were urged on by a "goad," or long staff 
pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose 
it could be used as a spear also ( Judg. 3 : 31 ; 
1 Sam. 13 : 21). 

When the soil was prepared, the seed was 
sown broadcast over the field (Matt. 13 : 3-8). 
The "harrow" mentioned in Job 39:10 
was not used to cover the seeds, but to 
break the clods, being little more than a 
thick block of wood. In highly irrigated 
spots the seed was trampled in by cattle 
(Isa. 32 : 20) ; but doubtless there was 
some kind of harrow also for covering in 
the seed scattered in the furrows of the 
field. 

The reaping of the corn was performed 
either by pulling it up by the roots, or cut- 
ting it with a species of sickle, according to 
circumstances. The corn when cut was 
generally put up in sheaves (Gen. 37 : 7 ; 
Lev. 23 : 10-15 ; Ruth 2 : 7, 15 ; Job 24 : 10 ; 
Jer. 9 : 22 ; Micah 4 : 12), which were after- 
wards gathered to the threshing-floor or 
stored in barns (Matt. 6 : 26). 

The process of threshing was performed 
generally by spreading the sheaves on the 
threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle 
to tread repeatedly over them (Deut. 25 : 4 ; 
Isa. 28 : 28). On occasions flails or sticks 
were used for this purpose (Ruth 2 : 17 ; Isa. 
28:27). There was also a "threshing in- 



strument " (Isa. 41 : 15 ; Amos 1 : 3) which 
was drawn over the corn. It was called 
by the Hebrews a moreg — a threshing roUer 




THKESHING-FLOOR. 

or sledge (2 Sam. 24 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 23 ; 
Isa. 4 : 15). It was something like the 
Roman tribulum or threshing instrument. 
When the grain was threshed, it was 
winnoived by being thrown up against the 
wind (Jer. 4 : 11), and afterwards tossed 
with wooden scoops (Isa. 30:24). The 




"WINNOWING. 
(From Egyptian tnojuttnents.) 

shovel and the fan for winnowing are 
mentioned in Ps. 35 : 5 ; Job 21 : 18 ; Isa. 
17 : 13. The refuse of straw and chaff was 
burned (Isa. 5 : 24). Treed from impuri- 
ties, the grain was then laid up in gran- 
aries till used (Deut. 28 : 8 ; Prov. 3 : 10 ; 
Matt. 6 : 26 ; 13 : 30 ; Luke 12 : 18). 

Agrip^pa I., the grandson of Herod 
the Great, and son of Aristobulus and Ber- 
nice. The Roman emperor Caligula made 
him governor first of the territories of Philip, 
then of the tetrarchy of Lysanias, with 
the title of king ("king Herod"), and fin- 
ally of that of Antipas, who was banished, 
and of Samaria and Judea. Thus he be- 
came ruler over the whole of Palestine. 



AGRIPPA 



26 



AHASUERUS 



He was a persecutor of the early Chris- 
tians. He slew James and imprisoned 
Peter (Acts 12 : 1-4). He died at Csesarea 
in agony, being " eaten of worms " (Acts 
12 : 23), A.D. 44. (Comp. Josephus, Ant. 
xix. 8, 2.) 

Agrip''pa II., son of the foregoing, was 
born at Rome, A.D. 27. He was the 
brother of Bernice and Drusilla. The 
Emperor Claudius (a.d. 48) invested him 
with the office of superintendent of the 
Temple of Jerusalem, and with the right 
of nominating the high priest, and made 
him governor (a.d. 50) of Chalcis, which 
office his uncle Herod had held. He was 
afterwards raised to the rank of king, and 
made governor over the tetrarchy of Philip 
and Lysanias (Acts 25:13; 26:2, 7). It 
was before him that Paul delivered (a.d. 
59) his speech recorded in Acts 26. He took 
part with the Romans against the Jews. 
His private life was very profligate. He 
died (the last of his race) at Rome, at the 
age of about seventy years, A.D. 100. 

A^gue, the translation in Lev. 26 : 16 
(R.V., "fever") of the Hebrew word Jcad- 
daJ/ath, meaning "kindling" — i.e., an 
inflammatory or burning fever. In Devit. 
28 : 22 the word is rendered "fever." 

A''gur — gatherer ; the collector — men- 
tioned as author of the sayings in Pro v. 30. 
Nothing is known of him beyond what is 
there recorded. 

Ah ! an exclamation of sorrow or regret 
(Ps. 35:25; Isa. 1:4,24; Jer. 1:6; 22:18; 
Mark 15 : 29). 

Aha! an exclamation of ridicule (Ps. 
35 : 21 ; 40 : 15 ; 70 : 3). In Isa. 44 : 16 it 
signifies joyful surprise, so also in Job 
39 : 25. 

A''hab — father's brother. (1.) The son of 
Omri, whom he succeeded as the seventh 
king of Israel. His history is recorded in 
1 Kings 16-22. His wife was Jezebel {q.v.), 
who exercised a very evil influence over 
him. To the calf-worship introduced by 
Jeroboam he added the worship of Baal. 
He was severely admonished by Elijah [q.v. ) 
for his wickedness. His anger was on this 
account kindled against the prophet, and 
he sought to kill him. He undertook 
three campaigns against Benhadad II., 



king of Damascus. In the first two, which 
were defensive, he gained a complete vic- 
tory over Benhadad, who fell into his hands, 
and was afterwards released on the con- 
dition of his restoring all the cities of Is- 
rael he then held, and granting certain 
other concessions to Ahab. After three 
years of peace, for some cause Ahab re- 
newed war (1 Kings 22 : 3) with Benhadad 
by assaulting the city of Ramoth - gilead, 
although the prophet Micaiah warned him 
that he would not succeed, and that the 
400 false prophets who encouraged him 
were only leading him to his ruin. Micaiah 
was imprisoned for thus venturing to dis- 
suade Ahab from his purpose. Ahab went 
into the battle disguised, that he might if 
possible escape the notice of his enemies ; 
but an arrow from a bow "drawn at a ven- 
ture " pierced him, and though stayed up 
in his chariot for a time he died towards 
evening, and Elijah's prophecy (1 Kings 
21 : 19) was fulfilled. He reigned twenty- 
three years. Because of his idolatry, lust, 
and covetousness, Ahab is referred to as 
pre-eminently the type of a wicked king 
(2 Kings 8 : 18 ; 2 Chr. 22 : 3 ; Micah 6 : 16). 

(2.) A false prophet referred to by Jere- 
miah (29 : 22), of whom nothing is known. 

Ahasue^rus. There are three kings 
designated by this name in Scripture. 
(1.) The father of Darius the Mede, men- 
tioned in Dan. 9 : 1. This was probably 
the Cyaxares I. known by this name in 
profane history, the king of Media and 
the conqueror of Nineveh. 

(2. ) The king mentioned in Ezra 4 : 6, 
probably the Cambyses of profane history, 
the son and successor of Cyrus (b.c. 529). 

(3.) The son of Darius Hystaspes, the 
king named in the Book of Esther. He 
ruled over the kingdoms of Persia, Media, 
and Babylonia — "from India to Ethiopia." 
This was in all probability the Xerxes of 
profane history, who succeeded his father 
Darius (B.C. 485). In the LXX. version of 
the Book of Esther the name Artaxerxes 
occurs for Ahasuerus. He reigned for 
twenty-one years (b.c. 486-465). He in- 
vaded Greece with an army, it is said, of 
more than 2,000,000 soldiers, only 5,000 of 
whom returned with him. Leonidas, with 



AHAVA 



27 



AHIJAH 



his famous 300, arrested his progress at the 
Pass of Therraopylse, and then he was de- 
feated disastrously by Themistocles at 
Salamis. It was after his return from this 
invasion that Esther was chosen as his queen. 

Aha^va — toateo — the river (Ezra 8:21) 
by the banks of which the Jewish exiles 
assembled under Ezra when about to re- 
turn to Jerusalem from Babylon. In all 
probability this was one of the streams of 
Mesopotamia which flowed into the Eu- 
phrates somewhere in the north-west of 
Babylonia. It has, however, been sup- 
posed to be the name of a place (Ezra 
8 : 15) now called Hit, on the Euphrates, 
east of Damascus. 

A^haz — possessor. (1.) A grandson of 
Jonathan (1 Chr. 8 : 35 ; 9 : 42). 

(2.) The son and successor of Jotham, 
king of Judah (2 Kings 16 ; Isa. 7-9 ; 
2 Chr. 28). He gave himself up to a life 
of wickedness and idolatry. Notwith- 
standing the remonstrances and warnings 
of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah, he appealed 
for help against Rezin, king of Dam.ascus, 
and Pekah, king of Israel, who threatened 
Jerusalem, to Tiglath-pileser, the king of 
Assyria, to the great injury of his king- 
dom and his own humiliating subjection to 
the Assyrians (2 Kings 16 : 7, 9 ; 15 : 29). 
He also introduced among his people many 
heathen and idolatrous customs (Isa. 8 : 19 ; 
38:8; 2 Kings 23:12). He died at the 
age of thirty-five years, after reigning six- 
teen years (B.C. 740-724), and was succeeded 
by his son Hezekiah. Because of his 
wickedness he was "not brought into the 
sepulchre of the kings." 

Ahazi^ah — held hy Jehovah. (1.) The son 
and successor of Ahab. He followed the 
counsels of his mother Jezebel, and imi- 
tated in wickedness the ways of his father. 
In his reign the Moabites revolted from 
under his authority (2 Kings 3 : 5-7). He 
united with Jehoshaphat in an attempt to 
revive maritime trade by the Ked Sea, 
which proved a failure (2 Chr. 20:35-37). 
His messengers, sent to consult the god of 
Ekron regarding his recovery from the 
effects of a fall from the roof -gallery of his 
palace, were met on the way by Elijah, 
who sent them back to tell the king that 



he would never rise from his bed (1 Kings 
22 : 51). 

(2. ) The son of Joram, or Jehoram, and 
sixth king of Judah. Called Jehoahaz 
(2 Chr. 21 : 17 ; 25 : 23), and Azariah (2 
Chr. 22 : 6). Guided by his idolatrous 
mother Athaliah, his reign was disastrous 
(2 Kings 8 : 24-29 ; 9 : 29). He joined his 
uncle Jehoram, king of Israel, in an expe- 
dition against Hazael, king of Damascus ; 
but was wounded at the pass of Gur when 
attempting to escape, and had strength 
only to reach Megiddo, where he died (2 
Kings 9 : 22-28). He reigned only one year. 

Ahi'^am — mother's brother — one of 
David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 33 ; 1 Chr. 
11 : 35). 

Ahie'zer — brother of help; i.e., "help- 
ful." (1.) The chief of the tribe of Dan at 
the time of the Exodus (Num. 1 : 12 ; 2 : 25 ; 
10 : 25). 

(2. ) The chief of the Benjamite slingers 
that repaired to David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 
12 : 3). 

Ahi'hud — brother [i.e., "friend") of 
union. (1.) A son of Bela, the son of Ben- 
jamin (1 Chr. 8 : 7). 

(2.) Name different in Hebrew — mean- 
ing brother of Judah. Chief of the tribe of 
Asher ; one of those appointed by Moses to 
superintend the division of Canaan among 
the tribes (Num. 34 : 27). 

AM^jah — brother {i.e., "friend") of Je- 
hovah. (1.) One of the sons of Bela (1 
Chr. 8 : 7). 

(2.) One of the five sons of Jerahmeel, 
who was great-grandson of Judah (1 Chr. 
2 : 25). 

(3.) Son of Ahitub (1 Sam. 14:3, 18), 
Ichabod's brother ; the same probably as 
Ahimelech, who was high priest at Nob in 
the reign of Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 11). Some, 
however, suppose that Ahimelech was the 
brother of Ahijah, and that they both 
oflBiciated as high priests — Ahijah at Gibeah 
or Kirjath-jearim, and Ahimelech at Nob. 

(4.) A Pelonite, one of David's heroes 
(1 Chr. 11 : 36) ; caUed also Eliam (2 Sam. 
23 : 34). 

(5.) A Levite having charge of the 
sacred treasury in the temple (1 Chr. 
26 : 20). 



AHIKAM 



28 



AHIRA 



(6. ) One of Solomon's secretaries (1 Kings 
4:3). 

(7.) A prophet of Shiloh (1 Kings 11 : 29 ; 
14:2), called the "Shilonite," in the days 
of Rehoboam. We have on record two of 
his remarkable prophecies — 1 Kings 11 : 
31-39, announcing the rending of the ten 
tribes from Solomon ; and 1 Kings 14 : 
6-16, delivered to Jeroboam's wife, fore- 
telling the death of Abijah the king's son, 
the destruction of Jeroboam's house, and 
the captivity of Israel "beyond the river." 
Jeroboam bears testimony to the high 
esteem in which he was held as a prophet 
of God (1 Kings 14 : 2, 3). 

Ahi^kam — brother of support = helper — 
one of the five whom Josiah sent to con- 
sult the prophetess Huldah in connection 
with the discovery of the book of the law 
(2 Kings 22:12-14; 2 Chr. 34:20). He 
was the son of Shaphan, the royal secre- 
tary, and the father of Gedaliah, governor 
of Judea after the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem by the Babylonians (2 Kings 25 : 22 ; 
Jer. 40 : 5-16 ; 43 : 6). On one occasion he 
protected Jeremiah against the fury of Je- 
hoiakim (Jer. 26 : 24). It was in the cham- 
ber of another son (Gemariah) of Shaphan 
that Baruch read in the ears of all the 
people Jeremiah's roll. 

Ahim^aaz — brother of anger = irascible. 
(1.) The father of Ahinoam, the wife of 
Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 50). 

(2.) The son and successor of Zadok in 
the office of high priest (1 Chr. 6 : 8, 53). 
On the occasion of the revolt of Absalom 
he remained faithful to David, and was of 
service to him in conveying to him tidings 
of the proceedings of Absalom in Jerusa- 
lem (2 Sam. 15:24-37; 17:15-21). He 
was swift of foot, and was the first to carry 
to David tidings of the defeat of Absalom, 
although he refrained, from delicacy of 
feeling, from telling him of his death (2 
Sam. 18 : 19-33). 

Alii''inan — brother of a gift = liberal. 
(1. ) One of the three giant Anakim broth- 
ers whom Caleb and the spies saw in 
Mount Hebron (Num. 13:22) when they 
went in to explore the land. They were 
afterwards driven out and slain (Josh. 15 : 
14; Judg. 1:10). 



(2. ) One of the guardians of the temple 
after the Exile (1 Chr. 9 : 17). 

Ahim''elech — brother of the king — the son 
of Ahitub and father of Abiathar (1 Sam. 
22 : 20-23). He descended from Eli in the 
line of Ithamar. In 1 Chr. 18 : 16 he is 
called Abimelech, and is probably the same 
as Ahiah (1 Sam. 14 : 3, 18). He was the 
twelfth high priest, and officiated at Nob, 
where he was visited by David (to whom 
and his companions he gave five loaves of 
the showbread) when he fled from Saul 
(1 Sam. 21 : 1-9). He was summoned into 
Saul's presence, and accused, on the infor- 
mation of Doeg the Edomite, of disloyalty 
because of his kindness to David ; where- 
upon the king commanded that he, with 
the other priests who stood beside him (86 
in all), should be put to death. This sen- 
tence was carried into execution by Doeg 
in the most cruel manner (1 Sam. 22 : 9-23). 
Possibly Abiathar had a son also called 
Ahimelech, or the two names, as some 
think, may have been accidentally trans- 
posed in 2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 16, marg. ; 
24 : 3, 6, 31. 

Abin^adab — brother of liberality = liberal 
— one of the twelve commissariat officers 
appointed by Solomon in so many districts 
of his kingdom to raise supplies by monthly 
rotation for his household. He was ap- 
pointed to the district of Mahanaim (1 
Kings 4 : 14), east of Jordan. 

Ahi^noam — brother of pleasantness = 
pleasant. (1.) The daughter of Ahimaaz, 
and wife of Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 50). 

(2. ) A Jezreelitess, the first wife of David 
(1 Sam. 25 : 43 ; 27 : 3). She was the mother 
of Amnon (2 Sam. 3 : 2). (See 1 Sam. 30:5, 
18; 2 Sam. 2:2.) 

Ahi^o — brotherly. (1.) One of the sons 
of Beriah (1 Chr. 8 : 14). 

(2. ) One of the sons of Jehiel the Gibeon- 
ite (1 Chr. 8 : 31 ; 9 : 37). 

(3.) One of the sons of Abinadab the 
Levite. While Uzzah went by the side of 
the ark, he walked before it guiding the 
oxen which drew the cart on which it was 
carried, after having brought it from his 
father's house in Gibeah (1 Chr. 13 : 7 ; 
2 Sam. 6 : 3, 4). 

AM^ra — brother of evil = unlucky, or my 



AHISHAR 



29 



AIJELETH 



brother is friend — chief of the tribe of 
Naphtali at the Exodus (Num. 1 : 15 ; 2 : 29). 

Ahi''shar — brother of song = singer — the 
officer who was "over the household of 
Solomon " (1 Kings 4 : 6). 

Ahith^'ophel — brother of insipidity = 
foolish — a man greatly renowned for his 
sagacity among the Jews. At the time 
of Absalom's revolt he deserted David (Ps. 
41 : 9 ; 55 : 12-14) and espoused the cause 
of Absalom (2 Sam. 15 : 12). David sent 
his old friend Hushai back to Absalom, in 
order that he might counteract the coun- 
sel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15 : 31-37). This 
end was so far gained that Ahithophel saw 
he had no longer any influence, and accord- 
ingly he at once left the camp of Absalom 
and returned to Giloh, his native place, 
where, after arranging his worldly affairs, 
he hanged himself, and was buried in the 
sepulchre of his fathers (2 Sam. 17 : 1-23). 
He was the type of Judas (Ps. 41 : 9). 

Ahi'^tub — brother of goodness = good. 
(1. ) The son of Phinehas. On the death of 
his grandfather Eli he succeeded to the 
office of high priest, and was himself suc- 
ceeded by his son Ahijah (1 Sam. 14 : 3 ; 
22 : 9, 11, 12, 20). 

(2. ) The father of Zadok, who was made 
high priest by Saul after the extermina- 
tion of the family of Ahimelech (1 Chr. 
6 : 7, 8 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 17). 

Ah^lab — fatness — a town of Asher lying 
within the unconquered Phoenician border 
( Judg. 1 : 31), north - west of the Sea of 
Galilee. Afterwards called Giscala, now 
el-Jish. 

Aho'^ah — brotherly — one of the sons of 
Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:4). 
He is also called Ahiah (ver. 7) and Iri 
(1 Chr. 7 : 7). His descendants were called 
Ahohites (2 Sam. 23 : 9, 28). 

AIio''hite, an epithet applied to Dodo, 
one of Solomon's captains (1 Chr. 27 : 4) ; 
to his son Eleazar, one of David's three 
mightiest heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 9 ; 1 Chr. 
11 : 12) ; and to Zalmon, one of the thirty 
(2 Sam. 23 : 28 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 29)— from their 
descent from Ahoah. 

Aho^lah — she has her own tent — a name 
used by Ezekiel (23 : 4, 5, 36, 44) as a sym- 
bol of the idolatry of the kingdom of Israel. 



This kingdom is described as a lewd woman, 
an adulteress, given up to the abominations 
and idolatries of the Egyptians and As- 
syrians. Because of her crimes, she was 
carried away captive, and ceased to be a 
kingdom. (Comp. Ps. 78 : 67-69 ; 1 Kings 
12:25-33; 1 Chr. 11:13-16.) 

Aho'^liab — tent of his father — an artist of 
the tribe of Dan, appointed to the work of 
preparing materials for the tabernacle (Ex, 
31 : 6 ; 35 : 34 ; 36 : 1, 2 ; 38 : 23). 

Ahc'libah — my tent is in her — the name 
of an imaginary harlot, applied symboli- 
cally to Jerusalem, because she had aban- 
doned the worship of the true God and 
given herself up to the idolatries of foreign 
nations. (Ezek. 23 : 4, 11, 22, 36, 44). 

Aholiba'^mah — tent of the height — the 
name given to Judith, the daughter of 
Beeri = Anah (Gen. 26 : 34 ; 36 : 2), when she 
became the wife of Esau. A district among 
the mountains of Edom, probably near 
Mount Hor, was called after her name, or it 
may be that she received her name from the 
district. Erom her descended three tribes 
of Edomites, founded by her three sons. 

A''i — ruin. (1.) One of the royal cities 
of the Canaanites (Josh. 10 : 1 ; Gen. 12 : 8 ; 
13 : 3). It was the scene of Joshua's defeat, 
and afterwards of his victory. It was the 
second Canaanite city taken by Israel (Josh. 
7:2-5; 8 : 1-29). It was rebuilt and in- 
habited by the Benjamites (Ezra 2 : 28 ; 
Neh. 7 : 32 ; 11 : 31). It lay to the east of 
Bethel, "beside Beth-aven." The spot 
which is most probably the site of this 
ancient city is Haiyan, 2 miles east from 
Bethel. It lay up the Wady Suweinit, a 
steep, rugged valley, extending from the 
Jordan valley to Bethel. 

(2.) A city in the Ammonite territory 
(Jer. 49 : 3). Some have thought that the 
proper reading of the word is Ar (Isa. 
15 : 1). 

Aij''eleth Sha^har — hind of the daivn — 
a name found in the title of Ps. 22. It is 
probably the name of some song or tune to 
the measure of which the psalm was to be 
chanted. Some, however, understand by 
the name some instrument of music, or an 
allegorical allusion to the subject of the 
psalm. 



AIR 



30 



ALEXANDER 



Air, the atmosphere, as opposed to the 
higher regions of the sky (1 Thess. 4 : 17 ; 
Rev. 9:2; 16 : 17). This word occurs once 
as the rendering of the Hebrew ruali (Job 
41 : 16) ; elsewhere it is the rendering of 
shamaiyim, usually translated "heavens." 
In Eph. 2 : 2, Paul alludes to the notion 
prevalent among the Jews that the air 
was peopled by malignant spirits, when 
he calls Satan "the j)rince of the power 
of the air." Some interpreters, however, 
regard the word here as signifying dark- 
ness. 

The expression "to speak into the air" 
(1 Cor. 14 : 9) is a proverb denoting to 
speak in vain, as to "beat the air " (1 Cor. 
9 : 26) denotes to labour in vain. 

Aj^alon and Aij^alon — place of deer. 
(1.) A town and valley originally assigned 
to the tribe of Dan, from which, however, 
they could not drive the Amorites (Judg. 
1:35). It was one of the Levitical cities 
given to the Kohathites (1 Chr. 6:69). 
It was not far from Beth-shemesh (2 Chr. 
28 : 18). It was the boundary between the 
kingdoms of Judah and Israel, and is 
frequently mentioned in Jewish history 
(2 Chr. 11:10; 1 Sam. 14:31; 1 Chr. 8:13). 
With reference to the valley named after 
the town, Joshua uttered the celebrated 
command : " Sun, stand thou still on 
Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the valley of 
Ajalon " (Josh. 10 : 12). It has been iden- 
tified as the modern Ydlo, north of the 
Jaffa road, 14 miles from Jerusalem. 

(2. ) A city in the tribe of Zebulun (Judg. 
12 : 12), the modern Jalun. 

Ak^kub (another form of Jacob). (1.) 
The head of one of the families of Nethi- 
nim (Ezra 2 : 45). 

(2.) A Levite who kept the gate of the 
temple after the return from Babylon (1 
Chr. 9 : 17 ; Ezra 2 : 42 ; Neh. 7 : 45). 

(3.) A descendant of David (1 Chr. 3 :24). 

Akrab''biin — scorpions — probably the 
general name given to the ridge containing 
the pass between the south of the Dead 
Sea and Zin, es-Sufah, by which there is 
an ascent to the level of the land of Pales- 
tine. Scorpions are said to abound in this 
whole district, and hence the name (Num. 
34 : 4). It is called " Maaleh-acrabbim " in 



Josh. 15 : 3, and "the ascent of Akrabbim" 
in Num. 34 : 4. 

Al'abaster, occurs only in the New Tes- 
tament in connection with the box of "oint- 
ment of spikenard very precious," with the 
contents of which a woman anointed the 
head of Jesus as he sat at supper in the house 
of Simon the leper (Matt. 26 : 7; Mark 14 : 3 ; 
Luke 7 : 37). These boxes were made from 
a stone found near Alabastron in Egypt, 
and from this circumstance the Greeks 
gave them the name of the city where they 
were made. The name was then given to 
the stone of which they were made ; and 
finally to all perfume vessels, of whatever 
material they were formed. The woman 
"broke" the vessel; i.e., she broke off, as 
was usually done, the long and narrow 
neck so as to reach the contents. This 
stone resembles marble, but is softer in its 
texture, and hence very easily wrought 
into boxes. Mark says (14 : 5) that this 
box of ointment was worth more than 300 
pence- — i.e., denarii, each of the value of 
sevenpence halfpenny of our money, and 
therefore worth about £10. But if we take 
the denarius as the day's wage of a labourer 
(Matt. 20 : 2), say two shillings of our money, 
then the whole would be worth about £30, 
so costly was Mary's offering. 

Ala^moth — virgins— Sb musical term (1 
Chr. 15 : 20), denoting that the psalm 
which bears this inscription (Ps. 46) was 
to be sung by soprano or female voices. 

Alarm^, a particular quivering sound of 
the silver trumpets to give warning to the 
Hebrews on their- journey through the wil- 
derness (Num. 10 : 5, 6), a call to arms, or a 
war-note ( Jer. 4 : 19 ; 49 : 2 ; Zeph. 1 : 16). 

AVeraeth— covering. (1. ) One of the nine 
sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 
7:8). 

(2.) One of the sons of Jehoadah, or 
Jarah, son of Ahaz (1 Chr. 8 : 36). 

(3.) A sacerdotal city of Benjamin (1 
Chr. 6 : 60), called also Almon (Josh. 21 : 18), 
now Almit, a mile north-east of the ancient 
Anathoth. 

Alexan'der — man-defender. (1. ) A rela- 
tive of Annas the high priest, present 
when Peter and John were examined be- 
fore the Sanhedrim (Acts 4 : 6). 



ALEXANDER 



31 



ALLEGORY 



(2. ) A man whose father, Simon the 
Cyrenian, bore the cross of Christ (Mark 
15 : 21). 

(3.) A Jew of Ephesus who took a prom- 
inent part in the uproar raised there by 
the preaching of Paul {Acts 19 : 33). The 
Jews put him forward to plead their cause 
before the mob. It was probably intended 
that he should show that he and the other 
Jews had no sympathy with Paul any more 
than the Ephesians had. It is possible that 
this man was the same as the following. 

(4. ) A coppersmith who, mth Hymenaeus 
and others, promulgated certain heresies 
regarding the resurrection (1 Tim. 1 : 19 ; 2 
Tim. 4 : 14), and made shipwreck of faith 
and of a good conscience. Paul excom- 
municated him (1 Tim. 1 : 20 ; comp. 1 Cor. 
5:5). 

Alexan'der the Great, the king of 
Macedonia, the great conqueror; prob- 
ably represented in Daniel by the "belly 
of brass " (Dan. 2 : 32), and the leopard and 
the he-goat (7:6; 11 : 3, 4). He succeeded 
his father Philip, and died at the age of 
thirty-two from the effects of intemperance, 
B.C. 323. His empire was divided among 
his four generals. 

Alexan^dria, the ancient metropolis of 
Lower Egypt, so called from its founder, 




ANCIENT ALEXANDRIA. 



Alexander the Great (about B.C. 333). It 
was for a long period the greatest of exist- 
ing cities, for both Nineveh and Babylon 
had been destroyed, and Rome had not yet 



risen to greatness. It was the residence of 
the kings of Egypt for 200 years. It is not 
mentioned in the Old Testament, and only 
incidentally in the New. ApoUos, eloquent 
and mighty in the Scriptures, was a native 
of this city (Acts 18 : 24). Many Jews 
from Alexandria were in Jerusalem, where 
they had a synagogue (Acts 6 : 9), at the 
time of Stephen's martyrdom. At one 
time it is said that as many as 10,000 Jews 
resided in this city. It possessed a famous 
library of 700, 000 volumes, which was burned 
by the Saracens (a.d. 642). It was here 
that the Hebrew Bible was translated into 
Greek. This is called the Septuagint ver- 
sion, from the tradition that seventy learned 
men were engaged in executing it. It was, 
however, not all translated at one time. 
It was begun B.C. 280, and finished about 
B.C. 200 or 150. (See Version.) 

Argum (2 Chr. 2:8; 9:10, 11), the same 
as almug (1 Kings 10 : 11). 

A''lien, a foreigner, or person bom in 
another country, and therefore not entitled 
to the rights and privileges of the country 
where he resides. Among the Hebrews 
there were two classes of aliens. 

(1. ) Those who were strangers generally, 
and who owned no landed property. 

(2.) Strangers dwelling in another coun- 
try without being naturalized (Lev. 22 : 10 ; 
Ps. 39 : 12). 

Both of these classes were to enjoy, 
under certain conditions, the same rights 
as other citizens (Lev. 19 : 33, 34 ; Deut. 
10 : 19). They might be naturalized and 
permitted to enter into the congregation 
of the Lord by submitting to circumcision 
and abandoning idolatry (Deut. 23 : 3-8). 

This term is used (Eph. 2 : 12) to denote 
persons who have no interest in Christ. 

Al^legory, used only in Gal. 4 : 24, where 
the apostle refers to the history of Isaac 
the free-born, and Ishmael the slave-born, 
and makes use of it allegorically. 

Every parable is an allegory. Nathan 
(2 Sam. 12 : 1-14) addresses David in an 
allegorical narrative. In the eightieth 
Psalm there is a beautiful allegory: "Thou 
broughtest a vine out of Egypt," etc. In 
Eccl. 12 : 2-6, there is a striking allegorical 
description of old age. 



ALLELUIA 



32 



ALMOND 



AUelu^ia, the Greek form (Rev. 19:1, 
3, 4, 6) of the Hebrev/ Halleluj ah =Pratse 
ye Jehovah, which begins and ends several 
of the psalms (106, 111, 112, 113, etc.). 

Alli^ance, a treaty between nations, 
or between individuals, for their mutual 
advantage. 

Abraham formed an alliance with some 
of the Canaanitish princes (Gen. 14 : 13), also 
with Abimelech (21:22-32). Joshua and 
the elders of Israel entered into an alliance 
with the Gibeonites (Josh. 9:3-27). When 
the Israelites entered Palestine they were 
forbidden to enter into alliances with the 
inhabitants of the country (Lev. 18 : 3, 4 ; 
20 : 22, 23). 

Solomon formed a league with Hiram 
(1 Kings 5:12). This "brotherly cove- 
nant" is referred to 250 years afterwards 
(Amos 1 : 9). He also appears to have 
entered into an alliance with Pharaoh 
(1 Kings 10 : 28, 29). 

In the subsequent history of the king- 
doms of Judah and Israel various alliances 
were formed between them and also with 
neighbouring nations at different times. 

Prom patriarchal times a covenant of 
alliance was sealed by the blood of some 
sacrificial victim. The animal sacrificed 
was cut in two (except birds), and between 
these two parts the persons contracting 
the alliance passed (Gen. 15 : 10). There 
are frequent allusions to this practice ( Jer. 
34 : 18). Such alliances were called "cove- 
nants of salt " (Num. 18 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 5), 
salt being the symbol of perpetuity. A 
pillar was set up as a memorial of the alli- 
ance between Laban and Jacob (Gen. 
31 : 52). The Jews throughout their whole 
history attached great importance to fidel- 
ity to their engagements. Divine wrath 
fell upon the violators of them (Josh. 9 : 18 ; 
2 Sam. 21 : 1, 2 ; Ezek. 17 : 16). 

Albion — oah. (1.) The expression in the 
Authorized Version of Josh. 19 : 33, "from 
AUon to Zaanannim," is more correctly 
rendered in the Revised Version, "from 
the oak in Zaanannim. " The word denotes 
some remarkable tree which stood near 
Zaanannim, and which served as a land- 
mark. 

(2.) The son of Jedaiah, of the family of 



the Simeonites, who expelled the Hamites 
from the valley of Gedor (1 Chr. 4 : 37). 

Al''lon-bach''uth — oak of weeping — a tree 
near Bethel, at the spot where Deborah, 
Rebekah's nurse, was buried (Gen. 35 : 8). 
Large trees, from their rarity in the plains 
of Palestine, were frequently designated as 
landmarks. This particular tree was prob- 
ably the same as the ' ' palm tree of Deb- 
orah " ( Judg. 4 : 5). 

Almo^dad — immeasurable — the first 
named of the sons of Joktan (Gen. 10 : 26), 
the founder of an Arabian tribe. 

Al'mon — hidden — one of the sacerdotal 
cities of Benjamin (Josh. 21 : 18), called 
also Alemeth (1 Chr. 6 : 60). 

Al^mond, a native of Syria and Palestine. 
In form, blossoms, and fruit it resembles 
the peach tree. Its blossoms are of a very 




BRANCH OF ALMOND TREE. 

pale pink colour, and appear before its 
leaves. Its Hebrew name, shdked, signify- 
ing "wakeful, hastening," is given to it on 
account of its putting forth its blossoms 
so early, generally in Pebruary, and some- 
times even in January. In Eccl. 12 : 5, it 
is referred to as illustrative, probably, of 
the haste with which old age comes. There 
are others, however, who still contend for 
the old interpretation here. "The almond 
tree bears its blossoms in the midst of 
winter, on a naked, leafless stem, and these 
blossoms (reddish or flesh-coloured in the 



ALMS 



33 



ALTAR 



beginning) seem at the time of their fall 
exactly like white snow-flakes. In this 
way the almond blossom is a very fitting 
symbol of old age, with its silvery hair 
and its wintry, dry, barren, unfruitful con- 
dition." In Jer. 1 : 11 — " I see a rod of an 

almond tree [shdked] for I will hasten 

[shdked] my word to perform it " — the 
word is used as an emblem of promptitude. 
Jacob desired his sons (Gen. 43:11) to take 
with them into Egypt of the best fruits of 
the land, almonds, etc., as a present to 
Joseph, probably because this tree was not 
a native of Egypt. Aaron's rod yielded 
almonds (Num. 17:8; Heb. 9:4). Moses 
was directed to make certain parts of the 
candlestick for the ark of carved work 
"like unto almonds " (Ex. 25 : 33, 34). The 
Hebrew word luz, translated "hazel" in 
the Authorized Version (Gen. 30 : 37), is 
rendered in the Revised Version "almond." 
It is probable that luz denotes the wild 
almond, while shdked denotes the culti- 
vated variety. 

Alms. Not found in the Old Testament, 
but repeatedly in the New. The Mosaic 
legislation (Lev. 25:35; Deut. 15:7) 
tended to promote a spirit of charity, and 
to prevent the occurrence of destitution 
among the people. Such passages as these, 
Ps. 41 : 1; 112 : 9; Prov. 14 : 31; Isa. 10 : 2 ; 
Amos 2:7; Jer. 5 : 28 ; Ezek. 22 : 29, would 
also naturally foster the same benevolent 
spirit. 

In the time of our Lord begging was 
common (Mark 10:46; Acts 3:2). The 
Pharisees were very ostentatious in their 
almsgivings (Matt. 6:2). The spirit by 
which the Christian ought to be actuated 
in this duty is set forth in 1 John 3 : 17. 
A regard to the state of the poor and 
needy is enjoined as a Christian duty 
(Luke 3:11; 6:30; Matt. 6:1; Acts 
9 : 36 ; 10 : 2, 7), a duty which was not 
neglected by the early Christians (Luke 
14:13; Acts 20:35; Gal. 2:10; Rom. 
15:25-27; 1 Cor. 16:1-4). They cared 
not only for the poor among themselves, 
but contributed also to the necessities of 
those at a distance (Acts Jl : 29 ; 24 : 17 ; 2 
Cor. 9 : 12). Our Lord and his attendants 
showed an example also in this (John 13 : 29). 



In modern times the " poor-laws " have 
introduced an element which modifies con- 
siderably the form in which we may dis- 
charge this Christian duty. 

AFmug (1 Kings 10 : 11, 12) = algum 
(2 Chr. 2:8; 9 : 10, 11), in the Hebrew oc- 
curring only in the plural almuggim (indi- 
cating that the wood was brought in planks), 
the name of a wood brought from Ophir to 
be used in the building of the temple, and 
for other purposes. Some suppose it to 
have been the white sandal-wood of India, 
the Santalum album of botanists, a native 
of the mountainous parts of the Malabar 
coast. It is a fragrant wood, and is used 
in China for incense in idol- worship. Others, 
with some probability, think that it was 
the Indian red sandal -wood, the Ptero- 
carpus santalinus, a heavy, fine-grained 
wood, the Sanscrit name of which is val- 
guka. It is found on the Coromandel 
coast and in Ceylon. 

A'^loes (Heb. 'ahalim), a fragrant wood 
(Num. 24 : 6 ; Ps. 45 : 8 ; Prov. 7 : 17 ; Cant. 
4 : 14), the Aquilaria agallochum of botan- 
ists, or, as some suppose, the costly gum or 
perfume extracted from the wood. It is 
found in China, Siam, and Northern India, 
and grows to the height sometimes of 120 
feet. This species is of great rarity even 
in India. There is another and more com- 
mon species, called by the Indians aghil, 
whence Europeans have given it the name 
of Lignum aquilce, or eagle-wood. Aloe- 
wood was used by the Egyptians for em- 
balming dead bodies. Nicodemus brought 
it (pounded aloe-wood) to embalm the body 
of Christ (John 19 : 39) ; but whether this 
was the same as that mentioned elsewhere 
is uncertain. 

The bitter aloes of the apothecary is the 
produce of a totally different plant. 

Alphae^us. (1.) The father of James 
the Less, the apostle and writer of the 
epistle (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 
6 : 15 ; Acts 1 : 13), and the husband of 
Mary (John 19 : 25). The Hebrew form of 
this name is Cleopas, or Clopas {q.v.). 

(2.) The father of Levi, or Matthew 
(Mark 2: 14). 

Al'tar (Heb. mizbe'dJi, from a word 
meaning " to slay"), any structure of earth 

3 



ALTAR 



34 



ALTAR 



(Ex. 20:24) or unwrought stone (20:25) 
on which sacrifices were offered. Altars 
were generally erected in conspicuous 
places (Gen. 22 : 9 ; Ezek. 6 : 3 ; 2 Kings 
23:12; 16:4; 23:8; Acts 14:13). The 
word is used in Heb. 13 : 10 for the sacrifice 
offered upon it— the sacrifice Christ offered. 
Paul found among the many altars 
erected in Athens one bearing the inscrip- 
tion, "To the unknown God " (Acts 17 : 23), 
or rather "to an [i.e., some] unknown 
God." The reason for this inscription 
cannot now be accurately determined. It 
afforded the apostle the occasion of pro- 
claiming the gospel to the "men of Athens. " 




1. BKAZEN ALTAR. 



2. GOLDEN ALTAR. 



The first altar we read of is that erected 
by Noah (Gen. 8 : 20). Altars were erected 
by Abraham (Gen. 12 : 7 ; 13 : 4 ; 22 : 9), by 
Isaac (Gen. 26:25), by Jacob (33:20; 
85:1, 3), and by Moses (Ex. 17:15, " Je- 
hovah-nissi "). 

In the tabernacle, and afterwards in the 
temple, two altars were erected. 

(1.) The altar of burnt offering (Ex. 
30 : 28), called also the " brazen altar" (Ex. 
39:39) and "the table of the Lord" 
(Mai. 1 : 7). 

This altar, as erected in the tabernacle, 
is described in Ex. 27 : 1-8. It was a hollow 
square, 5 ciibits in length and in breadth, 
and 3 cubits in height. It was made of 
shittim wood, and was overlaid with plates 
of brass. Its corners were ornamented 
with " horns " (Ex. 29 : 12 ; Lev. 4 : 18). 



In Ex. 27 : 3 the various utensils apper- 
taining to the altar are enumerated. They 
were made of brass. (Comp. 1 Sam. 2 : 13, 
14 ; Lev. 16 : 12 ; Num. 16 : 6, 7.) 

In Solotnon's temple the altar was of 
larger dimensions (2 Chr. 4 : 1. Comp. 1 
Kings 8:22, 64; 9:25), and was made 
wholly of brass, covering a structure of 
stone or earth. This altar was renewed 
by Asa (2 Chr. 15 : 8). It was removed by 
Ahaz (2 Kings 16 : 14), and " cleansed" by 
Hezekiah, in the latter part of whose reign 
it was rebiiilt. It was finally broken up 
and carried away by the Babyloniai^ ( Jer. 
52 : 17). 

After the return from captivity it was 
re-erected (Ezra 3:3, 6) on the same place 
where it had formerly stood. (Comp. 1 Mace. 
4 : 47. ) When AntiochuS Epiphanes pil- 
laged Jerusalem the altar of burnt offering 
was taken away. 

Again the altar was erected by Herod, 
and remained in its place till the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem by the Romans (70 A.D.). 
The fire on the altar was not permitted 
to go out (Lev. 6 : 9). 

In the Mosque of Omar, immediately 
underneath the great dome, which occupies 
the site of the old temple, there is a rough 
projection of the natural rock, of about 60 
feet in its extreme length, and 50 in its 
greatest breadth, and in its highest part 
about 4 feet above the general pavement. 
This rock seems to have been left intact 
when Solomon's temple was built. It was 
in all probability the site of the altar of 
burnt offering. Underneath this rock is a 
cave, which may probably have been the 
granary of Araunah's threshing-floor (1 
Chr. 21 : 22). 

(2.) The altar of incense (Ex. 30:1-8), 
called also "the golden altar" (39:38; 
Num. 4 : 11), stood in the holy place " be- 
fore the vail that is by the ark of the testi- 
mony." On this altar sweet spices were 
continually burned with fire taken from 
the brazen altar. The morning and the 
evening services were commenced by the 
high priest offering incense on this altar. 
The burning of the incense was a type of 
prayer (Ps. 141 : 2 ; Rev. 5 : 8 ; 8 : 3, 4). 
This altar was a small movable table, 



ALTASCHITH 



35 



AMASAI 



made of acacia wood overlaid with gold 
(Ex. 37 : 25, 26). It was 1 cubit in length 
and breadth, and 2 cubits in height. 

In Solomon's temple the altar was simi- 
lar in size, but was made of cedar-wood (1 
Kings 6 : 20 ; 7 : 48) overlaid with gold. In 
Ezek. 41 : 22 it is called "the altar of wood. " 
(Comp. Ex. 30:1-6.) 

In the temple built after the Exile the 
altar was restored. Antiochus Epiphanes 
took it away, but it was afterwards re- 
stored by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. 1 : 23; 
4 : 49). Among the trophies carried away 
by Titus on the destruction of Jerusalem 
the altar of incense is not found, nor is any 
mention made of it in Heb. 9. It was at 
this altar Zacharias ministered when an 
angel appeared to him (Luke 1 : 11). It is 
the only altar which appears in the 
heavenly temple (Isa. 6:6; Rev. 8 : 3, 4). 

Altas^'chith — destroy not — the title of 
Ps. 57, 58, 59, and 75. It was probably 
the name of some song to the melody of 
which these psalms were to be chanted. 

Ablush, one of the places, the last before 
Rephidim, at which the Hebrews rested 
on their way to Sinai (Num. 33 : 13, 14). 
It was probably situated on the shore of 
the Red Sea. 

Am^alek — dtveller in a valley — the son of 
Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gen. 36:12; 
1 Chr. 1 : 36) ; the chief of an Idumean 
tribe (Gen. 36 : 16). His mother was a 
Horite, a tribe whose territory the de- 
scendants of Esau had seized. 

Am'alekite, a tribe that dwelt in 
Arabia Petrsea, between the Dead Sea 
and the Red Sea. They were not the 
descendants of Amalek, the son of Eliphaz, 
for they existed in the days of Abraham 
(Gen. 14 : 7). They were probably a tribe 
that migrated from the shores of the 
Persian Gulf and settled in Arabia. ' ' They 

dwelt in the land of the south from 

Havilah until thou comest to Shur " (Num. 
13:29; 1 Sam. 15:7). They were a 
pastoral, and hence a nomadic race. Their 
kings bore the hereditary name of Agag 
(Num. 24:7; 1 Sam. 15:8). They at- 
tempted to stop the Israelites when they 
marched through their territory (Deut. 
25 : 18), attacking them at Rephidim (Ex. 



17:8-13; comp. Deut. 25:17; 1 Sam. 
15 : 2). They afterwards attacked the Israel- 
ites at Hormah (Num. 14 : 45). We read 
of them subsequently as in league with the 
Moabites ( Judg. 3 : 13) and the Midianites 
( Judg. 6 : 3). Saul finally desolated their 
territory and destroyed their power (1 
Sam. 14 : 48 ; 15 : 3), so that they were no 
longer formidable enemies to Israel, al- 
though on one occasion they invaded the 
land ; but David pursued after them, and 
recovered all the booty they had carried 
away (1 Sam. 30 : 19, 20). 

Ama^na or Am^ana — perennial. (1. ) 
The Hebrew margin of 2 Kings 5 : 12 gives 
this as another reading of Abana [q.v.), a 
stream near Damascus. 

(2.) A mountain (Cant. 4:8), probably 
the southern summit of Anti-Libanus, at 
the base of which are the sources of the 
Abana. 

Ainari''ah — said hy Jehovah. (1.) One 
of the descendants of Aaron by Eleazar (1 
Chr. 6 : 7, 52). He was probably the last of 
the high priests of Eleazar 's line prior to 
the transfer of that ofiice to Eli, of the line 
of Ithamar. 

(2.) A Levite, son of Hebron, of the 
lineage of Moses (1 Chr. 23 : 19 ; 24 : 23). 

(3.) A " chief priest" who took an active 
part in the reformation under Jehosha- 
phat (2 Chr. 19 : 11) ; probably the same as 
mentioned in 1 Chr. 6 : 9. 

(4.) 1 Chr. 6 : 11 ; Ezra 7 : 3. (5.) One of 
the high priests in the time of Hezekiah 
(2 Chr. 31 : 15). (6.) Zeph. 1 : 1. (7.) Neh. 
11 : 4. (8. ) Neh. 10 : 3. (9. ) Ezra 10 : 42. 

Ama'sa — hurden. (1.) The son of Abi- 
gail, a sister of king David (1 Chr. 2 : 17 ; 
2 Sam. 17 : 25). He was appointed by 
David to command the army in room of 
his cousin Joab (2 Sam. 19 : 13), who after- 
wards treacherously put him to death as a 
dangerous rival (2 Sam. 20 : 4-12). 

(2.) A son of Hadlai, and chief of Eph- 
raim (2 Chr. 28 : 12) in the reign of Ahaz. 

Amasa^i — burdensome. (1.) A Levite, 
son of Elkanah, of the ancestry of Samuel 
(1 Chr. 6 : 25, 35). 

(2.) The leader of a body of men who 
joined David in the "stronghold," prob- 
ably of AduUam (1 Chr. 12 : 18). 



AMASHAI 



36 



AMEN 



(3. ) One of the priests appointed to pre- 
cede the ark with blowing of trumpets on 
its removal from the house of Obed-edom 
(1 Chr. 15 : 24). 

(4.) A Levite, one of the two Kohathites 
who took a prominent part at the instance 
of Hezekiah in the cleansing of the temple 
(2 Chr. 29 : 12). 

Amash''ai, the son of Azareel, appointed 
by Nehemiah to reside at Jerusalem and 
do the work of the temple (Neh. 11 : 13), 

Amasi'^ah — burden of {i.e., "sustained 
by ") Jehovah — the " son of Zichri, who 
willingly offered himself untb the Lord," a 
captain over thousands under Jehoshaphat 
(2 Chr. 17 : 16 ; comp. Judg. 5 : 29). 

Amazi'^ah — strengthened by Jehovah. (1. ) 
A Levite, son of Hilkiah, of the ancestry of 
Ethan the Merarite (1 Chr. 6 : 45). 

(2.) The son and successor of Joash, and 
eighth king of the separate kingdom of 
Judah (2 Kings 14 : 1-4). He began his reign 
by punishing the murderers of his father 
(5-7 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 3-5). He was the first to 
employ a mercenary army of 100,000 Israel- 
ite soldiers, which he did in his attempt 
to bring the Edomites again under the 
yoke of Judah (2 Chr. 25 : 5, 6). He was 
commanded by a prophet of the Lord to 
send back the mercenaries, which he did 
(2 Chr. 25 : 7-10, 13), much to their annoy- 
ance. His obedience to this command was 
followed by a decisive victory over the 
Edomites (2 Chr. 25 : 14-16). Amaziah be- 
gan to worship some of the idols he took 
from the Edomites, and this was his ruin, 
for he was vanquished by Joash, king of 
Israel, whom he challenged to battle. The 
disaster he thus brought upon Judah by 
his infatuation in proclaiming war against 
Israel probably occasioned the conspiracy 
by which he lost his life (2 Kings 14 : 8-14, 
19). He was slain at Lachish, whither he had 
fled, and his body was brought upon horses 
to Jerusalem, where it was buried in the 
royal sepulchre (2 Kings 14 : 19, 20 ; 2 Chr, 
25 : 27, 28). 

(3.) A priest of the golden calves at 
Bethel (Amos 7 : 10-17). 

(4.) The father of Joshah, one of the 
Simeonite chiefs in the time of Hezekiah 
(1 Chr. 4 : 34). 



Ambas'^sador. In the Old Testament 
the Hebrew word tsir, meaning " one who 
goes on an errand, " is rendered thus (Josh. 
9:4; Prov. 13 : 17 ; Isa. 18 : 2 ; Jer. 49 : 14 ; 
Obad. 1). This is also the rendering of 
melits, meaning " an interpreter," in 2 Chr. 
32:31; and of malak, a "messenger," in 
2 Chr. 35:21; Isa, 30:4; 33:7; Ezek. 
17 : 15. This is the name used by the 
apostle as designating those who are ap- 
pointed by God to declare his will (2 Cor. 
5 : 20 ; Eph. 6 : 20). 

The Hebrews on various occasions and 
for various purposes had recourse to the 
services of ambassadors — e.g., to contract 
alliances (Josh. 9 : 4), to solicit favours 
(Num. 20 : 14), to remonstrate when 
wrong was done (Judg. 11 : 12), to condole 
with a young king on the death of his 
father (2 Sam. 10 : 2), and to congratulate 
a king on his accession to the throne (1 
Kings 5 : 1). 

To do injury to an ambassador was to in- 
sult the king who sent him (2 Sam. 10 : 5). 

Am'toer (Ezek, 1:4, 27; 8:2. Heb., 
hashmal, rendered by the LXX. elektron, 
and by the Vulgate electrum), a metal com- 
pounded of silver and gold. Some trans- 
late the word by ' ' polished brass, " others 
" fine brass," as in Rev. 1 : 15 ; 2 : 18. It 
is not certain what the original word really 
means. The word has no connection, how- 
ever, with what is now called amber, which 
is a gummy substance, reckoned as belong- 
ing to the mineral kingdom though of 
vegetable origin — a fossil resin. 

Am^bush. Joshua at the capture of Ai 
lay in ambush, and so deceived the inhabi- 
tants that he gained an easy victory (Josh. 
8 : 4-26). Shechem was taken in this manner 
(Judg. 9 : 30-46. Comp. Jer. 51 : 12). 

Amen''. This Hebrew word means firm, 
and hence also faithful (Rev. 3 : 14). In 
Isa. 65:16, the Authorized Version has 
"the God of truth," which in Hebrew is 
" the God of Amen. " It is frequently used 
by our Saviour to give emphasis to his 
words, where it is translated "verily." 
Sometimes — only, however, in John's Gos- 
pel — it is repeated, "Verily, verily." It is 
used as an epithet of the Lord Jesus Christ 
(Rev. 3 : 14). 



AMETHYST 



37 



AMMONITE 



It is found singly and sometimes doubly 
at the end of prayers (Ps. 41 : 13 ; 72 : 19 ; 
89 : 52), to confirm the words and invoke 
the fulfilment of them. It is used in token 
of being bound by an oath (Num. 5:22; 
Deut. 27 : 15, 17 ; Neh. 5 : 13 ; 8 : Gj; 1 Chr. 
16 : 36). 

In the primitive churches it was common 
for the general audience to say "Amen" 
at the close of the prayer (1 Cor. 14 : 16). 

The promises of God are Amen; i.e., 
they are all true and sure (2 Cor. 1 ; 20). 

Am'ethyst, one of the precious stones 
in the breastplate of the high priest (Ex. 
28:19; 39:12), and in the foundation of 
the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21:20). The 
ancients thought that this stone had the 
power of dispelling drunkenness in all who 
wore or touched it, and hence its Greek name 
formed from a, "privative," and methuo, 
"to get drunk." Its Jewish name, ahla- 
mah', was derived by the rabbins from the 
Hebrew word halam, " to dream," from its 
supposed power of causing the wearer to 
dream. 

It is a pale -blue crystallized quartz, 
varying to a dark purple blue. It is found 
in Persia and India, also in different parts 
of Europe. 

Axnit^tai — true — the father of Jonah the 
prophet, a native of Gath-hepher (2 Kings 
14 : 25 ; Jonah 1 : 1). 

Am'^mali — a cubit — the name of a hill 
which Joab and Abishai reached as the sun 
went down, when they were in pursuit of 
Abner (2 Sam. 2 : 24). It lay to the east 
of Gibeon. 

Am^mi — my people — a name given by 
Jehovah to the people of Israel (Hos. 2 : 1, 
23. Comp. 1:9; Ezek. 16:8; Rom. 9: 
25, 26 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 10). 

A.ra.'va.ie\— people of God. (1.) One of the 
twelve spies sent by Moses to search the 
land of Canaan (Num. 13 : 12). • He was 
one of the ten who perished by the plague 
for their unfavourable report (Num. 14 : 37). 

(2.) The father of Machir of Lo-debar, 
in whose house Mephibosheth resided (2 
Sam. 9 : 4, 5 ; 17 : 27). 

(3.) The father of Bathsheba, the wife 
of Uriah, and afterwards of David (1 Chr. 
3 : 5). He is called Eliam in 2 Sam. 11 : 3. 



(4.) One of the sons of Obed-edom the 
Levite (1 Chr. 26 : 5). 

Ammi^hnd — people of glory ; i.e., "re- 
nowned. " (1. ) The father of the Ephraimite 
chief Elishama, at the time of the Exodus 
(Num. 1 : 10 ; 2 : 18 ; 7 : 48, 53). 

(2.) Num. 34 : 20. (3.) Num. 34 : 28. 

(4.) The father of Talmai, king of 
Geshur, to whom Absalom fled after the 
murder of Amnon (2 Sam. 13 : 37). 

(5.) The son of Omri, and the father of 
Uthai(lChr. 9:4). 

Ammin^adab — kindred of the prince. 
(1.) The father of Nahshon, who was chief 
of the tribe of Judah (Num. 1:7; 2:3; 
7 : 12, 17 ; 10 : 14). His daughter Elisheba 
was married to Aaron (Ex. 6 : 23). 

(2.) A son of Kohath, the second son of 
Levi (1 Chr. 6:22), called also Izhar (2, 18). 

(3.) Chief of the 112 descendants of 
Uzziel the Levite (1 Chr. 15 : 10, 11). 

Ammin'^adib, a person mentioned in 
Cant. 6 : 12, whose chariots were famed 
for their swiftness. It is rendered in the 
margin "my willing people," and in the 
Revised Version " my princely people," 

Ammishad^dai— 23eopZe of the Almighty 
— the father of Ahiezer, who was chief of 
the Danites at the time of the Exodus 
(Num. 1:12; 2:25). This is one of the 
few names compounded with the name of 
God — Shaddai, "Almighty." 

Axnmiz^a'bad — people of the giver — the 
son of Benaiah, who was the third and 
chief captain of the host under David (1 
Chr. 27 : 6). 

Azn'^mon, another form of the name 
Ben-ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. 19 : 38). 
This name is also used for his posterity 
(Ps. 83 : 7). 

Am'^nioiiite, the usual name of the de- 
scendants of Ammon, the son of Lot (Gen. 
19 : 38). Erom the very beginning (Deut. 
2 : 16-20) of their history till they are lost 
sight of (Judg. 5 : 2), this tribe is closely as- 
sociated with the Moabites (Judg. 10 : 11 ; 
2 Chr. 20:1; Zeph. 2:8). Both of these 
tribes hired Balaam to curse Israel (Deut. 
23 : 4). The Ammonites were probably 
more of a predatory tribe, moving from 
place to place; while the Moabites were 
more settled. Their precise territory 



AMNON 



38 



AMORITES 



cannot be definitely ascertained. Origin- 
ally they occupied a tract of country east 
of the Amorites, and separated by the 
river Arnon from the Moabites, and by the 
river Jabbok from Gilead or Bashan (Deut. 
3 : 16 ; Josh. 12 : 2), which originally be- 
longed to a gigantic race called Zamzum- 
mims (Deut. 2 : 19, 20). They showed no 
kindness to the Israelites when passing- 
through their territory, and therefore they 
were prohibited from "entering the con- 
gregation of the Lord to the tenth genera- 
tion " (Deut. 23 : 3). They afterwards be- 
came hostile to Israel (Judg. 3:13). Jeph- 
thah waged war against them, and "took 
twenty cities with a very great slaughter " 
(Judg. 11 : 33). They were again signally 
defeated by Saul (1 Sam. 11 : 11). David 
also defeated them and their allies the 
Syrians (2 Sam. 10 : 6-14), and took their 
chief city, Rabbah, with much spoil (2 Sam. 
10 : 14 ; 12 : 26-31). The subsequent events 
of their history are noted in 2 Chr. 20 : 25 ; 
26 : 8 ; Jer. 49 : 1 ; Ezek. 25 : 3, 6. One of 
Solomon's wives was Naamah, an Am- 
monite. She was the mother of Rehoboam 
(1 Kings 14 : 31 ; 2 Chr. 12 : 13). 

The prophets predicted fearful judg- 
ments against the Ammonites because of 
their hostility to Israel (Zeph. 2:8; Jer. 
49 : 1-6 ; Ezek. 25 : 1-5, 10 ; Amos 1 : 13-15). 

The national idol worshipped by this 
people was Molech or Milcom, at whose 
altar they offered human sacrifices (1 Kings 
11 : 5, 7). The high places built for this idol 
by Solomon, at the instigation of his Am- 
monitish wives, were not destroyed till the 
time of Josiah (2 Kings 23 : 13). 

Ain^non — faithful. (1. ) One of the sons 
of Shemmai, of the children of Ezra (1 
Chr. 4 : 20 ; comp. 17). 

(2.) The eldest son of David, by Ahi- 
noam of Jezreel (1 Chr. 3 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 2). 
Absalom caused him to be put to death 
for his great crime in the matter of Tamar 
(2 Sam. 13 : 28, 29). 

A'^mon — builder. (1.) The governor of 
Samaria in the time of Ahab. The pro- 
phet Micaiah was committed to his custody 
(1 Kings 22 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 18 : 25). 

(2.) The son of Manasseh, and four- 
teenth king of Judah. He restored idolatry, 



and set up the images which his father had 
cast down. Zephaniah (1:4; 3:4, 11) 
refers to the moral depravity prevailing in 
this king's reign. 

He was assassinated (2 Kings 21 : 18-26 ; 
2 Chr. 33 : 20-25) by his own servants, who 
conspired against him. 

(3.) An Egyptian god, usually depicted 
with a human body and the head of a 
ram, referred to in Jer. 46 : 25, where the 
word "multitudes" in the Authorized 
Version is more appropriately rendered 
"Amon" in the Revised Version. In 
Nah. 3:8 the expression "populous No" 
of the Authorized Version is rendered in 
the Revised Version "No-amon," where 
undoubtedly the reference is to the same 
idol, the Egyptian Jupiter. 

(4.) Neh. 7:59. 

Am^orites — highlanders, or hillmen — the 
name given to the descendants of one of 
the sons of Canaan (Gen. 14 : 7). They are 
mentioned as one of the nations whose 
country would be given to the posterity of 
Abraham (Gen. 15 : 21). The three con- 
federates who took part with the patriarch 
were of this tribe (Gen. 14 : 13, 24). The 
southern slopes of the mountains of Judea 
are called the "mount of the Amorites" 
(Deut. 1 : 7, 19, 20). They seem to have 
originally occupied the land stretching 
from the height west of the Dead Sea (Gen. 
14 : 7) to Hebron (13. Comp. 13 : 8 ; Deut. 
3:8; 4 : 48), embracing "all Gilead and all 
Bashan " (Deut. 3 : 10), with the Jordan 
valley on the east of the river (4 : 49), the 
land of the "two kings of the Amorites," 
Sihon and Og (Deut. 31 : 4 ; Josh. 2 : 10 ; 
9 : 10). The five kings of the Amorites 
were defeated with great slaughter by 
Joshua (10 : 10). They were again defeated 
at the waters of Merom by Joshua, who 
smote them till there were none remaining 
(Josh, ly : 8). It is mentioned as a sur- 
prising circumstance that in the days of 
Samuel there was peace between them and 
the Israelites (1 Sam. 7 : 14). The'discrep- 
ancy supposed to exist between Deut. 1 : 44 
and Num. 14 : 45 is explained by the cir- 
cumstance that the terms "Amorites "and 
" Amalekites" are used synonymously for 
the " Canaanites. " In the same way we 



AMOS 



39 



AKAB 



explain the fact that the "Hivites" of 
Gen. 34 : 2 are the " Amorites " of 48 : 22. 
Comp. Josh. 10:6; 11:19 with 2 Sam. 
21 : 2 ; also Num. 14 : 45 with Deut. 1 : 44. 
It would appear that this was not the name 
of a distinct tribe, but rather the name 
denoting the inhabitants of a wide area 
in which separate and independent kings 
ruled, as Sihon and Og. The Amorites 
were warlike mountaineers. They are sup- 
posed to have been men of great stature ; 
their king, Og, is described by Moses as the 
last " of the remnant of the giants " (Deut. 
3 : 21). Only one word of the Amorite 
language survives — "Shenir," the name 
they gave to Mount Hermon (Deut. 3 : 9). 

A^'mos — borne; a burden — one of the 
twelve minor prophets. He was a native 
of Tekoa, the modern Tekua, a to^vn about 
6 miles south-east of Bethlehem. He was 
a man of humble birth, neither a " prophet 
nor the disciple of a prophet," but a com- 
mon shepherd and a fig-cultivator. He 
prophesied in the days of Uzziah, king of 
Judah, and was contemporary with Isaiah 
and Hosea (Amos 1:1; 7 : 14, 15 ; Zech. 
14 : 5), who survived him a few years. 
Under Jeroboam II. the kingdom of Israel 
rose to the zenith of its prosperity ; but 
that was followed by the prevalence of 
luxury and vice and idolatry. At this 
period Amos was called' from his obscurity 
to remind the people of the law of God's 
retributive justice, and to call them to 
repentance. 

The Book of Amos consists of three 
parts : — 

(1. ) The nations around are summoned to 
judgment because of their sins (1 : 1-2 : 3). 
He quotes Joel 3 : 16. 

(2. ) The spiritual condition of Judah, and 
especially of Israel, is described (2 : 4-6 : 14). 

(3. ) In 7 : 1-9 : 10 are recorded five pro- 
phetic visions. 

(a) The first two (7 : 1-6) refer to judg- 
ments against the guilty people. 

(6) The next two (7:7-9; 8 : 1-3) point 
out the ripeness of the people for the 
threatened judgments. 7 : 10-17 consists 
of a conversation between the prophet and 
the priest of Bethel. 

(c) The fifth describes the overthrow 



and ruin of Israel (9 : 1-10) ; to which is 
added the promise of the restoration of 
the kingdom and its final glory in the 
Messiah's kingdom. 

The style is peculiar in the number of 
the allusions made to natural objects and 
to agricultural occupations. Other allu- 
sions show also that Amos was a student 
of the law as well as a "child of nature." 
These phrases are peculiar to him : ' ' Clean- 
ness of teeth " [i.e., want of bread] (4:6); 
"The excellency of Jacob" (6:8; 8:7); 
"The high places of Isaac" (7:9); "The 
house of Isaac "(7: 16) ; "He that createth 
the Avind " (4 : 13). 

A^moz — strong — the father of the prophet 
Isaiah (2 Kings 19 : 2, 20 ; 20 : 1 ; Isa. 1:1; 
2:1). As to his personal history little is 
positively known. He is supposed by some 
to have been the " man of God " spoken of 
in 2 Chr. 25 : 7, 8. 

Amphip^olis — city on both sides — a 
Macedonian city, a great Roman military 
station, through which Paul and Silas 
passed on their way from Philippi to 
Thessalonica, a distance of 33 Roman miles 
from Philippi (Acts 17:1). It stood 3 
miles from the sea, on the left bank of the 
navigable river Strymon, by which it was 
almost surrounded. It has long been in 
ruins. A village called Neophorio now 
occupies j)art of its site. 

Am'^plias, a Roman Christian saluted 
by Paul (Rom. 16 : 8). 

Am^ram ' — kindred of the High; i.e., 
"friend of Jehovah," (1.) The son of Ko- 
hath, the son of Levi, He married Joche- 
bed, "his father's sister," and was the 
father of Aaron, Miriam, and Moses (Ex, 
6 : 18 ; Num. 3 : 19). He died in Egypt at 
the age of 137 years (Ex. 6 : 20). His de- 
scendants were called Amramites (Num. 
3 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 26 : 23). 

(2.) Ezra 10: 34. 

Am^raphel — probably meaning keeper of 
the gods — king of Shinar, southern Chaldea, 
one of the confederates of Chedorlaomer, 
king of Elam, in a war against Sodom and 
the other cities of the plain (Gen. 14 : 1, 4). 

A^nab — grape-toion — one of the cities in 
the mountains of Judah, from which 
Joshua expelled the Anakim (Josh. 11 : 21 ; 



ANAH 



40 



ANANIAS 



15 : 50). It still retains its ancient name. 
It lies among the hills, 10 miles south- 
south-west of Hebron. 

A'nah — speech. (1.) One of the sons of 
Seir, and head of an Idumean tribe, called 
a Horite, as in course of time all the 
branches of this tribe were called from 
their dwelling in caves in Mount Seir 
(Gen. 36 : 20, 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 38). 

(2.) One of the two sons of Zibeon the 
Horite, and father of Esau's wife Aholi- 
bamah (Gen. 36 : 18, 24). 

A^nak — long -necked — the son of ' Arba, 
father of the Anakim (Josh. 15 : 13 ; 21 : 11, 
Heb. Anok). 

Anakim'', the descendants of Anak 
(Josh. 11:21; Num. 13:33; Deut. 9:2). 
They dwelt in the south of Palestine, in the 
neighbourhood of Hebron (Gen. 23 : 2 ; 
Josh. 15 : 13). In the days of Abraham 
(Gen. 14 : 5, 6) they inhabited the region 
afterwards known as Edom and Moab, 
east of the Jordan. They were probably 
a remnant of the original inhabitants of 
Palestine before the Canaanites, a Cushite 
tribe from Babel, and of the same race as 
the Phoenicians and the Egyptian shep- 
herd kings. Their formidable warlike ap- 
pearance, as described by the spies sent to 
search the land, filled the Israelites with 
terror. They seem to have identified 
them with the Nephilim, the "giants" 
(Gen. 6:4; Num. 13:33) of the ante- 
diluvian age. There were various tribes 
of Anakim (Josh. 15 : 14). Joshua finally 
expelled them from the land, except a 
remnant that found a refuge in the cities 
of Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (Josh. 11 : 22). 
The Philistine giants whom David en- 
countered (2 Sam. 21 : 15-22) were descend- 
ants of the Anakim. (See Giants.) 

A^namim, the name of an Egyptian 
tribe descended from Mizraim (Gen. 10 : 
13; IChr. 1:11). 

Anani^ine''lech, one of the gods wor- 
shipped by the people of Sepharvaim, who 
colonized Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 31). The 
name means *' statue of the king." It was 
a female deity representing the moon, as 
Adrammelech [q.v.) was the male repre- 
senting the sun. 

A''nan — cloud — one of the Israelites who 



sealed the covenant after the return from 
Babylon (Neh. 10 : 26). 

Anani'^ah — protected hy. Jehovah — the 
name of a town in the tribe of Benjamin 
between Nob and Hazor (Neh. 11 : 32). It 
is probably the modern Beit Hanina, a 
small village 3 miles north of Jerusalem. 

Anani'^as, a common Jewish name, the 
same as Hananiah. (1.) One of the mem- 
bers of the church at Jerusalem, who con- 
spired with his wife Sapphira to deceive 
the brethren, and who fell down and im- 
mediately expired after he had uttered the 
falsehood (Acts 5 : 5). By common agree- 
ment the members of the early Christian 
community devoted their property to the 
work of furthering the gospel and of assist- 
ing the poor and needy. The proceeds of 
the possessions they sold were placed at 
the disposal of the apostles (Acts 4 : 36, 37). 
Ananias might have kept his property had 
he so chosen ; but he professed agreement 
with the brethren in the common purpose, 
and had of his own accord devoted it all, 
as he said, to these sacred ends. Yet he 
retained a part of it for his own ends, and 
thus lied in declaring that he had given it 
all. "The offence of Ananias and Sap- 
phira showed contempt of God, vanity and 
ambition in the offenders, and utter disre- 
gard of the corruption which they were 
bringing into the society. Such sin, com- 
mitted in despite of the light which they 
possessed, called for a special mark of 
divine indignation." 

(2.) A Christian at Damascus (Acts 9: 
10). He became Paul's instructor; but 
when or by what means he himself became 
a Christian we have no information. He 
was "a devout man according to the law, 
having a good report of all the Jews which 
dwelt " at Damascus (22 : 12). 

(3.) The high priest before whom Paul 
was brought in the procuratorship of Felix 
(Acts 23 : 2, 5, 24). He was so enraged at 
Paul's noble declaration, " I have lived in 
all good conscience before God until this 
day," that he commanded one of his at- 
tendants to smite him on the mouth. 
Smarting under this unprovoked insult, 
Paul quickly replied, " God shall smite 
thee, thou whited wall." Being reminded 



ANATH 



41 



ANCHOR, 



that Ananias was the high priest, to whose 
office all respect was to be paid, he answered, 
" I wist not, brethren, that he was the 
high priest" (Acts 23:5). This expres- 
sion has occasioned some difficulty, as it is 
scarcely probable that Paul should have 
been ignorant of so public a fact. The 
expression may mean (a) that Paul had at 
the moment overlooked the honour due to 
the high priest; or (&), as others think, 
that Paul spoke ironically, as if he had 
said, " The high priest breaking the law ! 
God's high priest a tyrant and a law- 
breaker ! I see a man in white robes, and 
have heard his voice ; but surely it cannot, 
it ought not to be, the voice of the high 
priest." (See Dr. Lindsay on Acts, in loco.) 
(c) Others think that from defect of sight 
Paul could not observe that the speaker 
was the high priest. In all this, however, 
it may be explained, Paul, with all his 
excellency, comes short of the example of 
his divine Master, who, when he was re- 
viled, reviled not again. 

A^nath — an answer; i.e., to "prayer" — 
the father of Shamgar, who was one of the 
judges of Israel (Judg. 3 : 31). 

Anath^ema, anything laid up or sus- 
pended ; hence anything laid up in a tem- 
ple or set apart as sacred. In this sense 
the form of the word is anathema, once in 
plural used in the Greek New Testament, 
in Luke 21 : 5, where it is rendered " gifts." 
In the LXX. the form anathema is gener- 
ally used as the rendering of the Hebrew 
word herem, derived from a verb which 
means (1) to consecrate or devote; and (2) to 
exterminate. Any object so devoted to the 
Lord could not be redeemed (Num. 18 : 14 ; 
Lev. 27 : 28, 29) ; and hence the idea of ex- 
terminating connected with the word. The 
Hebrew verb {haram) is freqiiently used of 
the extermination of idolatrous nations. It 
had a wide range of application. The an- 
athema or herem was a person or thing 
irrevocably devoted to God (Lev. 27:21, 
28) ; and " none devoted shall be ran- 
somed. He shall surely be put to death " 
(27 : 29). The word therefore carried the 
idea of devoted to destruction (Num. 21 : 
2, 3 ; Josh. 6 : 17) ; and hence generally it 
meant a thing accursed. In Deut. 7 : 26 



an idol is called a herem = anathema, a 
thing accursed. 

In the New Testament this word always 
implies execration. In some cases an in- 
dividual denounces an anathema on him- 
self unless certain conditions are fulfilled 
(Acts 23 : 12, 14, 21). " To call Jesus ac- 
cursed " [anathema] (1 Cor. 12 : 3) is to 
pronounce him execrated or accursed. If 
any one preached another gospel, the 
apostle says, "let him be accursed" (Gal. 
1:8, 9); i.e., let his conduct in so doing 
be accounted accursed. 

In Rom. 9 : 3, the expression " accursed " 
(anathema) from Christ — i.e., excluded 
from fellowship or alliance with Christ — 
has occasioned much difficulty. The 
apostle here does not speak of his wish 
as a possible thing. It is simply a vehe- 
ment expression of feeling, showing how 
strong was his desire for the salvation of 
his people. 

The anathema in 1 Cor. 16:22 denotes 
simply that they who love not the Lord 
are rightly objects of loathing and execra- 
tion to all holy beings ; they are guilty of a 
crime that merits the severest condemna- 
tion ; they are exposed to the just sentence 
of " everlasting destruction from the i3res- 
ence of the Lord." 

An^athoth — answers; i.e., "to prayer" 
— the name of one of the cities of refuge, 
in the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. 21 : 18). 
This was the native place of Abiezer, one 
of David's "thirty" (2 Sam. 23:27), and 
of Jehu, another of his mighty men (1 Chr. 
12 : 3). It is chiefly notable, however, as 
the birth-place and usual residence of 
Jeremiah (Jer. 1:1; 11:21-23; 29:27; 
32 : 7-9). It suffered greatly from the army 
of Sennacherib, and only 128 men returned 
to it from the Exile (Neh. 7 : 27 ; Ezra 2 : 
23). It lay about 3 miles north of Jeru- 
salem. It seems to have been a place of 
strength, having been surrounded by a 
wall, portions of which still remain. It 
has been identified with the small and poor 
village of ^Andta, containing about 100 
inhabitants. 

Anch'or. From Acts 27 : 29, 30, 40, it 
would appear that the Roman vessels 
carried several anchors, which were at- 



ANCIENT 



42 



ANGEL 



tached to the stern as well as to the prow. 
The Roman anchor, like the modern one, 
had two teeth or flukes. In Heb. 6:19 
the word is used metaphorically for that 
which supports or keeps one steadfast in the 
time of trial or of doubt. It is an emblem 
of hope. 

" If you fear, 
Put all your trust in God: that anchor holds." 

An^cient of Days, an expression ap- 
plied to Jehovah three times in the vision of 
Daniel (7 : 9, 13, 22) in the sense of eternal. 
In contrast with all earthly kings, his days 
are past reckoning. 

An^drew — strong man — a Greek name ; 
one of the apostles of our Lord. He was 
of Bethsaida in Galilee (John 1 : 45), and 
was the brother of Simon Peter (Matt. 4 : 
18 ; 10 : 2). On one occasion John the 
Baptist, whose disciple he then was, point- 
ing to Jesus, said, "Behold the Lamb of 
God " (John 1 : 29) ; and Andrew, hearing 
him, immediately became a follower of 
Jesus, the first of his disciples. After he 
had been led to recognize Jesus as the 
Messiah, his first care was to bring also 
his brother Simon to Jesus. The two 
brothers seem to have after this pursued 
for a while their usual calling as fishermen, 
and did not become the stated attendants 
of the Lord till after John's imprisonment 
(Matt. 4 : 18, 19 ; Mark 1 : 16, 17). Very 
little is related of Andrew. He was one of 
the confidential disciples (John 6 : 8 ; 12 : 22), 
and with Peter, James, and John inquired 
of our Lord privately regarding his future 
coming (Mark 13 : 3). He was present at 
the feeding of the five thousand (John 6 : 9), 
and he introduced the Greeks who desired 
to see Jesus (John 12 : 22) ; but of his sub- 
sequent history little is known. It is note- 
worthy that Andrew thrice brings others 
to Christ— (1) Peter ; (2) the lad with the 
loaves ; and (3) certain Greeks. These in- 
cidents may be regarded as a key to his 
character. 

Androni''c'iis — man-conquering — a Jew- 
ish Christian, the kinsman and fellow- 
prisoner of Paul (R,om. 16:7); "of note 
among the apostles." 

A^nem — Uvo fountains — a Levitical city 



in the tribe of Issachar (1 Chr. 6 : 73). It 
is also called En-gannim (q.v.) in Josh, 
19 : 21 ; the modern Jentn. 

A''ner — a hoy. (1.) A Canaanitish chief 
who joined his forces with those of Abra- 
ham in pursuit of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 
13, 24). 

(2.) A city of Manasseh given to the 
Levites of Kohath's family (1 Chr. 6 : 70). 

An''gel, a word signifying, both in the 
Hebrew and Greek, a "messenger," and 
hence employed to denote any agent God 
sends forth to execute his purposes. It is 
used of an ordinary messenger (Job 1 : 14 ; 

1 Sam. 11 : 3 ; Luke 7 : 24 ; 9 : 52), of pro- 
phets (Isa. 42 : 19 ; Hag. 1 : 13), of priests 
(Mai. 2:7), and ministers of the New 
Testament (Rev. 1 : 20). 

It is also applied to such impersonal 
agents as the pestilence (2 Sam, 24 : 16, 17 ; 

2 Kings 19 : 35), the wind (Ps. 104 : 4). 
But its distinctive application is to cer- 
tain heavenly intelligences whom God em- 
ploys in carrying on his government of the 
world. The name does not denote their 
nature but their office as messengers. The 
appearances to Abraham at Mamre (Gen. 
18:2, 22. Comp. 19:1), to Jacob at 
Peniel (Gen. 32 : 24, 30), to Joshua at Gil- 
gal (Josh. 5 : 13, 15), of the Angel of the 
Lord, were doubtless manifestations of the 
Divine presence, " foreshado wings of the 
incarnation," revelations before the "ful- 
ness of the time " of the Son of God. 

(1.) The existence and orders of angelic 
beings can only be discovered from the 
Scriptures. Although the Bible does not 
treat of this subject specially, yet there 
are numerous incidental details that fur- 
nish us with ample information. Their 
personal existence is plainly implied in 
such passages as Gen. 16 : 7, 10, 11 ; John 
13 : 1-21 ; Matt. 28 : 2-5 ; Heb. 1 : 4, etc. 

These superior beings are very numerous. 
"Thousand thousands," etc. (Dan. 7:10; 
Matt. 26:53; Luke 2:13; Heb. 12:22, 
23). They are also spoken of as of differ- 
ent ranks in dignity and power (Zech, 1 : 9, 
11; Dan, 10:13; 12:1; 1 Thess, 4:16; 
J\xde 9 : Eph. 1 : 21 ; Col, 1 : 16). 

(2.) As to their nature, they are spirits 
(Heb. 1 : 14), like the soul of man, but not 



ANGEL 



43 



ANIMAL 



incorporeal. Such expressions as "like 
the angels " (Luke 20 : 36), and the fact 
that whenever angels appeared to man it 
was always in a human form (Gen. 18 : 2 ; 
19 : 1, 10 ; Luke 24 : 4 ; Acts 1 : 10), and the 
titles that are applied to them ("sons of 
God," Job 1 : 6 ; 38 : 7 ; Dan. 3 : 25 ; comp. 
28) and to men (Luke 3 : 38), seem all to in- 
dicate some resemblance between them and 
the human race. Imperfection is ascribed 
to them as creatures (Job 4 : 18 ; Matt. 
24 : 36 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 12). As finite creatures 
they may fall under temptation ; and ac- 
cordingly we read of "fallen angels." Of 
the cause and manner of their "fall" we 
are wholly ignorant. We know only that 
" they left their first estate " (Matt. 25 : 41 ; 
Rev. 12 : 7, 9), and that they are " reserved 
unto judgment " (2 Pet. 2:4). When the 
manna is called "angels' food," this is 
merely to denote its excellence (Ps. 78 : 25). 
Angels never die (Luke 20 : 36). They are 
possessed of superhuman intelligence and 
power (Mark 13:32; 2 Thess. 1:7; Ps. 
103:20). They are called "holy" (Luke 
9:26), "elect" (1 Tim. 5:21). There- 
deemed in glory are " like unto the angels " 
(Luke 20 : 36). They are not to be wor- 
shipped (Col. 2 : 18 ; He v. 19 : 10). 

(3. ) Their functions are manifold, (a) In 
the widest sense they are agents of God's 
providence (Ex. 12:23; Ps. 104:4; Heb. 
11 : 28 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 10 ; 2 Sam. 24 : 16 ; 1 Chr. 
21 : 16 ; 2 Kings 19 : 35 ; Acts 12 : 23). (6) 
They are specially God's agents in carrying 
on his great work of redemption. There 
is no notice of angelic appearances to man 
till after the call of Abraham. From that 
time onward there are frequent references 
to their ministry on earth (Gen. 18 ; 19 ; 
24:7, 40; 28:12; 32:1). They appear 
to rebuke idolatry ( Judg. 2 : 1-4), to call 
Gideon (Judg. 6 : 11, 12), and to consecrate 
Samson (13 : 3). In the days of the pro- 
phets, from Samuel do'vvnward, the angels 
appear only in their behalf (1 Kings 19 : 
5 ; 2 Kings 6 : 17 ; Zech. 1-6 ; Dan. 4 : 13, 
23 ; 10 : 10, 13, 20, 21). 

The Incarnation introduces a new era in 
the ministrations of angels. They come 
with their Lord to earth to do him service 
while here. They predict his advent (Matt . 



1 : 20 ; Luke 1 : 26-38), minister to him after 
his temptation and agony (Matt. 4 : 11 ; 
Luke 22 : 43), and declare his resurrection 
and ascension (Matt. 28 : 2-8 ; John 20 : 12, 
13 ; Acts 1 : 10, 11). They are now min- 
istering spirits to the people of God (Heb. 
1:14; Ps. 34:7; 91:11; Matt. 18:10; Acts 
5:19; 8:26; 10:3; 12:7; 27:23). They re- 
joice over a penitent sinner (Luke 15 : 10). 
They bear the souls of the redeemed to 
paradise (Luke 16 : 22) ; and they will be 
the ministers of judgment hereafter on the 
great day (Matt. 13:39, 41, 49; 16:27; 
24:31). The passages (Ps. 34:7, Matt. 
18 : 10) usually referred to in support of 
the idea that every individual has a par- 
ticular guardian angel have no such mean- 
ing. They merely indicate that God em- 
ploys the ministry of angels to deliver his 
people from affliction and danger, and that 
the angels do not think it below their dig- 
nity to minister even to children and to 
the least among Christ's disciples. 

The "angel of his presence " (Isa, 63 : 9. 
Comp. Ex. 23 : 20, 21 ; 32 : 34 ; 33 : 2 ; Niim. 
20 : 16) is probably rightly interpreted of 
the Messiah as the guide of his people. 
Others have supposed the expression to 
refer to Gabriel (Luke 1 : 19). 

An'ger, the emotion of instant displea- 
sure on account of something evil that 
presents itself to our view. In itself it is 
an original susceptibility of our nature, 
just as love is, and is not necessarily sinful. 
It may, however, become sinful when 
causeless, or excessive, or protracted (Matt. 
5 : 22 ; Eph. 4 : 26 ; Col. 3 : 8). As ascribed 
to God, it merely denotes his displeasure 
with sin and with sinners (Ps. 7 : 11). 

A'^nim — fountains — a city in the moun- 
tains of Judah (Josh. 15:50), now el- 
Gkmvein, near Eshtemoh, about 10 miles 
south-west of Hebron. 

Animal, an organized living creature 
endowed with sensation. The Levitical 
law divided animals into clean and un- 
clean, although the distinction seems to 
have existed before the Flood (Gen. 7 : 2). 
The clean could be offered in sacrifice and 
eaten. All animals that had not cloven 
hoofs and did not chew the cud were un- 
clean. The list of clean and unclean 



ANISE 



44 



ANOINT 



quadrupeds is set forth in the Levitical 
law (Deut. 14 : 3-20 ; Lev. 11). 

An^ise. This word is found only in Matt. 
23 : 23. It is the plant commonly known by 
the name of dill, the Peucedanum graveo- 
lens of the botanist. This name dill is 
derived from a Norse word which means 
to soothe, the plant having the carmina- 
tive property of allaying pain. The com- 
mon dill, the Anethum graveolens, is an 
annual growing wild in the cornfields of 
Spain and Portugal and the south of Eu- 
rope generally. There is also a species of 
dill cultivated in Eastern countries known 
by the name of shubit. It was this species 
of garden plant of which the Pharisees 

4°^ 




DILL (peucedanum GKAVEOLENS). 

were in the habit of paying tithes. It is 
an umbelliferous plant, very like the car- 
away — its leaves, which are aromatic, being 
used in soups and pickles. The proper 
anise is the Pimpinella anisum, the seeds 
of which are used in the manufacture of 
cordials. 

An'na — grace — an aged widow, the daugh- 
ter of Phanuel. She was a "prophetess," 
like Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah (2 
Chr. 34 : 22). After seven years of mar- 
ried life her husband died, and during her 
long widowhood she daily attended the 
temple services. When she was eighty- 
four years old, she entered the temple at 
the moment when the aged Simeon uttered 
his memorable words of praise and thanks 
to God that he had fulfilled his ancient 



promise in sending his Son into the world 
(Luke 2 : 36, 37). 

Ananas was high priest a.d. 7-14. In 
A.D. 25 Caiaphas, who had married the 
daughter of Annas (John 18 : 13), was 
raised to that office, and probably Annas 
was now made president of the Sanhedrim, 
or deputy or coadjutor of the high priest, 
and thus was also called high priest along 
with Caiaphas (Luke 3 : 2). By the Mosaic 
law the high-priesthood was held for life 
(Num. 3 : 10) ; and although Annas had 
been deposed by the Roman procurator, 
the Jews may still have regarded him as 
legally the high priest. Our Lord was 
first brought before Annas, and after a 
brief questioning of him (John 18 : 19-23) 
was sent to Caiaphas, when some members 
of the Sanhedrim had met, and the first 
trial of Jesus took place (Matt. 26 : 57-68). 
This examination of our Lord before Annas 
is recorded only by John. Annas was 
president of the Sanhedrim before which 
Peter and John were brought (Acts 4 : 6). 

Anoint^. The practice of anointing with 
perfumed oil was common among the 
Hebrews. (1.) The act of anointing was 
significant of consecration to a holy or 
sacred use; hence the anointing of the 
high priest (Ex. 29 : 29 ; Lev. 4 : 3) and of 
the sacred vessels (Ex. 30 : 26). The high 
priest and the king are thus called "the 
anointed" (Lev. 4:3; 5:16; 6:15; Ps. 
132 : 10). Anointing a king was equivalent 
to crowning him (1 Sam. 16:13; 2 Sam. 
2:35, etc.). Prophets were also anointed 
(1 Kings 19:16; 1 Chr. 16:22; Ps. 105: 
15). The expression, "anoint the shield" 
(Isa. 21 : 5), refers to the custom of rub- 
bing oil on the leather of the shield so 
as to make it supple and fit for use in 
war. 

(2.) Anointing was also an act of hos- 
pitality (Luke 7 : 38, 46). It was the cus- 
tom of the Jews in like manner to anoint 
themselves with oil, as a means of refresh- 
ing or invigorating their bodies (Deut. 28 : 
40; Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 104:15, 
etc. ). This custom is continued among the 
Arabians to the present day. 

(3.) Oil was used also for medicinal pur- 
poses. It was applied to the sick, and also 



ANT 



45 



ANTIOCH 



to wounds (Ps. 109:18; Isa. 1:6; Mark 
6:13; James 5:14). 

(4. ) The bodies of the dead were some- 
times anointed (Mark 14 : 8 ; Luke 23 : 56). 

(5.) The promised Deliverer is twice 
called the "Anointed" or Messiah (Ps. 2: 
2 ; Dan. 9 : 25, 26), because he was anointed 
with the Holy Ghost (Isa. 61 : 1), figuratively 
styled the "oil of gladness" (Ps. 45:7; 
Heb. 1 : 9). Jesus of Nazareth is this 
anointed One (John 1 : 41 ; Acts 9 : 22 ; 17 : 
2, 3; 18:5, 28), the Messiah of the Old 
Testament. 

Believers are also said to be anointed (2 
Cor. 1 : 21). They have received an " unc- 
tion from the Holy One" (1 John 2:20, 
27) ; and their eyes are anointed with eye- 
salve (Rev, 3:18). "The holy anointing 
oil" was prescribed by divine authority 
(Ex. 30 : 23-25), and was typical of the 
communication of the Holy Ghost to the 
church (Acts 1:5; 10 : 38). The common 
use of this "holy ointment " was forbidden 
(Ex. 30:33; Ezek. 16:18). 

Ant (Heb. nemdldh, from a word mean- 
ing to creep, cut off, destroy), referred to in 
Prov. 6:6; 30 : 25, as distinguished for 
its prudent habits. It is "exceeding 
wise." The particular species thus spoken 
of has not been identified. It was evi- 
dently one or other of the species of "har- 
vesting ants." " Two of the most common 
species of the Holy Land {Atta harhara, 
the black ant, and Atta structor, a brown 
ant) are strictly seed-feeders, and in sum- 
mer lay up large stores of grain for winter 
use. These species are spread along the 
whole Mediterranean coast, but are un- 
known in more northern climates. " ' ' Mod- 
ern research has proved the wisdom and 
instinct of these little creatures to be far 
in advance of that of any other known 
insect, not even excepting the bee." 

An^'tichrist — against Christ, or an oppo- 
sition Christ, a rival Christ. This word is 
used only by the apostle John. Referring 
to false teachers, he says (1 John 2 : 18, 
22; 4:3; 2 John 7), "Even now are there 
many antichrists." 

(1.) This name has been applied to the 
"little horn" of the "king of fierce coun- 
tenance " (Dan. 7 : 24, 25 ; 8 : 23-25). 



(2. ) It has been applied also to the "false 
Christs " spoken of by our Lord (Matt. 24 : 
5, 23, 24). 

(3.) To the "man of sin " described by 
Paul (2 Thess. 2 : 3, 4, 8-10). 

(4.) And to the "beast from the sea" 
(Rev. 13:1; 17:1-18). 

From the time of the Reformation to 
the present day the opinion has been gener- 
ally held that the Papal system is anti- 
christ. Antichrist is not a person, but 
some great principle or system of falsehood, 
having various manifestations and forms 
of working. 

An'tioch. (1.) In Syria, on the river 
Orontes, about 16 miles from the Mediter- 




MAP SHOWING POSITION OF SYRIAN ANTIOCH. 

ranean, and some 300 miles north of Jeru- 
salem. It was the metropolis of Syria, 
and afterwards became the capital of the 
Roman province in Asia. It ranked third, 
after Rome and Alexandria, in point of 
importance, of the cities of the Roman em- 
pire. It was called the " first city of the 
East." Christianity was early introduced 
into it (Acts 11 : 19, 21, 24), and the name 
"Christian" was first applied here to its 
professors (Acts 11 : 26). It is intimately 
connected with the early history of the 
gospel (Acts 6:5; 11:19, 27, 28, 30; 12: 
25 ; 15 : 22-2.5 ; Gal. 2 : 11, 12). It was the 
great central point whence missionaries to 
the Gentiles were sent forth. It was the 



ANTIOCHtJS 



46 



ANTIPATRIS 



Birth-place of the famous Christian father 
Chrysostom, who died a.d. 407. It bears 
the modern name of Antakia, and is now a 
miserable decaying Turkish town. Like 
Philippi, it was raised to the rank of a 
Roman colony. Such colonies were ruled 
by "praetors" (R.V. marg., Acts 16:20^ 
21). 

(2.) In the extreme north of Pisidia; 
was visited by Paul and Barnabas on the 
first missionary journey (Acts 13 : 14). Here 
they found a synagogue and many prose- 
lytes. They met with great success in 
preaching the gospel, but the Jews stirred 
up a violent opposition against them, and 
they were obliged to leave the place. On 
his return, Paul again visited Antioch for 
the purpose of confirming the disciples 
(Acts 14 : 21). It has been identified with 
the modern Yalohatch, lying to the east of 
Ephesus. 

Anti^ochus, the name of several Syrian 
kings from B.C. 280 to B.C. 6.5. The most 
notable of these were — (1. ) Antiochus the 
Great, who ascended the throne B.C. 223. 
He is regarded as the " king of the north " 
referred to in Dan. 11 : 13-19. He was 




ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT. 

succeeded (b.c. 187) by his son, Seleucus 
Philopater, spoken of by Daniel (11 : 20) as 
"a raiser of taxes" — in the Revised Ver- 
sion, "one that shall cause an exactor to 
pass through the glory of the kingdom." 

(2.) Antiochus IV., surnamed "Epi- 
phanes " — i. e. , the Illustrious — succeeded his 
brother Seleucus (b.c. 175). His career 
and character are prophetically described 
by Dan. 11 : 21-32. He was a " vile per- 
son." In a spirit of revenge he organized 
an expedition against Jerusalem, which he 
destroyed, putting vast multitudes of its 
inhabitants to death in the most cruel 



manner. He abrogated the Jewish law, 
and compelled the Jews to conform to the 
heathen worship of the Greeks. He con- 
secrated the temple to Jupiter, and made 
it the scene of the foulest riot and revelry, 
placing his statue on the altar (Dan. 11 : 31). 
Erom this time the Jews began the great 
war of independence under their heroic 
Maccabean leaders with marked success, 
defeating the armies of Antiochus that 
were sent against them. Enraged at this, 
Antiochus marched against them in person, 
threatening utterly to exterminate the 




ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES. 

nation ; but on the way he was suddenly 
arrested by the hand of death (B.C. 164). 

An^tipas. (1. ) Herod Antipas, a son of 
Herod the Great by his Samaritan wife 
Malthace. He was tetrarch of Galilee and 
Peraea during the whole period of our 
Lord's life on earth (Luke 23 : 7). He was 
a frivolous and vain prince, and was 
chargeable with many infamous crimes 
(Mark 8 : 15 ; Luke 3 : 19 ; 13 : 31^ 32). He 
beheaded John the Baptist (Matt. 14 : 1-12) 
at the instigation of Herodias, the wife of 
his half-brother Herod-Philip, whom he 
had married. Pilate sent Christ to him 
when he was at Jerusalem at the Passover 
(Luke 23 : 7). He asked some idle questions 
at him, and after causing him to be mocked, 
sent him back again to Pilate. The wife 
of Chuza, his house-steward, was one of 
our Lord's disciples (Luke 8 : 3). 

He was at length deprived of his do- 
minions, and banished to Lyons in Gaul. 

(2.) A "faithful martyr" (Rev. 2 : 13), of 
whom nothing more is certainly known. 

Antip^atris, a city built by Hefod the 
Great, and called by this name in honour 



ANTONIA 



47 



APOLLOS 



of his father, Antipater, It lay between 
Caesarea and Lydda, two miles inland on 
the great Roman road from Caesarea to 
Jerusalem. To this place Paul was brought 
by night (Acts 23 : 31) on his way to 
Csesarea, from which it was distant 28 
miles. It is identified with the modern 
Rds-el-Ain, where rises one of the largest 
sj)rings in Palestine. 

AiitO'^nia, a fortress in Jerusalem, at the 
north-west corner of the temple area. It 
is called "the castle" (Acts 21:34, 37). 
From the stairs of this castle Paul delivered 
his famous speech to the multitude in the 
area below (Acts 22 : 1-21). It was origin- 




PLAN SHOWING THE POSITION OF ANTONIA. 

ally a place in which were kept the vest- 
ments of the high priest. Herod fortified 
it, and called it Antonia in honour of his 
friend Mark Antony. It was of great 
size, and commanded the temple. It was 
built on a plateau of rock, separated on the 
north from the hill Bezetha by a ditch 
about 30 feet deep and 165 feet wide. 

An'tothite, an inhabitant of Anathoth, 
found only in 1 Chr. 11 : 28 ; 12 : 3. In 2 
Sam. 23:27 it is Anathothite ; in 1 Chr. 
27 : 12, Anetothite. (R.V. "Anthothite.") 

An' vil, the rendering of the Hebrew word 
■pa' am, "beaten," found only in Isa. 41 : 7. 

Ape, an animal of the monkey tribe (1 
Kings 10 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 21). It was brought 
from India bv the fleets of Solomon and 



Hiram, and was called by the Hebrews 
koph, and by the Greeks Mpos, both words 
being just the Indian Tamil name of the 
monkey, kapi — i.e., swift, nimble, active. 
Apes are mentioned only in this connection 
in the Bible. 

Apel'les, a Christian at Rome whom 
Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 10), and styles 
"approved in Christ." 

Aphar'sachites, a company of the col- 
onists whom the Assyrian king planted in 
Samaria (Ezra 5:6; 6:6). 

Aphar'sites, another of the tribes re- 
moved to Samaria (Ezra 4 : 9), or perhaps 
the same as the preceding. 

A'phik (Judg. 1:31); Aphek (Josh. 
13 : 4 ; 19 : 30)— strength. (1. ) A city of the 
tribe of Asher. It was the scene of the 
licentious worship of the Syrian Aphrodite. 
The ruins of the temple, "magnificent 
ruins " in a "spot of strange wildness and 
beauty," are still seen at Afka, on the 
north-west slopes of Lebanon, near the 
source of the river Adonis (now Ifahr 
Ibrahim), 12 miles east of Gebal. 

(2.) A city of the tribe of Issachar, near 
to Jezreel (1 Sam. 4:1; 29:1; comp. 28:4). 

(3.) A town on the road from Damascus 
to Palestine, in the level plain east of Jor- 
dan, near which Benhadad was defeated 
by the Israelites (1 Kings 20:26, 30; 2 
Kings 13 : 17). It has been identified with 
the modern Fik, 6 miles east of the Sea of 
Galilee. 

Apoc'alypse, the Greek name of the 
Book of Revelation {q.v.). 

ApoUo'iiia, a city of Macedonia between 
Amphipolis and Thessalonica, from which 
it was distant about 36 miles. Paul and 
Silas passed through it on their way to 
Thessalonica (Acts 17 : 1). 

Apol'los, a Jew "born at Alexandria," 
a man well versed in the Scriptures and 
eloquent (Acts 18 : 24 ; R. V., " learned "). 
He came to Ephesus (about A.D. 49), where 
he spake " boldly " in the synagogue 
(18:25), although he did not know as yet 
that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. 
Aquila and Priscilla instructed him more 
perfectly in "the way of God " — i.e., in the 
knowledge of Christ. He then proceeded 
to Corinth, where he met Paul (Acts 18 : 27 ; 



APOLLYON 



48 



APPAREL 



19 : 1). He was there very useful in water- 
ing the good seed Paul had sown (1 Cor. 
2 : 9), and in gaining many to Christ. His 
disciples were much attached to him (1 Cor. 
3 : 4-7, 22). He was with Paul at Ephesus 
when he wrote the Eirst Epistle to the 
Corinthians; and Paul makes kindly refer- 
ence to him in his letter to Titus (3 : 13). 
Some have supposed, although withoiit 
sufficient ground, that he was the author of 
the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

ApoFlyon — destroyed — the name given 
to the king of the hosts represented by the 
locusts (Rev. 9 : 11). It is the Greek trans- 
lation of the Hebrew Abaddon {q.v.). 

Apos'tle — a person sent by another; a 
messenger ; envoy. This word is once used 
as a descriptive designation of Jesus Christ, 
the Sent of the Father (Heb. 3:1; John 
20 : 21). It is, however, generally used as 
designating the body of disciples to whom 
he intrusted the organization of his church 
and the dissemination of his gospel — "the 
twelve," as they are called (Matt. 10 : 1-5 ; 
Mark 3 : 14 ; 6 : 7 ; Luke 6 : 13 ; 9 : 1). We 
have four lists of the apostles, one by each 
of the synoptic evangelists (Matt. 10 : 2-4 ; 
Mark 3 : 16 ; Luke 6 : 14), and one in the 
Acts (1 : 13). No two of these lists, how- 
ever, perfectly coincide. 

Our Lord gave them the "keys of the 
kingdom," and by the gift of his Spirit 
fitted them to be the founders and gover- 
nors of his church (John 14:16, 17, 26; 
15 : 26, 27 ; 16 : 7-15). To them, as repre- 
senting his church, he gave the commission 
to "preach the gospel to every creature" 
(Matt. 28 : 18-20). After his ascension he 
communicated to them, according to his 
promise, supernatural gifts to qualify them 
for the discharge of their duties (Acts 2:4; 
1 Cor. 2:16; 2:7, 10, 13; 2 Cor. 5:20; 
1 Cor. 11 : 2). Judas Iscariot, one of "the 
twelve," fell by transgression, and Mat- 
thias was substituted in his place (Acts 
1 : 21). Saul of Tarsus was afterwards 
added to their number (Acts 9 : 5-20 ; 20 : 
4 ; 26 : 15-18 ; 1 Tim. 1 : 12 ; 2 : 7 ; 2 Tim. 
1:11). 

Luke has given some account of Peter, 
John, and the two Jameses (Acts 12 : 2, 17 ; 
15 : 13 ; 21 : 18), but beyond this we know 



nothing from authentic history of the rest 
of the original twelve. After the martyr- 
dom of James the Greater (Acts 12 : 2), 
James the Less usually resided at Jerusalem, 
while Paul, "the apostle of the uncircum- 
cision," usually travelled as a missionary 
among the Gentiles (Gal. 2:8). It was 
characteristic of the apostles and necessary 
(1) that they should have seen the Lord, 
and been able to testify of him and of his 
resurrection from personal knowledge (John 
15 : 27 ; Acts 1 : 21, 22 ; 1 Cor. 9:1; Acts 
22 : 14, 15). (2.) They must have been im- 
mediately called to that office by Christ 
(Luke 6 : 13 ; Gal. 1 : 1). (3.) It was essen- 
tial that they should be infallibly inspired, 
and thus secured against all error and mis- 
take in their public teaching, whether by 
word or by writing (John 14 : 26 ; 16 : 13 ; 
1 Thess. 2 : 13). (4.) Another qualification 
was the power of working miracles (Mark 
16 : 20 ; Acts 2 : 43 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 8-11). 

The apostles therefore could have had no 
successors. They are the only authoritative 
teachers of the Christian doctrines. The 
office of an apostle ceased with its first 
holders. 

In 2 Cor. 8 : 23 and Phil. 2 : 25 the word 
"messenger" is the rendering of the same 
Greek word, elsewhere rendered "apostle." 

Apoth^ecary, rendered in the margin 
and the Revised Version "perfumer," in 
Ex. 30 : 25 ; 37 : 29 ; Eccl. 10 : 1. The holy 
oils and ointments were prepared by priests 
properly qualified for this office. The fem- 
inine plural form of the Hebrew word is 
rendered " conf ectionaries " in 1 Sam. 8 : 13. 

Appar'el. In Old Testament times the 
distinction between male and female attire 
was not very marked. The statute for- 
bidding men to wear female apparel (Deut. 
22 : 5) referred especially to ornaments and 
head-dresses. Both men and women wore 
(1) an under garment or tunic, which was 
bound by a girdle. One who had not on 
this tunic was spoken of as " naked " (1 Sam. 
19 : 24 ; Job 24 : 10 ; Isa. 20 : 2). Those in 
high stations sometimes wore two tunics, 
the outer being called the " upper garment " 
(1 Sam. 15 : 27 ; 18 : 4 ; 24 : 5 ; Job 1 : 20). 
(2. ) They wore in common an over -garment 
("mantle," Isa. 3:22 ; 1 Kings 19:13; 2 Kings 



APPEAL 



49 



ARABAH 



2 : 13), a loose and flowing robe. The folds 
of this upper garment could be formed into 
a lap (Ruth 3 : 15 ; Ps. 79 : 12 ; Prov. 17 : 23 ; 
Luke 6 : 38). Generals of armies usually 
wore scarlet robes ( Judg. 8 : 26 ; Nah. 2 : 3). 
A form of conspicuous raiment is mentioned 
in Luke 20 : 46 ; comp. Matt. 23 : 5. 

Priests alone wore trousers. Both men 
and women wore turbans. Kings and 
nobles usually had a store of costly gar- 
ments for festive occasions (Isa. 3 : 22 ; 
Zech. 3 : 4) and for presents (Gen. 45 : 22 ; 
Esther 4:4; 6:8, 11; 1 Sam. 18:4; 2 
Kings 5:5; 10 : 22). Prophets and ascetics 
wore coarse garments (Isa. 20 : 2 ; Zech. 
13 : 4 ; Matt. 3 : 4). 

Appeal'', a reference of any case from an 
inferior to a superior court. Moses estab- 
lished in the wilderness a series of judica- 
tories such that appeals could be made 
from a lower to a higher (Ex. 18 : 13-26. ) 

Under the Roman law the most remark- 
able case of appeal is that of Paul from the 
tribunal of Eestus at Csesarea to that of the 
emperor at Rome (Acts 25 : 11, 12, 21, 25). 
Paul availed himself of the privilege of a 
Roman citizen in this matter. 

Ap^phia — increasing — a female Christian 
at Colosse (Philemon 2), supposed by some 
to have been the wife of Philemon. 

Ap'pii For'um— i.e., the market-place of 
Appius — a town in Italy on the road, the 
"Appian Way," from Rome to Brundu- 
sium. It was 43 miles from Rome. Here 
Paul was met by some Roman Christians 
on his way to the capital (Acts 28 : 15). It 
was natural that they should halt here and 
wait for him, because from this place there 
were two ways by which travellers might 
journey to Rome. 

Ap''ple (Heb. tappHali, meaning "fra- 
grance "). Probably the apricot or quince is 
intended by the word, as Palestine was too 
hot for the growth of apples proper. It is 
enumerated among the most valuable trees 
of Palestine (Joel 1 : 12), and frequently 
referred to in Canticles, and noted for its 
beauty (2:3, 5 ; 8 : 5). There is nothing 
to show that it was the "tree of the know- 
ledge of good and evil." The Bible does 
not mention "apples of Sodom," as some 
have apparently supposed, but it speaks of 



the "vine of Sodom," only, however, meta- 
phorically (Deut. 32:32). The "apple of 
the eye" is the rendering of the Hebrew 
ishon, meaning manikin — i.e., the pupil of 
the eye (Prov. 7:2); so called from the im- 
age formed on the retina. (Comp. the 
promise, Zech. 2:8; the prayer, Ps. 17 : 8 ; 
and its fulfilment, Deut. 32 : 10.) 

The so-called "apple of Sodom" some 
have supposed to be the Solarium sanctum 
(Heb. hedek), rendered "brier" {q.v.) in 
Micah 7 : 4, a thorny plant bearing fruit 
like the potato-apple. This shrub abounds 
in the Jordan valley. (SeeENGEDi.) 

A^pron, found in the Authorized Ver- 
sion in Gen. 3 : 7, of the bands of fig-leaves 
made by our first parents. In Acts 19 : 12, 
it denotes the belt or half -girdle worn by 
artisans and servants round the waist for 
the purpose of preserving the clothing from 
injury. In marg. of Authorized Version, 
Ruth 3 : 15, correctly rendered instead of 
"vail." 

Aq^uila — eagle — a native of Pontus, by 
occupation a tent-maker, whom Paul met 
on his first visit to Corinth (Acts 18 : 2). 
Along ■\\dth his wife Priscilla he had fled 
from Rome in consequence of a decree 
(a.d. 50) by Claudius commanding all Jews 
to leave the city. Paul sojourned with 
him at Corinth, and they wrought together 
at their common trade, making Cilician 
hair-cloth for tents. On Paul's departure 
from Corinth after eighteen months, Aquila 
and his wife accompanied him to Ephesus, 
where they remained, while he proceeded 
to Syria (Acts 18 : 25, 26). When they be- 
came Christians we are not informed, but 
in Ephesus they were (1 Cor. 16 : 19) Paul's 
' ' helpers in Christ Jesus. " We find Aquila 
afterwards at Rome (Rom. 16 : 3) interest- 
ing himself still in the cause of Christ. 
They are referred to some years after this 
as being at Ephesus (2 Tim. 4 : 19). This 
is the last notice we have of them. 

A''rab — ambush — a city in the mountains 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 52), now Er. 

Ara^bah — plain — in the Revised Version 
of 2 Kings 14:25; Josh. 3:16; 8:14; 
2 Sam. 2 : 29 ; 4:7 (in all these passages 
the A.V. has "plain") ; Amos 6 : 14 (A.V. 
"wilderness "). This word is found in the 



ARABIA 



50 



ARABIA 



Authorized Version OBly in Josh. 18 : 18. 
It denotes the hollow depression through 
which the Jordan flows from the Lake of 
Galilee to the Dead Sea. It is now called 
by the Arabs el-Ghor. But the Ghor 
is sometimes spoken of as extending 10 
miles south of the Dead Sea, and thence 
to the Gulf of Akabah on the Red Sea is 
called the Wady el-Ardbah. 

Ara''bia — arid — an extensive region in 
the south-west of Asia. It is bounded on 




MAP OF ARABIA. 

the west by the Isthmus of Suez and the 
Red Sea, on the south by the Indian Ocean, 
and on the east by the Persian Gulf and the 
Euphrates. It extends far into the north 
in barren deserts, meeting those of Syria 
and Mesopotamia. It is one of the few coun- 
tries of the world from which the original 
inhabitants have never been expelled. 

It was anciently divided into three 
parts : — (1.) Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia), 
so called from its fertility. It embraced 
a large portion of the country now known 
by the name of Arabia. The Arabs call it 



Yemen. It lies between the Red Sea and 
the Persian Gulf. (2.) Arabia Deserta, 
the el-Badieh or " Great Wilderness " of 
the Arabs. From this name is derived 
that which is usually given to the nomadic 
tribes which wander over this region, the 
"Bedaween," or, more generally, "Bed- 
ouin." (3.) Arabia Petrsea — i.e., the Rocky 
Arabia, so called from its rocky mountains 
and stony plains. It comprehended all the 
north-west portion of the country, and is 
much better known 
to travellers than 
any other portion. 

This country is, 
however, divided by 
modern geographers 
into (1) Arabia Pro- 
per, or the Arabian 
Peninsula ; (2) Nor- 
thern Arabia, or the 
Arabian Desert; and 
(3) Western Arabia, 
which includes the 
peninsula of Sinai 
and the Desert of 
Petra, originally in- 
habited by the Hor- 
ites (Gen. 14 : 6, etc. ), 
but in later times by 
the descendants of 
Esau, and known as 
the Land of Edom 
or Idumea, also as 
the Desert of Seir 
or Mount Seir. 

The whole land 
appears (Gen. 10) to 
have been inhabited 
by a variety of tribes of different lineage — 
Ishmaelites, Arabians, Idumeans, Horites, 
and Edomites; but at length becoming amal- 
gamated, they came to be known by the gen- 
eral designation of Arabs. The modem na- 
tion of Arabs is predominantly Ishmaelite. 
Their language is the most developed and 
the richest of all the Semitic languages, and 
is of great value to the student of Hebrew. 
The Israelites wandered for forty years in 
Arabia. In the days of Solomon, and sub- 
sequently, commercial intercourse was to a 
considerable extent kept up with this coun- 



ARAD 



51 



ARARAT 



try (1 Kings 10 : 15 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 14 ; 17 : 11). 
Arabians were present in Jerusalem at 
Pentecost (Acts 2 : 11). Paul retired for 
a season into Arabia after his conversion 
(Gal. 1 : 17). This country is frequently 
referred to by the prophets (Isa. 21 : 11 ; 
42:11; Jer. 25:24, etc.). 

A^rad. (1.) Now Tell Arad, a Canaan- 
ite city, about 20 miles south of Hebron. 
The king of Arad "fought against Israel 
and took of them prisoners " when they 
were retreating from the confines of 
Edom (Num. 21 : 1 ; 33 : 40 ; Judg. 1 : 16). 



It was finally subdued by Joshua (12: 
14). 

(2. ) One of the sons of Beriah (1 Chr. 8 : 15). 

A^ram, the son of Shem (Gen. 10 : 22) ; 
according to Gen. 22 : 21, a grandson of 
Nahor. In Matt. 1 : 3, 4, and Luke 3 : 33, 
this word is the Greek form of Ram, the 
father of Amminadab (1 Chr. 2 : 10). 

The word means high, or highlands, and 
as the name of a country denotes that ele- 
vated region extending from the north- 
east of Palestine to the Euphrates. It 
corresponded generally with the Syria and 




Mesopotamia of the Greeks and Romans. 
In Gen. 25 : 20 ; 31 : 20, 24 ; Deut. 26 : 5, 
the word "Syrian "is properlj^ "Aramean" 
(R. v., marg. ). Damascus became at length 
the capital of the several smaller king- 
doms comprehended under the designation 
"Aram "or "Syria." 

A''rain-nahara''iin — Aram of the two 
rivers — is Mesopotamia (as it is rendered 
in Gen. 24 : 10), the country enclosed be- 
tween the Tigris on the east and the Eu- 
phrates on the west (Ps. 60, title) ; called 
also the "field of Aram" (Hos. 12 : 12, R. V.) 
— i.e., the open country of Aram; in the 
Authorized Version, "country of Syria." 
Padan-aram [q.v.) was a portion of this 
country. 



A^ram-zo'^bah (Ps. 60, title), probably 
the region between the Euphrates and the 
Orontes. 

Ar''an — wild goat — a descendant of Seir 
the Horite (Gen. 36 : 28). 

Ar^arat — sacred land or high land — the 
name of a country on one of the mountains 
of which the ark rested after the Elood 
subsided (Gen. 8:4). The "mountains" 
mentioned were probably the Kurdish 
range of South Armenia. In 2 Kings 
19 : 37, Isa. 37 : 38, the word is rendered 
"Armenia" in the Authorized Version, 
but in the Revised Version, "Land of 
Ararat." In Jer. 51 : 27, the name denotes 
the central or southern portion of Armenia. 
It is, however, generally applied to a high 



ARAUNAH 



52 



ARCHELAUS 



and almost inaccessible mountain which 
rises majestically on the plain of the Ar- 
axes. It has two conical peaks, about 7 
niles apart, the one 14,300 feet, and the 
other 10,300 feet, above the level of the 
plain. Three thousand feet of the summit 
of the higher of these peaks is covered with 
perpetual snow. It is called Kuh-i-nuh — 
i.e., " Noah's mountain " — by the Persians. 
This mountain stands midway between the 
Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. It is now 
the central boundary between Russia, Tur- 
key, and Persia. 

" Nothing can be more beautiful than its 
shape, more awful than its height. All 
the surrounding mountains sink into insig- 
nificance when compared with it. It is 
perfect in all its parts ; no rugged features, 
no unnatural prominences ; everything is 
in harmony, and all combine to render it 
one of the sublimest objects in nature" 
{Morier). It was probably on one of the 
lower ledges of this enormous pyramid that 
the ark ultimately rested. 

Arau^nah — ark; also called Ornan 
1 Chr. 21:15 — a Jebusite who dwelt in 
Jerusalem before it was taken by the Is- 
raelites. The destroying angel, sent to 
punish David for his vanity in taking a 
census of the people, was stayed in his work 
of destruction near a threshing-floor be- 
longing to Araunah which was situated on 
Mount Moriah. Araunah offered it to David 
as a free gift, together with the oxen and 
the threshing instruments ; but the king 
insisted on purchasing it at its full price 
(2 Sam. 24 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 25), for, accord- 
ing to the law of sacrifices, he could not 
offer to God what cost him nothing. On 
the same place Solomon afterwards erected 
the temple (2 Sam. 24 : 16 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 1). 
(See Altak.) 

Ar'Taa—four — a giant, father of Anak. 
From him the city of Hebron derived its 
name of Kirjath-arba — i.e., the city of 
Arba (Josh. 14 : 15 ; 15 : 13 ; 21 : 11 ; Gen. 
13:18). (See Hebron.) 

Ar^bathite, a name given to Abi-albon, 
or, as elsewhere called, Abiel, one of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 32), prob- 
ably as being an inhabitant of Arabah (Josh. 
15 : 61), a town in the wilderness of Judah. 



Archan'gel (1 Thess. 4:16 ; Jude 9), the 
prince of the angels ; some highly-exalted 
being. 

Arch, an architectural term found only 
in Ezek. 40:16, 22, 26, 29. The exact 
meaning of the word so rendered is in dis- 
pute. It probably denotes a portico with 
a colonnade or some moulding at the top 
of a column. There is no absolute proof 
that the Israelites employed arches in their 
buildings ; but their non-existence cannot 
be inferred from the fact that there is no 
Hebrew word that can properly be so ren- 
dered. The arch was employed in the 
building of the pyramids of Egypt. The 




REMAINS OF ARCH, TEMPLE "WALL, JERUSALEM. 

oldest existing arch is at Thebes, and bears 
the date B.C. 1350. There are also still 
found the remains of an arch of the bridge 
connecting Zion and Moriah. (See Tyro- 
PCEON Valley.) The spring of an arch has 
recently been discovered in " Solomon's 
stables, " under the temple area. 

Archela'us — ruler of the people — son of 
Herod the Great, by Malthace, a Samaritan 
woman. He was educated along with his 
brother Antipas at Rome. He inherited 
from his father a third part of his king- 
dom — viz., Idumsea, Judaea, and Samaria, 
and hence is called "king" (Matt. 2:22). 
He was a cruel ruler, and in the tenth 
year of his reign was dethroned on account 
of his tyranny and banished to Vienne in 
Gaul, where he died. It was for fear of 
him that JoseiDh and Marv turned aside on 



ARCHER 



53 



ARGOB 



their way back from Egypt, Till a few 
days before his death Herod had named 
Antipas as his successor, but in his last 
moments he named Archelaus. 

Arch'er, a shooter with the bow (1 Chr. 
10:3). This art was of high antiquity 




ARCHER. 

(Front Assyria7i Sculptures.) 

(Gen. 21 : 20 ; 27 : 3). Saul was wounded 
by the Philistine archers (1 Sam. 31 : 3). 
The phrase "breaking the bow" (Hos. 1:5; 
Jer. 49 : 35) is equivalent to taking away 
one's power, while "strengthening the 
bow" is a symbol of its increase (Gen. 
49 : 24). The Persian archers were famous 
among the ancients (Isa. 13 : 18 ; Jer. 49 : 35 ; 
50:1-42). (See Bow.) 

Ar''chevite, one of the nations planted 
by the Assyrians in Samaria (Ezra 4:9); 
the men of Erech. 

Ar''chi, a city on the boundary of Eph- 
raim and Benjamin (Josh. 16 : 2), between 
Bethel and Beth-horon the nether. 

Archip'pus — master of the horse — a "fel- 
low-soldier " of Paul's (Philemon 2), whom 
he exhorts to renewed activity (Col. 4 : 17). 
He was a member of Philemon's family, 
probably his son. 

Ar'chite, the usual designation of Hushai 
(2 Sam. 15 : 32 ; 17 : 5, 14 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 33), 
who was a native of Archi. He was "the 
king's friend" — i.e., he held office under 
David similar to that of our modern privy 
councillor. 

Arctu^rus — bear-keeper — the name given 
by the ancients to the brightest star in the 



constellation Bootes. In the Authorized 
Version (Job 9:9; 38 : 32) it is the render- 
ing of the Hebrew word VisA, which prob- 
ably designates the constellation the Great 
Bear. This word ( "ash) is supposed to be de- 
rived from an Arabic word meaning night- 
loatcher, because the Great Bear 
always revolves about the pole, 
and to our northern hemisphere 
never sets. 

Ard — descent — a grandson of 
Benjamin (Num. 26:38-40). In 
1 Chr. 8:3 he is called Addar. 
His descendants are mentioned 
in Num. 26 : 40. 

Ar ^don — desceiidant — the last 
of the three sons of Caleb by his 
first wife Azubah (1 Chr. 2 : 18). 

Areop^agite, a member of the 
court of Areopagus (Acts 17 : 34). 
Areop'agus, the Latin form of 
the Greek word rendered "Mars' 
hill." But it denotes also the 
council or court of justice which 
met in the open air on the hill. It 
v/as a rocky height to the west of the 
Acropolis at Athens, on the south-east 
summit of which the council was held 
which was constituted by Solon, and con- 
sisted of nine archons or chief magistrates 
who were then in ofl&ce, and the ex-archons 
of blameless life. 

On this hill of Mars (Gr. Ares) Paul de- 
livered his memorable address to the "men 
of Athens " (Acts 17 : 22-31). 

Ar'etas, the father-in-law of Herod An- 
tipas, and king of Arabia Petraea. His 
daughter returned to him on the occasion 
of her husband's entering into an adulter- 
ous alliance with Herodias, the wife of 
Herod-Philip, his half-brother (Luke 3 : 19, 
20 ; Mark 6 : 17 ; Matt. 14 : 3). This led to 
a war between Aretas and Herod Antipas. 
Herod's army was wholly destroyed (a.d. 
36). Aretas, taking advantage of the com- 
plications of the times on account of the 
death of the Emperor Tiberius (a.d. 37), 
took possession of Damascus (2 Cor. 11 : 32 ; 
comp. Acts 9 : 24). At this time Paul re- 
turned to Damascus from Arabia. 

Ar'gob — stony heap — an "island," as it 
has been called, of rock about 30 miles by 



ARIEH 



54 



ARIOCH 




AREOPAGUS (mars' HILl). 



20, rising 20 or 30 feet above the table- 
land of Bashan; a region of crags and 
chasms wild and rugged in the extreme. 
On this "island " stood sixty walled cities, 
ruled over by Og. It is called Trachonitis 
("the rugged region") in the New Testa- 
ment (Luke 3 : 1). These cities were con- 
quered by the Israelites (Deut. 3 : 4 ; 1 Kings 
4 : 13). It is now called the Lejah. Here 
"sixty walled cities are still traceable in a 
space of 308 square miles. The architec- 
ture is ponderous and massive. Solid 
walls 4 feet thick, and stones on one 
another without cement ; the roofs enor- 
mous slabs of basaltic rock, like iron ; the 
doors and gates are of stone 18 inches 
thick, secured b^ ponderous bars. The 
land bears still the appearance of having 
been called the ' land of giants ' under the 
giant Og." "I have more than once 
entered a deserted city in the evening, 
taken possession of a comfortable house, 
and spent the night in peace. Many of 
the houses in the ancient cities of Bashan 
are perfect, as if only finished yesterday. 
The walls are sound, the roofs unbroken, 



and even the window - shutters in their 
places. These ancient cities of Bashan prob- 
ably contain the very oldest specimens of 
domestic architecture in the world " (Por- 
ter's Giayit Cities). (See Bashan. ) 

Ari''eh — the lion — the name of one of the 
body-guard slain with Pekahiah at Samaria 
(2 Kings 15 : 25) by the conspirator Pekah. 

A'riel — the lion of God. (1.) One of the 
chief men sent by Ezra to procure Levites 
for the sanctuary (Ezra 8 : 16). 

(2. ) A symbolic name for Jerusalem (Isa. 
29 : 1, 2, 7) as " victorious under God," and 
in Ezek. 43:15, 16, for the altar (marg., 
Heb. 'ariel) of burnt offerings, the secret 
of Israel's lion-like strength. 

Arimathe'a, a " city of the Jews " (Luke 
23 : 51), the birth-place of Joseph in whose 
sepulchre our Lord was laid (Matt. 27 : 57, 
60 ; John 19 : 38). It is probably the same 
place as Ramathaim in Ephraim, and the 
birth-place of Samuel (1 Sam. 1 : 1, 19). 
Others identify it with Ramleh in Dan, or 
Rama (q.v.) in Benjamin (Matt. 2 : 18). 

A^rioch — lion-like, venerable. (1. ) A king 
of Ellasar who was confederate mth Ched- 



ARISTARCHUS 



55 



ARK 



orlaomer against Sodom and Gomorrah 
(Gen. 14 : 1, 9). 

(2. ) The captain of the guard at Babylon 
to whose custody Daniel and his com- 
panions were intrusted (Dan. 2 : 14). 

Aristar^chus — best ruler— a, native of 
Thessalonica (Acts 20 : 4), a companion of 
Paul in his third missionary jour- 
ney (Acts 19 : 29 ; 27 : 2). He was 
Paul's "fellow-prisoner "at Rome, 
and his " fellow - labourer " (Col. 
4 : 10 ; Philemon 24). 

Aristobu^lus, a Roman men- 
tioned in Paul's Epistle to the 
Romans (16:10), whose "house- 
hold " is saluted. 

Ark. Noah's ark, a building 
of gopher-wood, and covered with 
ipitch, 300 cubits long, 50 cubits 
broad, and 30 cubits high (Gen. 
6 : 14-16) ; an oblong floating house 
of three stories, with a door in the 
side and a window in the roof. It 
was 120 years in building (Gen. 
5 : 32 ; 7:6). It was intended 
to preserve certain persons and 
animals from the deluge which God was 
about to bring over the earth. It con- 
tained eight persons (Gen. 7 : 13 ; 2 Pet. 
2:5), and of all "clean'" animals seven 
pairs, and of "unclean" one pair, and of 
birds seven pairs of each sort (Gen. 7 : 2, 3). 
It was in the form of an oblong square, 
with flat bottom and sloping roof. Tra- 
ditions of the Deluge, by which the race of 
man was swept from the earth, and of the 
ark of Xoah have been found existing among 
all nations. 

The ark of bulrushes in which the infant 
Moses was laid (Ex. 2:3) is called in the 
Hebrew teehah, a word derived from the 
Egyptian ^c6, meaning " a chest. " It was 
daubed with slime and with pitch. The 
bulrushes of which it was made were the 
paiDyrus reed. 

The sacred ark is designated by a differ- 
ent Hebrew word — 'aron', which is the com- 
mon name for a chest or coffer used for 
any purpose (Gen. 50 : 26 ; 2 Kings 12 : 9, 
10). It is distinguished from all others by 
such titles as the "ark of God" (1 Sam. 
3:3), "ark of the covenant" (Josh. 3:6; 



Heb. 9 : 4), " ark of the law " (Ex. 25 : 22). 
It was made of acacia or shittim wood, a 
cubit and a half broad and high and two 
cubits long, and covered all over with the 
purest gold. Its upper surface or lid — the 
mercy-seat — was surrounded with a rim of 
gold ; and on each of the two sides were 




ARK OF THE COVENANT. 



two gold rings, in which were placed two 
gold-covered poles by which the ark could 
be carried (Num. 7 : 9 ; 10 : 21 ; 4 : 5, 19, 20 ; 
1 Kings 8 : 3, 6). Over the ark, at the two 
extremities, were two cherubim, with their 
faces turned toward each other (Lev. 16 : 2 ; 
Num. 7 : 89). Their outspread wings over 
the top of the ark formed the throne of 
God, while the ark itself was his footstool 
(Ex. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9). The ark was de- 
posited in the " holy of holies," and was so 
placed that one end of the poles by which 
it was carried touched the veil which sepa- 
rated the two apartments of the tabernacle 
(1 Kings 8 : 8). The two tables of stone 
which constituted the " testimony " or evi- 
dence of God's covenant with the people 
(Deut. 31:26), the "pot of manna" (Ex. 16: 
33), and "Aaron's rod that budded" (Num. 
17 : 10), were laid up in the ark (Heb. 9 : 4). 
(See Tabernacle.) The ark and the sanctu- 
ary were " the beauty of Israel " (Lam. 2 : 1). 
During the journeys of the Israelites the 
ark was carried by the priests in advance 
of the host (Num. 4 : 5, 6 ; 10 : 33-36 ; Ps. 
68 : 1 ; 132 : 8). It was borne by the priests 



AKKITE 



56 



ARMOUR 



into the bed of the Jordan, which sepa- 
rated, opening a pathway for the whole of 
the host to pass over (Josh. 3 : 15, 16 ; 4:7, 
10, 11, 17, 18). It was borne in the proces- 
sion round Jericho (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8, 11, 12). 
When carried it was always wrapjDed in 
the veil, the badgers' skins, and blue cloth, 
and carefully concealed even from the eyes 
of the Levites who carried it. After the 
settlement of Israel in Palestine the ark 
remained in the tabernacle at Gilgal for a 
season, and was then removed to Shiloh 
till the time of Eli— between 300 and 400 
years ( Jer. 7 : 12) — when it was carried into 
the field of battle so as to secure, as they 
supposed, victory to the Hebrews, and was 
taken by the Philistines (1 Sam. 4 : 3-11), who 
sent it back after retaining it seven months 
(1 Sam. 5 : 7, 8). It remained then at Kir- 
jath-jearim (7:1, 2) till the time of David 
(twenty years), who wished to remove it to 
Jerusalem ; but the proper mode of remov- 
ing it having been neglected, Uzzah was 
smitten with death for putting " forth his 
hand to the ark of God," and in conse- 
quence of this it was left in the house of 
Obed - edom in Gath - rimmon for three 
months (2 Sam. 6:1-11), at the end of 
which time David removed it in a grand 
procession to Jerusalem, where it was kept 
till a place was prepared for it (12-19). It 
was afterwards deposited by Solomon in 
the temple (1 Kings 8 : 6-9). When the 
Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and plun- 
dered the temple, the ark was probably 
taken away by Nebuchadnezzar and de- 
stroyed, as no trace of it is afterwards to 
be found. The absence of the ark from the 
second temple was one of the points in which 
it was inferior to the first temple. 

Ar^kite (Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15), a 
designation of certain descendants from 
the Phoenicians or Sidonians, the inhabi- 
tants of Arka, 12 miles north of Tripoli, 
opposite the northern extremity of Leba- 
non. 

Arm, used to denote power (Ps. 10 : 15 ; 
Ezek. 30 : 21 ; Jer. 48 : 25). It is also used 
of the omnipotence of God (Ex. 15 : 16 ; Ps. 
89:13; 98:1; 77:15; Isa. 53:1; John 
12 : 38 ; Acts 13 : 17). 

Armaged^don, occurs only in Rev. 16 : 16 



(R.V., " Har-Magedon "), as symbolically 
designating the place where the "battle of 
the great day of God Almighty " (ver. 14) 
shall be fought. The word properly means 
the "mount of Megiddo." It is the scene 
of the final conflict between Christ and 
Antichrist. The idea of such a scene was 
suggested by the Old Testament great 
battle-field, the plain of Esdraelon (q.v.). 

Arme^nia — high land — occurs only in 
Authorized Version, 2 Kings 19:37; in 
Revised Version, "Ararat," which is the 
Hebrew word. A country in western Asia 
lying between the Caspian and the Black 
Sea. Here the ark of Noah rested after 
the Deluge (Gen. 8 : 4). It is for the most 
part high table-land, and is watered by 
the Aras, the Kur, the Euphrates, and 
the Tigris. Ararat was properly the name 
of a part of ancient Armenia. Three pro- 
vinces of Armenia are mentioned in Jer. 
51 : 27 — Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz. 
Some, however, think Minni a contraction 
for Armenia. (See Aeaeat.) 

Arino''ni — inhabitant of a fortress — the 
first-named of the two sons of Saul and 
Rizpah. He was delivered up to the 
Gibeonites by David, and hanged by them 
(2 Sam. 21 : 8, 9). 

Ar^mour is employed in the English 
Bible to denote military equipment, both 
offensive and defensive. 

(1.) The offensive weapons were different 
at different periods of history. The "rod 
of iron " (Ps. 2:9) is supposed to mean a 
mace or crowbar, an instrument of great 
power when used by a strong arm. The 
"maul" (Prov. 25:18; cognate Hebrew 
word rendered " battle-axe " in Jer. 51 : 20, 
and " slaughter weapon " in Ezek. 9 : 2) was 
a war-hammer or martel. The " sword " is 
the usual translation of hereb, which pro- 
perly means "poniard." The real sword, 
as well as the dirk-sword (which was always 
double-edged), was also used (1 Sam. 17 : 39 ; 
2 Sam. 20:8 ; 1 Kings 20:11). The spear 
was another offensive weapon (Josh. 8 : 18 ; 
1 Sam. 17 : 7). The javelin was used by 
light troops (Num. 25 : 7, 8 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 22). 
Saul threw a javelin at David (1 Sam. 19 : 
9, 10), and so virtually absolved him from 
his allegiance. The bow was, however, tha 



ARMOUR 



57 



AROER 



chief weapon of offence. The arrows were 
carried in a quiver, the bow being always 
unbent till the moment of action (Gen. 
27 : 3 ; 48 : 22 ; Ps. 18 : 34). The sling was a 
favourite weapon of the Benjamites (1 Sam. 
17 : 40 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 2. Comp. 1 Sam. 25 : 29). 

(2. ) Of the defensive armour a chief place 
is assigned to the shield or buckler. There 
were the great shield or target (the tzinnah), 
for the jjrotection of the whole person 
(Gen. 15 : 1 ; Ps. 47 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 6 ; 
Prov. 30 : 5), and the biickler (Heb. mageen) 
or smaU shield (1 Kings 10 : 17 ; Ezek. 26 : 
8). In Ps. 91:4 "buckler" is properly a 
roundel appropriated to archers or slingers. 
The helmet (Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 38), 
a covering for the head ; the coat of mail 
or corselet (1 Sam. 17 : 5), or habergeon 
(Neh. 4 : 16), harness or breast-plate (Rev. 
9 : 9), for the covering of the back and 
breast and both upper arms (Isa. 59 : 17 ; 
Eph. 6 : 14). The cuirass and corselet, com- 
posed of leather or quilted cloth, were also 
for the covering of the body. Greaves, for 
the covering of the legs, were worn in the 
time of David (1 Sam. 17 : 6). Reference 
is made by Paul (Eph. 6 : 14-17) to the 
panoply of a Roman soldier. The shield 
here is the tkureon, a door -like oblong 
shield above all — i.e., covering the whole 
person — not the small round shield. There 
is no armour for the back, but only for the 
front. 

Ar^mour-bearer, an officer selected by 
kings and generals because of his bravery, 
not only to bear their armour, but also to 
stand by them in the time of danger. They 
were the adjutants of our modern armies 
(Judg. 9 : 54 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 7 ; 16 : 21 ; 31 : 6). 

Armoury, the place in which armour 
was deposited when not used (Neh. 3 : 19 ; 
Jer, 50:25). At first each man of the 
Hebrews had his own arms, because all 
went to war. There were no arsenals 
or magazines for arms till the time of 
David, who had a large collection of arms, 
which he consecrated to the Lord in his 
tabernacle (1 Sam. 21 : 9 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 7-12 ; 
1 Chr. 26 : 26, 27). 

Army. The Israelites marched out of 
Egypt in military order (Ex. 13 : 18, "har- 
nessed ; " marg., "five in a rank "). Each 



tribe formed a battahon, with its own ban- 
ner and leader (Num. 2 : 2 ; 10 : 14). In 
war the army was divided into thousands 
and hundreds under their several captains 
(Num. 31 : 14), and also into families (Num. 
2 : 34 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 5 ; 26 : 12). Erom the 
time of their entering the land of Canaan 
to the time of the kings, the Israelites made 
little progress in military affairs, although 
often engaged in warfare. The kings in- 
troduced the custom of maintaining a body- 
guard (the (?i6&orim; i.e., "heroes"), and 
thus the nucleus of a standing army was 
formed. Saul had an army of 3,000 select 
warriors (1 Sam. 13:2; 14:52; 24:2). 
David also had a band of soldiers around 
him (1 Sam. 23 : 13 ; 25 : 13). To this band 
he afterwards added the Cherethites and 
the Pelethites (2 Sam. 15 : 18 ; 20 : 7). At 
first the army consisted only of infantry 
(1 Sam. 4 : 10 ; 15 : 4), as the use of horses 
was prohibited (Deut. 17 : 16) ; but chariots 
and horses were afterwards added (2 Sam. 
8 : 4 ; 1 Kings 10 : 26, 28, 29 ; 1 Kings 9 : 19). 
In 1 Kings 9 : 22 there is given" a list of the 
various gradations of rank held by those 
who composed the army. The equipment 
and maintenance of the army were at the 
public expense (2 Sam. 17 : 28, 29 ; 1 Kings 
4 : 27 ; 10 : 16, 17 ; Judg. 20 : 10). At the 
Exodus the number of males above twenty 
years capable of bearing arms was 600,000 
(Ex. 12 : 37). In David's time it mounted 
to the number of 1,300,000 (2 Sam. 24 : 9). 

Ar^non — murmur — the southern bound- 
ary of the territory of Israel beyond Jordan, 
separating it from the land of Moab (Deut. 
3:8, 16). This river (referred to twenty- 
four times in the Bible) rises in the moun- 
tains of Gilead, and after a circuitous course 
of about 80 miles through a deep ravine it 
falls into the Dead Sea nearly opposite 
Engedi. The stream is almost dry in sum- 
mer. It is now called el-Mujeb. The ter- 
ritory of the Amorites extended from the 
Arnon to the Jabbok. 

Ar''oer — ruins. (1.) A town on the 
north bank of the Arnon (Deut. 4:48; 
Judg. 11:26; 2 Kings 10:33), the south- 
ern boundary of the kingdom of Sihon 
(Josh. 12 : 2). It is now called Ardir, 13 
miles west of the Dead Sea. 



ARPAD 



58 



ASAPH 



(2.) One of the towns built by the tribe 
of Gad (Num. 32:34) "before Eabbah" 
(Josh. 13 : 25), the Ammonite capital. It 
was famous in the history of Jephthah 
(Judg. 11 : 33) and of David (2 Sam. 24 : 5). 
(Comp. Isa. 17 : 2; 2 Kings 15 : 29.) 

(3.) A city in the south of Judah, 11 
miles south-west of Beersheba, to which 
David sent presents after recovering the 
spoil from the Amalekites at Ziklag (1 
Sam. 30 : 26, 28). It was the native city 
of two of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11 : 
44). It is now called Ar^arah. 

Ar'pad (Isa. 10 : 9 ; 36 : 19 ; 37 : 13), also 
Ar^phad — support — a Syrian city near 
Hamath, along with which it is invariably 
mentioned (2 Kings 19:13; 18:34; Isa. 
10 : 9), and Damascus (Jer. 49 : 23). After 
a siege of three years it fell (b.c. 742) be- 
fore the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser II. 
It is represented by Tel-Erfad. 

Arphax^ad, son of Shem, born the year 
after the Deluge. He died at the age 
of 438 years (Gen. 11 : 10-13; 1 Chr. 1 : 17, 
18; Luke 3:36). He dwelt in Mesopo- 
tamia, and became, according to the Jew- 
ish historian Josephus, the progenitor of 
the Chaldeans. 

Arrows. At first made of reeds, and 
then of wood tipped with iron. Arrows 
are sometimes figuratively put for light- 
ning (Deut. 32 : 23, 42 ; Ps. 7 : 13 ; 18 : 14 ; 
144:6; Zech. 9:14). They were used in 
war as well as in the chase (Gen. 27 : 3 ; 
49 : 23). They were also used in divination 
(Ezek. 21 : 21). 

The word is frequently employed as a 
symbol of calamity or disease inflicted by 
God (Job 6:4; 34:6; Ps. 38:2; Deut. 
32 : 23. Comp. Ezek. 5 : 16), or of some 
sudden danger (Ps. 91 : 5), or bitter words 
(Ps. 64 : 3), or false testimony (Prov. 25 : 
18). Children are compared to "arrows in 
the hands of a mighty man " (Ps. 127 : 4, 
5). The arrow is also used to denote the 
irresistible energy of the word in the hands 
of the Messiah (Ps. 45 : 5). 

Artaxer^xes, the Greek form of the 
name of several Persian kings. (1.) The 
king who obstructed the rebuilding of the 
temple (Ezra 4:7). He was probably the 
Smerdis of profane history. 



(2. ) The king mentioned in Ezra 7 : 1, 
in the seventh year (B.C. 458) of whose reign 
Ezra led a second colony of Jews back to 
Jerusalem, was probably Longimanus, who 
reigned for forty years (B.C. 464-425) ; the 
grandson of Darius, who, fourteen years 
later, permitted Nehemiah to return and 
rebuild Jerusalem. 

Artificer, a person engaged in any kind 
of manual occupation (Gen. 4 : 22 ; Isa. 3 : 3). 

Artillery— 1 Sam. 20:40— (Heb. keli, 
meaning "apparatus;" here meaning col- 
lectively any missile weapons, as arrows 
and lances. In Revised Version, "weap- 
ons "). This word is derived from the Latin 
artillaria = equijpment of war. 

Ar^vad — ivandering — (Ezek. 27: 8), a small 
island and city on the coast of Syria, men- 
tioned as furnishing mariners and soldiers 
for Tyre. The inhabitants were called Ar- 
vadites. They were descendants from one 
of the sons of Canaan (Gen. 10 : 18). 

A^sa — physician — son of Abijah and 
grandson of Rehoboam, was the third 
king of Judah. He was zealous in main- 
taining the true worship of God, and in 
rooting all idolatry, with its accompanying 
immoralities, out of the land (1 Kings 15 : 
8-14). The Lord gave him and his land 
rest and prosperity. It is recorded of him, 
however, that in his old age, when afflicted, 
he "sought not to the Lord, but to the 
physicians " (comj). Jer. 17 : 5). He died 
in the forty-first year of his reign, greatly 
honoured by his people (2 Chr. 16 : 1-13), 
and was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat. 

As^ahel — made by God — the youngest 
son of Zeruiah, David's sister. He was 
celebrated for his swiftness of foot. When 
fighting against Ish-bosheth at Gibeon, in 
the army of his brother Joab, he was put 
to death by Abner, whom he j^ursued from 
the field of battle (2 Sam. 2 : 18, 19). He 
is mentioned among David's thirty-seven 
mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 24; 1 Chr. 11 : 26). 

Others of the same name are mentioned 
(2 Chr. 17 : 8; 31 : 13; Ezra 10 : 15). 

A^saph — convener, or collector. (1.) A 
Levite ; one of the leaders of David's choir 
(1 Chr. 6 : 39). Psalms 50 and 73-83 in- 
clusive are attributed to him. He is men- 
tioned aloner with David as skilled in 



ASCENSION 



59 



ASHERAH 



music, and a " seer " (2 Chr. 29 : 30). The 
"sons of Asaph," mentioned in 1 Chr. 
25 : 1, 2 Chr. 20 : 14, and Ezra 2 : 41, were 
his descendants, or more probably a class 
of poets or singers who recognized him as 
their master. 

(2.) The "recorder" in the time of 
Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 18, 37). 

(3.) The "keeper of the king's forests," 
to whom Nehemiah requested from Ar- 
taxerxes a "letter" that he might give 
him timber for the temple at Jerusalem 
(Neh. 2 : 8). 

Ascension. See Christ. 

As^enath — an Egyptian name, meaning 
"gift of the sun-god" — daughter of Poti- 
pherah, priest of On or Heliopolis, wife of 
Joseph (Gen. 41 : 45). She was the mother 
of Manasseh and Ephraim (50-52 ; 46 : 20). 

Ash (Heb. o'ren, ' ' tremulous "), men- 
tioned only Isa. 44:14 (R.V., "fir tree"). 
It is rendered "pine tree" both in the 
LXX. and Vulgate versions. There is a 
tree called by the Arabs aran, found still 
in the valleys of Arabia Petrsea, whose leaf 
resembles that of the moimtain ash. This 
may be the tree meant. Our ash tree is 
not known in Syria, 

Ash'^dod — stromjhold — a Philistine city 
(Josh. 15 : 47), about midway between 
Gaza and Joppa, and 3 miles from the 
Mediterranean. It was one of the chief 
seats of the worship of Dagon (1 Sam. 5 : 5). 
It belonged to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 47), but it never came into their ac- 
tual possession. It was an important city, 
as it stood on the highroad from Egypt to 
Palestine, and hence was strongly fortified 
(2 Chr. 26 : 6 ; Isa. 20 : 1). Uzziah took it 
and held possession of it for a short time ; 
but fifty years after his death it was taken 
by the Assyrians (b.c. 758), and its inhabi- 
tants were carried captive into Assyria. 

The only reference to it in the New Tes- 
tament, where it is called Azotus, is in 
the account of Philip's return from Gaza 
(Acts 8 : 40). It is now called Eshdud. 

Ash'doth-pis'gah (Deut. 3:17; Josh. 
12:3; 13:20) in Authorized Version, but 
in Revised Version translated "slopes of 
Pisgah." In Deut. 4:49 it is translated 
m the Authorized Version "springs of 



Pisgah." The name Ashdoth is translated 
"springs " in the Authorized Version, but 
"slopes" in the Revised Version, of Josh. 
10 : 40 and 12 : 8. It has been identified 
with the springs under Mount Nebo, no^v 
called 'AyHn MUsa. 

Ashler — happy — Jacob's eighth son ; his 
mother was Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. 
30 : 13) . Of the tribe founded by him nothing- 
is recorded beyond its holding a place in the 
list of the tribes (35:26; 46:17; Ex. 1:4, 
etc. ). It increased in numbers twenty-nine 
per cent, during the thirty- eight years' wan- 
derings. The place of this tribe during the 
march through the desert was between Dan 
and Naphtali (Num. 2 : 27). The boundaries 
of the inheritance given to it, which con- 




MAP SHOWING THE TERRITOKY OP ASHER. 

tamed some of the richest soil in Palestine, 
and the names of its towns, are recorded 
in Josh. 19 : 24-31 ; Judg. 1 : 31, 32. Asher 
and Simeon were the only tribes west of 
the Jordan which furnished no hero or 
judge for the nation. Anna the prophetess 
was of this tribe (Luke 2 : 36). 

Ashe'rah, and pi. Ashe'rim in Revised 
Version, instead of " grove " and "groves " 
of the Authorized Version. This was the 
name of a sensual Canaanitish goddess As- 
tarte, the feminine of the Assyrian Ishtar. 
Its symbol was the stem of a tree deprived 
of its boughs, and rudely shaped into an 
image, and planted in the ground. Such 



ASHES 



60 



ASHPENAZ 



religious symbols ("groves") are frequently 
alluded to in Scripture (Ex. 34:13; Judg. 
6 : 25 ; 2 Kings 23 : 6 ; 1 Kings 16 : 33, etc. ). 
These images were also sometimes made of 
silver or of carved stone (2 Kings 21 : 7 ; 
"the graven image of Asherah," E-.V.). 
(See Grove [1]). 

Ashes. The ashes of a red heifer burned 
entire (Num. 19 : 5) when sprinkled on the 
unclean made them ceremonially clean 
(Heb. 9 : 13). 

To cover the head with ashes was a 
token of self- abhorrence and humiliation 
(2 Sam. 13:19; Esther 4:3; Jer. 6:26, 
etc.). 

To feed on ashes (Isa. 44 : 20), means to 
seek that which will prove to be vain and 



unsatisfactory, and hence it denotes the 
unsatisfactory nature of idol - worship. 
(Comp. Hos. 12:1.) 
Ash^kelon = Askelon = Ascalon, was 

one of the five cities of the Philistines 
(Josh. 13:3; 1 Sam. 6:17). It stood on 
the shore of the Mediterranean, 12 miles 
north of Gaza. It is mentioned on an in- 
scription at Karnak in Egypt as having 
been taken by king Rameses II., the op- 
pressor of the Hebrews. In the time of 
the judges (1 : 18) it fell into the possession 
of the tribe of Judah ; but it was soon after 
retaken by the Philistines, who were not 
finally dispossessed till the time of Alex- 
ander the Great. Samson (2 Sam. 1 : 20) 
went down to this place from Timnath, 







,1; -yc^iH' 




BUINS OF ASHKELON. 



and slew thirty men and took their spoil. 
The prophets foretold its destruction (Jer. 
25 : 20; 47 : 5, 7). It became a noted place 
in the Middle Ages, having been the scene 
of many a bloody battle between the Sara- 
cens and the Crusaders. It was besieged 
and taken by Richard the Lion-hearted, 
and "within its walls and towers now 
standing he held his court. " Ascalon was 
famous for its wine, its cypresses, figs, 
olives, pomegranates, and also for a kind 
of onion called ascalonice in the Latin of 
the Middle Ages, eschalotes by the French, 
our shallots. 



Ash^kenaz, one of the three sons of 
Gomer (Gen. 10 : 3), and founder of one of 
the tribes of the Japhetic race. They are 
mentioned in connection Avith Minni and 
Ararat, and hence their original seat must 
have been in Armenia (Jer. 51 : 27), prob- 
ably near the Black Sea, which, from their 
founder, was first called Axenus, and after- 
wards the Euxine. 

Ash^penaz, the master of the eunuchs 
of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1 : 3), the "Rab- 
saris " of the court. His position was 
similar to that of the Kislar-arja of the 
modern Turkish sultans. 



ASHTAEOTH 



61 



ASNAPPER 



Ash'taroth, a city of Bashan, in the 
kingdom of Og (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 12:4; 
13 : 12; 9 : 10). It was in the half -tribe of 
Manasseh (Josh. 13 : 12), and as a Levit- 
ical city was given to the Gershonites (1 
Chr. 6:71). Uzziah, one of David's val- 
iant men (1 Chr. 11 : 44), is named as of 
this city. Its identification is uncertain. 
Some identify it with the modern Busrah, 
capital of the HaurS-n, seeing it bears the 
name Beesh-terah (Josh. 21:27), a con- 
traction for Beth-eshterah, i.e., "the house 
of Ashtaroth." 

Ash'teroth Kaxna' ita— A shteroth of the 
two horns— the abode of the Rephaim (Gen. 
14:5). It may be identified with Ash- 
taroth preceding; called "Karnaim"— i.e., 
the "two-homed"— from the worship of 
Ashteroth. The Samaritan version ren- 
ders the word by " Sunamein," the present 
es-Sunamein, 28 miles south of Damascus. 

Ash''toreth, the moon goddess of the 
Phoenicians, representing the passive prin- 




ASHTORETH. 

eiple in nature, their principal female 
deity; frequently associated with the name 
of Baal the sun-god, their chief male deity 
( Judg. 10 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 4 ; 12 : 10). These 
names often occur in the plural (Ashtaroth, 
Baalim), probably as indicating either 
different statues or different modifications 
of the deities. This deity is spoken of 
as Ashtoreth of the Sidonians. She was 
the Ishtar of the Accadians and the As- 
tarte of the Greeks (Jer. 44:17; 1 Kings 
11 : 5, 33 ; 2 Kings 23 : 13). There was a 
temple of this goddess among the Philis- 
tines in the time of Saul (1 Sam. 31 : 10). 
Under the name of Ishtar, she was one of 
the great deities of the Assyrians. The 
Phoenicians called her Astarte. Solomon 



introduced the worship of this idol (1 
Kings 11 : 33). Jezebel's 400 priests were 
i:)robably employed in its service (1 Kings 
18:19). It was called the "queen of 
heaven " (Jer. 44 : 25). 

Ash''urites, mentioned among those over 
whom Ish-bosheth was made king (2 Sam. 
2:9). 

A^sia is used to denote Proconsular Asia, 
a Roman province which embraced the 
western parts of Asia Minor, and of which 
Ephesus was the capital, in Acts 2:9; 
6:9; 16:6; 19:10,22; 20 : 4, 16, 18, etc., 
and probably Asia Minor in Acts 19 : 26, 
27 ; 21 : 27 ; 24 : 18, and 27 : 2. Proconsular 
Asia contained the seven churches of the 
Apocalypse (Rev. 1:11). The "chiefs of 




PROCONSULAR ASIA AND THE SEVEN CHURCHES. 

Asia" (Acts 19 : 31) were certain wealthy citi- 
zens who were annually elected to preside 
over the games and religious festivals of the 
several cities to which they belonged. Some 
of these " Asiarchs " were Paul's friends. 

Asnap'per — probably the same as Assur- 
bani-pal (Sardanapalos of the Greeks), 
styled the "great and noble" (Ezra 4: 10) 
—was the son and successor (B.C. 670) of 
Esar-haddon {q.v.). He was "hixurious, 
ambitious, and cruel, but a magnificent 
patron of literature." He formed at Nin- 
eveh a library of clay tablets, numbering 
about 10,000. These are now mostly in the 
British Museum. They throw much light 
on the history and antiquities of Assyria. 

Asnapper had much difficulty in retain- 



ASP 



62 



ASSURANCE. 



ing possession of his vast empire. Before 
his death Egypt had successfully revolted 
from under his power, and Babylonia had 
regained much of its independence. He 
was succeeded by Esar-haddon II., the last 
of the Assyrian kings, and under his reign 
Nineveh was besieged and destroyed, and 
the second Assyrian empire perished hope- 
lessly. (See Nineveh.) 

Asp (Heb. pethen)— Dent. 32:33; Job 
20 : 14, 16 ; Isa. 11 : 8. It is the same as 
the adder mentioned in Ps. 58 : 4 ; 91 : 13. 
It was probably the Egyptian cobra {Naja 
haje), which was very poisonous (Rom. 3 : 
13 ; Gr. aspis). The peace and security of 
Messiah's reign are represented by the 
figure of a child playing on the hole of the 
asp. (See Adder, Cockatrice. ) 

Ass, a quadruped frequently mentioned 
in Scripture. Of the domesticated species 
we read of — (1.) The she ass (Heb. 'athon), 
so named from its slowness (Gen. 12 : 16 ; 
45:23; Num. 22:23; 1 Sam. 9:3). (2.) 
The male ass (Heb. hamor), the common 
working ass of Western Asia, so called 
from its red coloiir. Issachar is compared 
to a strong ass (Gen. 49 : 14). It was for- 
bidden to yoke together an ass and an ox 
in the plough (Deut. 22 : 10). (3. ) The ass's 
colt (Heb. 'air), mentioned Judg. 10 : 4 ; 
12 : 14. It is rendered " foal " in Gen. 32 : 
15 ; 49 : 11. (Comp. Job 11 : 12 ; Isa. 30 : 6.) 
The ass is an unclean animal, because it 
does not chew the cud (Lev. 11 : 26. Comp. 
2 Kings 6 : 25). Asses constituted a con- 
siderable portion of wealth in ancient times 
(Gen. 12 : 16 ; 30 : 43 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 30 ; Job 
1:3; 42 : 12). They were noted for their 
spirit and their attachment to their master 
(Isa. 1 : 3). They are frequently spoken of 
as having been ridden upon — as by Abra- 
ham (Gen. 22 : 3), Balaam (Num. 22 : 21), 
the disobedient prophet (1 Kings 13 : 23), 
the family of Abdon the judge, seventy in 
number (Judg. 12 : 14), Zipporah (Ex. 4 : 
20), the Shunammite (1 Sam. 25 : 30), etc. 
Zechariah (9 : 9) predicted our Lord's tri- 
umphal entrance into Jerusalem, "riding 
upon an ass, and upon a colt," etc. (Matt. 
21:5, R. v.). 

Of wild asses two species are noticed — 
(1) that called in Hebrew 'arod, mentioned 



Job 39 : 5 and Dan. 5 : 21, noted for its 
swiftness ; and (2) that called pe're, the wild 
ass of Asia (Job 39 : 6-8 ; 6 : 5 ; 11 : 12 ; Isa. 
32 : 14 ; Jer. 2 : 24 ; 14 : 6, etc. ). The wild 
ass was distinguished for its fleetness and 
its extreme shyness. In allusion to his 
mode of life, Ishmael is likened to a wild 
ass (Gen. 16 : 12. Here the word is simply 
rendered "wild" in the Authorized Ver- 
sion, but in the Revised Version, "wild- 
ass among men "). 

As^shur, second son of Shem (Gen. 10 : 22 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 17). He went from the land of 
Shinar and built Nineveh, etc. (Gen. 10 : 11, 
12). He probably gave his name to As- 
syria, which is the usual translation of the 
word, although the form Asshur is some- 
times retained (Num. 24:22, 24; Ezek. 
27:23, etc.). In Gen. 2:14 "Assyria" 
ought rather to be "Asshur," which was 
the original capital of Assyria, a city repre- 
sented by the mounds of Kalah Sherghat, 
on the west bank of the Tigris. This city 
was founded in the Accadian period, before 
the Semites migrated into Assyria. It is 
an Accadian word, meaning "water-bank." 
(See Calah, Nineveh.) 

As'^sos, a sea-port town of Proconsular 
Asia, in the district of Mysia, on the north 
shore of the Gulf of Adramyttium. Paul 
came hither on foot along the Roman road 
from Troas (Acts 20 : 13, 14), a distance of 
20 miles. It was about 30 miles distant 
from Troas by sea. The island of Lesbos 
lay opposite it, about 7 miles distant. 

Assur^ance. The resurrection of Jesus 
(Acts 17 : 31) is the "assurance " (Gr. pistis, 
generally rendered "faith") or pledge God 
has given that his revelation is true and 
worthy of acceptance. The "full assur- 
ance [Gr. plerophoria, ' full bearing '] of 
faith" (Heb. 10:22) is a fulness of faith 
in God which leaves no room for doubt. 
The "full assurance of understanding" 
(Col. 2:2) is an entire unwavering con- 
viction of the truth of the declarations of 
Scripture — a joyful steadfastness on the 
part of any one of conviction that he has 
grasped the very truth. The "full assur- 
ance of hope " (Heb. 6 : 11) is a sure and 
well-grounded expectation of eternal glory 
(2 Tim. 4 : 7, 8). This assurance of hope is 



ASSYRIA 



63 



ASSYRIA 



the assurance of a man's own particular 
salvation. 

This infallible assurance, which believers 
may attain unto as to their oion personal 
salvation, is founded on the truth of the 
promises (Heb. 6 : 18), on the inward evi- 
dence of Christian graces, and on the testi- 
mony of the Spirit of adoption (Rom. 8 : 16). 
That such a certainty may be attained 
appears from the testimony of Scripture 
(Rom. 8 : 16 ; 1 John 2:3; 3 : 14), from the 
command to seek after it (Heb. 6 : 11 ; 2 
Pet. 1 : 10), and from the fact that it has 
been attained (2 Tim. 1:12; 4:7, 8; 1 
John 2 : 3 ; 4 : 16). 

This full assurance is not of the essence 
of saving faith. It is the result of faith, 
and posterior to it in the order of nature, 
and so frequently also in the order of time. 
True believers may be destitute of it. 
Trust itself is something different from the 
evidence that we do trust. Believers, more- 
over, are exhorted to go on to something 
beyond what they at present have when 
they are exhorted to seek the grace of full 
assurance (Heb. 10:22; 2 Pet. 1:5-10). 
The attainment of this grace is a duty, 
and is to be diligently sought. 

" Genuine assurance naturally leads to a 
legitimate and abiding peace and joy, and 
to love and thankfulness to God; and these 
from the very laws of our being to greater 
buoyancy, strength, and cheerfulness in 
the practice of obedience in every depart- 
ment of duty." 

This assurance may in various ways be 
shaken, diminished, and intermitted, but 
the principle out of which it springs can 
never be lost. (See Paith. ) 

Assyr'ia, the name derived from the city 
Asshur on the Tigris, the original capital 
of the country, was originally a colony from 
Babylonia, and was ruled by viceroys from 
that kingdom. It was a mountainous 
region lying to the north of Babylonia, 
extending along the Tigris as far as to 
the high mountain range of Armenia, the 
Gordisean or Carduchian mountains. It 
at length, in the seventeenth or sixteenth 
century B. c. , became an independent and a 
conquering power, and shook off the yoke 
of its Babylonian masters. It subdued the 



whole of Northern Asia. The Assyrians 
were Semites (Gen. 10 : 22), but in process 
of time non- Semite tribes mingled with 
the inhabitants. They were a military 
people, the "Romans of the East." 

Of the early history of the kingdom of 
Assyria little is positively known. In B.C. 
1120 Tiglath-pileser I., the greatest of the 
Assyrian kings, "crossed the Euphrates, 
defeated the kings of the Hittites, captured 
the city of Carchemish, and advanced as far 
as the shores of the Mediterranean." He 
may be regarded as the founder of the first 
Assyrian empire. After this the Assyrians 
gradually extended their power, subjugat- 
ing the states of Northern Syria. In the 
reign of Ahab, king of Israel, the Assyrian 
king marched an army against the Syrian 
states, whose allied army he encountered 
and vanquished at Karkar. This led to 
Ahab's casting off the yoke of Damascus 
and allying himself with Judah. Some 
years after this the Assyrian king marched 
an army against Hazael, king of Damas- 
cus. He besieged and took that city. He 
also brought under tribute Jehu, and the 
cities of Tyre and Sidon. 

About a hundred years after this (B.C. 
745 the crown was seized by a military 
adventurer called Pul, who assumed the 
name of Tiglath-pileser II. He directed 
his armies into Syria, which had by this 
time regained its independence, and took 
(B.C. 740) Arpad, near Aleppo, after a siege 
of three years, and reduced Hamath. 
Azariah (TJzziah) was an ally of the king 
of Hamath, and thus was compelled by 
Tiglath-pileser to do him homage and pay 
a yearly tribute. 

In B.C. 738, in the reign of Menahem, 
king of Israel, Pul invaded Israel, and im- 
posed on it a heavy tribute (2 Kings 15 : 8). 
Ahaz, the king of Judah, when engaged in 
a war against Israel and Syria, appealed 
for help to this Assyrian king by means of 
a present of gold and silver (2 Kings 16 : 8) ; 
who accordingly "marched against Da- 
mascus, defeated and put Rezin to death, 
and besieged the city itself." Leaving a 
portion of his. army to continue the siege, 
' ' he advanced through the province east of 
Jordan, spreading fire and sword," and 



ASSYRIA 



64 



ASTROLOGER 




MAP OF ASSYRIA. 



became master of Philistia, and took Sa- 
maria and Damascus. He died B.C. 727, 
and was succeeded by Shalmanezer IV., 
who ruled till B.C. 722. He also invaded 
Syria (2 Kings 17 : 5), but was deposed in 
favour of Sargon {q.v.) the Tartan, or com- 
mander-in-chief of the army, who took 
Samaria {q.v.) after a siege of three years, 
and so put an end to the kingdom of Israel, 
carrying the people away into captivity, 
B.C. 722 (2 Kings 17:1-6, 24; 18:7, 9). 
He also overran the land of Judah, and 
took the city of Jerusalem (Isa. 10 : 6, 12, 
22, 24, 34). Mention is next made of Sen- 
nacherib (B.C. 705), the son and successor 
of Sargon (2 Kings 18 : 13 ; 19 : 37 ; Isa. 7 : 
17, 18) ; and then of Esar-haddon, his son 
and successor, who took Manasseh, king 
of Judah, captive, and kept him for some 
time a prisoner at Babylon, which he alone 
of all the Assyrian kings made the seat of 
his government (2 Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). 
After this there is no further mention 
made in Scripture of the kingdom of As- 
syria. From an early period of its history 
Assyria had entered on a conquering career, 



and having absorbed Babylon, the king 
doms of Hamath, Damascus, and Samaria, 
it conquered Phoenicia, and made Judea feu- 
datory, and subjected Philistia and Idumea. 
At length, however, its power declined. 
In B.C. 727 the Babylonians threw off the 
rule of the Assyrians, under the leadership 
of the powerful Chaldean prince Merodach- 
baladan (2 Kings 20 : 12), who, after twelve 
years, was subdued by Sargon, who now re- 
united the kingdom, and ruled over a vast 
empire. But on his death the smouldering 
flames of rebellion again burst forth, and 
the Babylonians and Medes successfully 
asserted their independence (B.C. 625), and 
Assyria fell according to the prophecies of 
Isaiah (10 : .5-19), Nahum (3 : 19), and Zeph- 
aniah (3 : 13), and the many separate king- 
doms of which it was composed ceased to 
recognize the "great king" (2 Kings 18: 
19 ; Isa. 36 : 4). Ezekiel (31) attests (about 
B.C. 586) how completely Assyria was over- 
thrown. It ceased to be a nation. (See 
Nineveh, Babylon.) 

Astroroger (Dan. 1 : 20 ; 2 : 2, 10, 27, etc.) 
— Heb. 'askshaph', an enchanter — one who 



ASTRONOMY 



65 



ATHENS 



professes to divine future events by the 
appearance of the stars. This science 
flourished among the Chaldeans. It was 
positively forbidden to the Jews (Deut. 
4 : 19 ; 18 : 10 ; Isa. 47 : 13). 

Astronomy. The Hebrews were devout 
students of the wonders of the starry 
firmament (Amos 5:8; Ps. 19). In the 
Book of Job, which is the oldest book of 
the Bible in all probability, the constella- 
tions are distinguished and named. Men- 
tion is made of the "morning star" (Rev. 
2 : 28 ; comp. Isa. 14 : 12), the " seven stars " 
and "Pleiades," "Orion," "Arcturus," the 
"Great Bear" (Amos 5:8; Job 9:9; 
38 :31), "the crooked serpent," Draco (Job 
26:13), the Dioscuri, or Gemini, "Castor 
and Pollux " (Acts 28 : 11). The stars were 
called "the host of heaven" (Isa. 40:26; 
Jer. 33 : 22). 

The oldest divisions of time were mainly 
based on the observation of the movements 
of the heavenly bodies, the "ordinances of 
heaven" (Gen. 1:14-18; Job 38:33; Jer. 
31 : 35 ; 33 : 25). Such observations led to the 
division of the year into months, and the 
mapping out of the appearances of the stars 
into twelve portions, which received from 
the Greeks the name of the "zodiac." 
The word "Mazzaroth" (Job 38 : 32) means, 
as the margin notes, "the twelve signs " of 
the zodiac. Astronomical observations were 
also necessary among the Jews in order to 
the fixing of the proper time for sacred 
ceremonies — the " new moons, " the "pass- 
over," etc. Many allusions are found to 
the display of God's wisdom and power as 
seen in the starry heavens (Ps. 8 ; 19 : 1-6 ; 
Isa. 51 : 6, etc. ). 

Asup^pim (1 Chr. 26 : 15, 17, Authorized 
Version ; but in Revised Version, ' ' store- 
house "), properly the house of stores for 
the priests. In Neh. 12 : 25 the Authorized 
Version has "thresholds," marg. "treas- 
uries" or "assemblies ;" Revised Version, 
"storehouses." 

A''tad. — buckthorn — a place where Joseph 
and his brethren, when on their way from 
Egypt to Hebron with the remains of their 
father Jacob, made for seven days a "great 
and very sore mourning. " On this account 
the Canaanites called it " Abel-mizraim " 



(Gen. 50 : 10, 11). It was probably near 
Hebron. The word is rendered "bramble " 
in Judg. 9:14, 15, and "thorns" in Ps. 
58:9. 

At''aroth — crowns. (1.) A city east of 
Jordan, not far from Gilead (Num. 32 : 3). 

(2.) A town on the border of Ephraim 
and Benjamin (Josh. 16 : 2, 7), called also 
Ataroth-adar (16 : 5 ; 18 : 13). 

(3.) "Ataroth of the house of Joab " 
(1 Chr. 2 : 54), a town of Judah inhabited 
by the descendants of Caleb. 

After— shut; lame. (1. ) Ezra 2 : 16. (2.) 
Neh. 10:17. (3.) Ezra 2: 42. 

Athali^ah — whom God afflicts. (1.) The 
daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and the 
wife of Jehoram, king of Judah (2 Kings 
8:18), who "walked in the ways of the 
house of Ahab," influenced thereto by his 
idolatrous wife (2 Chr. 21 : 6). On the 
death of her husband and of her son Aha- 
ziah, she resolved to seat herself on the 
vacant throne. She slew all Ahaziah's 
children except Joash, the youngest (2 
Kings 11 : 1, 2), After a reign of six years 
she was put to death in an insurrection (2 
Kings 11:20; 2 Chr. 21:6; 22:10-12; 
23 : 15), stirred up among the people in con- 
nection with Josiah's being crowned as king. 

(2.) Ezra 8: 7. (3.) 1 Chr. 8:26. 

Ath^ens, the capital of Attica, the most 
celebrated city of the ancient world, the 




THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS. 

seat of Greek literature and art during the 
golden period of Grecian history. Its in- 



ATONEMENT 



66 



AUGUSTUS 



habitants were fond of novelty (Acts 17 : 21), 
and were remarkable for their zeal in the 
worship of the gods. It was a sarcastic 
saying of the Roman satirist that it was 
"easier to find a god at Athens than a 
man. " 

On his second missionary journey Paul 
visited this city (Acts 17 : 14 ; comp. 1 Thess. 
8:1), and delivered in the Areopagus his 
famous speech (17 : 22-31). The altar of 
which Paul there speaks as dedicated ' ' to 
the [properly an] imknown God " (23) was 
probably one of several which bore the 
same inscription. It is supposed that they 
originated in the practice of letting loose a 
flock of sheep and goats in the streets of 
Athens on the occasion of a plague, and of 
offering them up in sacrifice, at the spot 
where they lay down, "to the god con- 
cerned." 

Atone^ment. This word does not occur 
in the Authorized Version of the New 
Testament except in Rom. 5 : 11, where in 
the Revised Version the word "reconcilia- 
tion " is used. In the Old Testament it is 
of frequent occurrence. 

The meaning of the word is simply at-one- 
ment ; i.e., the state of being at one or 
being reconciled, so that atonement is re- 
conciliation. Thus it is used to denote 
the effect which flows from the death of 
Christ. 

But the word is also used to denote that 
by which this reconciliation is brought 
about — viz. , the death of Christ itself ; and 
when so used it means satisfaction, and in 
this sense to make an atonement for one is 
to make satisfaction for his offences (Ex. 
32:30; Lev. 4:26; 5:16; Num. 6:11), 
and, as regards the person, to reconcile, to 
propitiate God in his behalf. 

By the atonement of Christ we generally 
mean his work by which he expiated our 
sins. But in Scripture usage the word de- 
notes the reconciliation itself, and not the 
means by which it is effected. When 
speaking of Christ's saving work, the word 
"satisfaction," the word used by the theo- 
logians of the Reformation, is to be pre- 
ferred to the word "atonement." Christ's 
satisfaction is all he did in the room and 
in behalf of sinners to satisfy the demands 



of the law and justice of God, Christ's 
work consisted of suffering and obedience, 
and these were vicarious; i.e-, were not 
merely for our benefit, but were in our 
stead, as the suffering and obedience of our 
vicar, or sxibstitute. Our guilt is expiated 
by the punishment which our vicar bore, 
and thus God is rendered propitious ; i.e., 
it is now consistent with his justice to 
manifest his love to transgressors. Expia- 
tion has been made for sin ; i.e., it is 
covered. The means by which it is covered 
is vicarious satisfaction, and the result of 
its being covered is atonement or reconcili- 
ation. To make atonement is to do that 
by virtue of which alienation ceases and 
reconciliation is brought about. Christ's 
mediatorial work and sufferings are the 
ground or efficient cause of reconciliation 
with God. They rectify the disturbed re- 
lations between God and man, taking away 
the obstacles interposed by sin to their 
fellowship and concord. The reconcilia- 
tion is mutual; i.e., it is not only that of 
sinners toward God, but also and pre- 
eminently that of God toward sinners, 
effected by the sin-offering he himself 
provided, so that consistently with the 
other attributes of his character his love 
might flow forth in all its fulness of blessing 
to men. 

Atone^ment, Day of, the great day of 
national humiliation, "the fast" (Acts 
27 : 9), and the only one commanded in the 
law of Moses, The mode of its observance 
is described in Lev. 16:3-10; 23:26-32; 
and Num. 29 : 7-11. 

It was kept on the tenth day of the 
month Tisri — i.e., five days before the feast 
of Tabernacles — and lasted from sunset to 
sunset. (SeeAzAZEL.) 

Attali'a, a town on the coast of Pam- 
phylia, from which Paul and Barnabas 
sailed into Syria on their return to An- 
tioch after the first missionary journey 
(Acts 14 : 25). It is now called Antali. 

Augus^tus, the cognomen of the first 
Roman emperor, C. Julius Caesar Octavi- 
anus, during whose reign Christ was born 
(Luke 2:1). His decree that "all the 
world should be taxed " was the divinely 
ordered occasion of Jesus' being born, ac- 



AUGUSTUS 



67 



aZAL 



cording to prophecy (Micah 5 : 2), in Beth- 
lehem. This name being simply a title 
meaning "majesty" or "venerable," first 
given to him by the senate (b.c. 27), was 
borne by succeeding emperors. Before his 




COIN OF C^SAR AUGUSTUS. 

death (a.d. 14) he associated Tiberius with 
him in the empire (Luke 3 : 1), by whom he 
was succeeded. 

Augus'tus' band (Acts 27 : 1 : literally, 
of Sebaste, the Greek form of Augusta, the 
name given to Cjesarea in honour of Augus- 
tus Caesar). Probably this " band " or 
cohort consisted of Samaritan soldiers be- 
longing to Csesarea. 

A''va, a place in Assyria from which 
colonies were brought to Samaria (2 Kings 
17 : 24). It is probably the san^ie with Ivah 
(18 : 34 ; 19 : 13 ; Isa. 37 : 13). It has been 
identified with Hit on the Euphrates. 

A'ven — -nothingness ; vanity. (1. ) Hosea 
speaks of the "high places of Aven " (10 : 8), 
by which he means Bethel. He also calls 
it Beth-aven — i.e., "the house of vanity " 
(4:15) — on account of the golden calves 
Jeroboam had set up there (1 Kings 12 : 28). 

(2.) Translated by the LXX. "On " in 
Ezek. 30 : 17. The Egyptian Heliopolis or 
city of On {q.v.). 

(3. ) In Amos 1 : 5 it denotes the Syrian 
Heliopolis, the modern Baalhec. 

Aven^ger of blood (Heb. goel, from verb 
gadl, "to be near of kin," "to redeem"), the 
nearest relative of a murdered i^erson. It 
was his right and duty to slay the murderer 
(2 Sam: 14 : 7, 11) if he found him outside of 
a city of refuge. In order that this law 
might be guarded against abuse, Moses ap- 
pointed six cities of refuge (Ex. 21 : 13 ; 
Num. 35 : 13 ; Deut. 19 : 1, 9). These were in 
different parts of the coimtrj^, and every 



facility was afforded the manslayer that 
he might flee to the city that lay nearest 
him for safety. Into the city of refuge 
the avenger durst not follow him. This 
arrangement apjDlied only to cases where 
the death was not premeditated. The 
case had to be investigated by the author- 
ities of the citj^, and the wilful murderer 
was on no account to be spared. He was 
regarded as an impure and polluted per- 
son, and was delivered up to the goel 
(Deut. 19:11-13). If the offence was 
merely manslaughter, then the fugitive 
must remain within the city till the death 
of the high priest (Num. 35 : 25). 

A''vim, a people dwelling in Hazerim, or 
"the villages" or "encampments" on the 
south-west corner of the sea-coast (Deut. 
2 : 23). They were subdued and driven 
northward by the Caphtorim. A trace of 
them is afterwards found in Josh. 18 : 23, 
where they are called Avites. 

Awl, an instrument only referred to in 
connection with the ctistom of boring the 
ear of a slave (Ex. 21 : 6 ; Deut. 15 : 17), 
in token of his volunteering x)erpetual ser- 
vice when he might be free. (Comp, Ps. 
40:6; Isa. 50:5.) 

Axe, used in the Authorized Version of 
Deut. 19 : 5 ; 20 : 19 ; 1 Kings 6:7, as the 
translation of a Hebrew word which means 
"chopping." It was used for felling trees 
(Isa. 10 : 34) and hewing timber for build- 
ing. It is the rendering of a different 
word in Judg. 9:48, 1 Sam. 13:20, 21, 
Ps. 74 : 5, which refers to its sharpness. 
In 2 Kings 6 : 5 it is the translation of a 
word used with reference to its being made 
of iron. In Isa. 44 : 12 the Revised Version 
renders by "axe" the Hebrew madtsad, 
which means a " hewing " instrument. In 
the Authorized Version it is rendered 
"tongs." It is also used in Jer. 10 : 3, and 
rendered "axe. " The "battle-axe " (army 
of Medes and Persians) mentioned in Jer, 
51 : 20 was probably, as noted in the margin 
of the Revised Version, a "maul " or heavy 
mace. In Ps. 74 : 6 the word so rendered 
means "feller." (See the figurative expres- 
sion in Matt. 3 : 10 ; Luke 3:9.) 

A^zal (Zech. 14:5) should perhaps be 
rendered "very near " = "the Avay of es- 



AZARIAH 



68 



AZMAVETH 



cape shall be made easy." If a proper 
name, it may denote some place near the 
western extremity of the valley here spoken 
of near Jerusalem. 

Azari''ah — whom God hath helped. 
(1.) Son of Ethan, of the tribe of Judah 
(1 Chr. 2:8). 

(2. ) Son of Ahimaaz, who succeeded his 
grandfather Zadok as high priest (1 Chr. 
6 : 9 ; 1 Kings 4 : 2) in the days of Solomon. 
He ofl&ciated at the consecration of the 
temple (1 Chr. 6 : 10). 

(3.) The son of Johanan, high priest in 
the reign of Abijah and Asa (2 Chr. 6:10, 

11). 

(4. ) High priest in the reign of Uzziah, 
king of Judah (2 Kings 14:21; 2 Chr. 
26 : 17-20). He was contemporary with 
the prophets Isaiah, Amos, and Joel. 

(5.) High priest in the days of Heze- 
kiah (2 Chr. 31 : 10-13). Of the house of 
Zadok. 

(6.) Several other priests and Levites of 
this name are mentioned (1 Chr. 6 : 36 ; 
Ezra 7:1; 1 Chr. 9 : 11 ; Neh. 3 : 23, 
etc.). 

(7.) The original name of Abed-nego 
(Dan. 1:6, 7, 11, 16). He was of the royal 
family of Judah, and with his other two 
companions remarkable for his personal 
beauty and his intelligence as well as 
piety. 

(8. ) The son of Oded, a remarkable pro- 
phet in the days of Asa (2 Chr. 15 : 1). He 
stirred up the king and the people to a 
g^eat national reformation. 

Aza'zel (Lev. 16 : 8, 10, 26, Revised Ver- 
sion only here ; rendered " scape-goat " in 
the Authorized Version). This word has 
given rise to many different views. Some 
Jewish interpreters regard it as the name 
of a place some 12 miles east of Jerusalem, 
in the wilderness. Others take it to be 
the name of an evil spirit, or even of Satan. 
But when we remember that the two goats 
together form a type of Christ, on whom 
the Lord "laid the iniquity of us all," and 
examine into the root meaning of this word 
{viz., "separation"), the interpretation of 
those who regard the one goat as repre- 
senting the atonement made, and the other, 
that "for Azazel," as representing the 



effect of the great work of atonement {viz., 
the complete removal of sin), is certainly to 
be preferred. The one goat which was 
" for Jehovah " was offered as a sin-offer- 
ing, by which atonement was made. But 
the sins must also be visibly banished, and 
therefore they were symbolically laid by 
confession on the other goat, which was 
then "sent away for Azazel" into the 
wilderness. The form of this word indi- 
cates intensity, and therefore signifies the 
total separation of sin : it was wholly car- 
ried away. It was important that the 
result of the sacrifices offered by the high 
priest alone in the sanctuary shoiild be 
embodied in a visible transaction, and 
hence the dismissal of the "scape-goat." 
It was of no consequence what became 
of it, as the whole import of the trans- 
action lay in its being sent into the wil- 
derness bearing away sin. As the goat 
"for Jehovah" was to witness to the 
demerit of sin and the need of the blood 
of atonement, so the goat "for Azazel" 
was to witness to the efficacy of the sacri- 
fice and the result of the shedding of blood 
in the taking away of sin. 

Azazi''ah — ivhooa Jehovah strengthened. 
(1.) One of the Levitical harpers in the 
temple (1 Chr. 15 : 21). 

(2. ) . The father of Hoshea, who was made 
ruler over the Ephraimites (1 Chr. 27 : 20). 

(3.) One who had charge of the temple 
offerings (2 Chr. 31 : 13). 

Aze^kah — dug ovei — a town in the She- 
phelah or low hills of Judah (Josh. 15 : 35), 
where the five confederated Amoritish 
kings were defeated by Joshua and their 
army destroyed by a hailstorm (10 : 10, 11). 
It was one of the places re-occupied by the 
Jews on their return from the Captivity 
(Neh. 11 : 30). 

A''zel — noble — a descendant of king Saul 
(1 Chr. 8 : 37 ; 9 : 43, 44). 

Azma^veth — stromj as death, (1.) One 
of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 31). 

(2. ) An overseer over the royal treasury 
in the time of David and Solomon (1 Chr. 
27 : 25). 

(3.) A town in the tribe of Judah, near 
Jerusalem (Neh. 12 : 29 ; Ezra 2 : 24). 

(4.) IChr. 8:36- 



AZOTUS 



69 



BAALBEC 



Azo'tus, the Grecized form (Acts 8 : 40, 
etc.) of Ashdod (q.v.). 

Azu^bah — deserted. (1.) The wife of 
Caleb (1 Chr. 2 : 18, 19). 

(2. ) The daughter of Shilhi, and mother 
of king Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22 : 42). 

Az'ur and Az'zur — helper. (1.) The 



father of Hananiah, a false prophet ( Jer. 
28 : 1). 

(2.) The father of Jaazaniah (Ezek. 
11:1). 

(3.) One of those who sealed the cove- 
nant with Jehovah on the return from 
Babylon (Neh. 10 : 17). 



B 



Ba'al — lord. (1.) The name appropri- 
ated to the principal male god of the 
Phoenicians. It is found in several ]Dlaces 
in the plural Baalim ( Judg. 2 : 11 ; 10 : 10 ; 
1 Kings 18 : 18 ; Jer. 2 : 23 ; Hos. 2 : 17). In 
the Hebrew the word is frequently used 
as a common noun, meaning "lord" or 
"owner;" but when used as the name of 
the god it has always the article prefixed, 
as Judg. 2 : 13, the Baal. He is identified 
with Molech (Jer. 19 : 5 ; 32 : 35). Through 
the influence of the Midianites, the Israel- 
ites were seduced to worship this god under 




the title of Baal-peor (Num. 25 : 3 ; Deut. 
4 : 3). This form of idolatry, notwithstand- 
ing the fearful judgments it brought upon 
them, prevailed till the time of Samuel 
(Judg. 10 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 4). Afterwards 
the worship of Baal, together with that of 
Asherah, became the predominant religion 
of the ten tribes in the reign of Ahab 
(1 Kings 16 : 31-33 ; 18 : 19, 22). It was 
never effectually abolished in that kingdom 
(2 Kings 17 : 16). It prevailed also for a 
time in the kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 
8 : 27 ; comp. 11 : 18 ; 16 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 2), 
till finally put an end to by the severe 
discipline of the Captivity (Zeph. 1 : 4-6). 
The priests of Baal were in great numbers 



(1 Kings 18 : 19), and of various classes 
(2 Kings 10 : 19). Their mode of offering 
sacrifices is described in 1 Kings 18 : 25-29. 
Traces of the wide extent of this form of 
idolatry are found in the British Isles in 
the name Bel or Bal, which was the prin- 
cipal deity of .the ancient inhabitants. 
Cairns found on the tops of many hills in 
Scotland are called "Bel's cairns," the 
tradition being that sacrifices were offered 
on them in ancient times. 

(2.) A Benjamite, son of Jehiel, the pro- 
genitor of the Gibeonites (1 Chr. 8 : 30 ; 
9 : 36). 

(3.) The name of a place inhabited by 
the Simeonites, the same i^robably as Baal- 
ath-beer (1 Chr. 4 : 33 ; Josh. 19 : 8). 

Ba^'alah — mistress; city. (1.) A city in 
the south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 29), elsewhere 
called Balah (Josh. 19:3) and Bilhah (1 
Chr. 4:29). 

(2. ) A city on the northern border of the 
tribe of Judah (Josh. 15 : 10), called also 
Kirjath-jearim, q.v. (15:9; 1 Chr. 13:6), 
now Kuriet-el-Ena b, or as some think, 'Erma. 

(3.) A mountain on the north-western 
boundary of Judah and Dan (Josh. 15 : 11). 

Ba''alath, a town of the tribe of Dan 
(Josh. 19 : 44). It was fortified by Solo- 
mon (1 Kings 9 : 18 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 6). Some 
have identified it with BeVatn, in Wady 
Deir BaMt. 

Ba^alath-bc'er^ — Baalah of the loell — 
(Josh. 19:8), probably the same as Baal, men- 
tioned in 1 Chr. 4 : 33, a city of Simeon. 

Baal^bec, called by the Greeks Heliopo- 
lis — i. e. , " the city of the sun " — because of its 
famous Temple of the Sun, has by some been 
supposed to be Solomon's ' ' house of the forest 



BAAL-BERITH 



70 



BAAL-HAZOR 




MiM&B&Mi:^^>M^!Ii^^iMiM§M 



RUINS OF BAALBEC. 



of Lebanon " (1 Kings 7 : 2 ; 10 : 17 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 
16) ; by others it is identified with Baal-gad 
iq.v.). It was a city of Coele-Syria, on the 
lowest declivity of Anti-Libanus, about 42 
miles north-west of Damascus. It was one 
of the most splendid of Syrian cities, existing 
from a remote antiquity. After sustaining 
several sieges under the Moslems and others, 
it was finally destroyed by an earthquake 
in 1759. Its ruins are of great extent. 

Ba''al-"be''rith — covenant lord — the name 
of the god worshipped in Shechem after 
the death of Gideon (Judg. 8:33; 9:4). 
In 9:46 he is called simply "the god 
Berith." The name denotes the god of 
the covenant into which the Israelites 
entered with the Canaanites, contrary to the 
command of Jehovah (Ex. 34 : 12), when they 
began to fall away to the worship of idols. 

Ba^ale of Judah — lords of Judah — a 
city in the tribe of Judah from which 
David brought the ark into Jerusalem 
(2 Sam. 6:2). Elsewhere (1 Chr. 13:6) 
called Kirjath-jearim. (See Baalah.) 

Ba^al-gad — lord of fortune, or troop of 
Baal — a Canaanite city in the valley of 
Lebanoii at the foot of Hermon, hence 
called Baal -hermon (Judg. 3:3; 1 Chr. 



5 : 23), near the soutce of the Jordan (Josh. 
13:5; 11:17; 12:7). It was the most 
northern point to which Joshua's conquests 
extended. It probably derived its name 
from the worship of Baal. Its modern 
representative is Banias. Some have sup- 
posed it to be the same as Baalbec. 

Ba''al-ha''inon — place of a multitude — a 
place where Solomon had an extensive 
vineyard (Cant. 8:11). It has been sup- 
posed to be identical with Baal-gad, and also 
with Hamon in the tribe of Asher (Josh. 
19 : 28). Others identify it with Belamon, 
in Central Palestine, near Dothaim. 

Ba^al-ha^nan — lord of grace. (1.) A 
king of Edom, son of Achbor (Gen. 36 : 38, 
39 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 49, 50). 

(2.) An overseer of "the olive trees and 
sycamore trees in the low plains" (the 
Shephelah) under David (1 Chr. 27 : 28). 

Ba''al-ha^zor — having a courtyard, or 
BaaVs village — the place on the borders of 
Ephraim and Benjamin where Absalom 
held the feast of sheep - shearing when 
Amnon was assassinated (2 Sam. 13 : 23). 
Probably it is the same with Hazor (Neh. 
11 : 33), now Tell 'AsUr, 5 miles north-east 
of Bethel. 



BAAL-HERMOK 



71 



BABE 



Ba^al-her'mon — lord of Sermon. (1.) A 
city near Mount Hermon inhabited by the 
Ephraimites (1 Chr. 5:23). Probably 
identical with Baal-gad (Josh. 11 : 17). 

(2. ) A mountain east of Lebanon ( Judg. 
3:3). Probably it may be the same as 
Mount Hermon, or one of its three peaks. 

Ba^aU — my lord — a title the prophet 
(Hos. 2 : 16) reproaches the Jewish church 
for applying to Jehovah, instead of the more 
endearing title Ishi, meaning "my hus- 
band." 

Ba^aUm, plural of Baal ; images of the 
god Baal (Judg. 2 : 11 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 4). 

Ba^aUs, king of the Ammonites at the 
time of the Babylonian captivity (Jer. 
40 : 14). He hired Ishmael to slay Geda- 
Hah, w^ho had been appointed governor 
over the cities of Judah. 

Ba''al-ine''on — loi-d of dwelling — a town 
of Reuben (Num. 32 : 38), called also Beth- 
meon (Jer. 48 : 23) and Beth - baal - meon 
(Josh. 13 : 17). It is supposed to have been 
the birth-place of Elisha. It is identified 
with the modern Afain, about 3 miles 
south-east of Heshbon. 

Ba^al-pe^or — lord of the opening — a god 
of the Moabites (Num. 25 : 3 ; 31 : 16 ; 
Josh. 22 : 17), worshipped hj obscene rites. 
So called from Mount Peor, where this 
worship was celebrated — the Baal of Peor. 
The Israelites fell into the worship of this 
idol (Num. 25 : 3, 5, 18 ; Deut. 4:3; Ps. 
106 : 28 ; Hos. 9 : 10). 

Ba^al-pera^zim — Baal having rents, 
bursts, or destructions — the scene of a vic- 
tory gained by Da\"id over the Philistines 
(2 Sam. 5:20; 1 Chr. 14:11). Called 
Mount Perazim (Isa. 28 : 21). It was near 
the valley of Rephaim, west of Jerusalem. 
Identified with the modern Jebel Aly. 

Ba'al-shali^sha — lord of Shalisha — a 
place from which a man came with pro- 
visions for Elisha, apparently not far from 
Gilgal (2 Kings 4 : 42). It has been identi- 
fied with Sirisia, 13 miles north of Lydda. 

Ba^al-ta'^mar — lord of palm trees — a 
place in the tribe of Benjamin near Gibeah 
of Saul (Judg. 20 : 33). It was one of the 
sanctuaries or groves of Baal. Probably 
the palm tree of Deborah (Judg. 4:5) is 
aUiided to in the name. 



Ba'al-ze 'bub— ^y-Zorc? — the god of the 
Philistines at Ekron (2 Kings 1 : 2, 3, 16). 
This name was given to the god because he 
was supposed to be able to avert the plague 
of flies which in that region was to be 
feared. He was consulted by Ahaziah as 
to his recovery. 

Ba^al-ze'phon — sanctuary to Typhon — 
an Egyptian town on the shores of the 
Gulf of Suez (Ex. 14 : 1 ; Num. 33 : 7), over 
against which the children of Israel en- 
camped before they crossed the Red Sea. 
It is probably to be identified Avith the mod- 
ern Jebel DeraJ or Kulalah, on the western 
shore of the Gulf of Suez, a little below its 
head. 

Ba'ana — son of affliction. (1.) One of 
Solomon's purveyors (1 Kings 4:12). 

(2.) Son of Hushai, another of Solomon's 
purveyors (1 Kings 4 : 16). 

(3.) Father of Zadok (Neh. 3 : 4). 

Ba^anah — son of affliction. (1.) One of 
the two sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, 
a captain in Saul's army. He and his 
brother Rechab assassinated Ishbosheth 
(2 Sam. 4 : 2), and were on this account 
slain by David, and their mutilated bodies 
suspended over the pool at Hebron (5, 6, 12). 

(2. ) The father of Heled, who was one of 
David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 29 ; 1 
Chr. 11:30). 

Ba^asha — bravery — the third king of the 
separate kingdom of Israel, and founder of 
its second dynasty (1 Kings 15, 16 ; 2 Chr. 
16 : 1-6). He was the son of Ahijah of 
the tribe of Issachar. The city of Tirzah 
he made the capital of his kingdom, and 
there he was buried, after an eventful 
reign of twenty-four years (1 Kings 15: 
33). On account of his idolatries his family 
was exterminated, according to the word 
of the prophet Jehu (1 Kings 16 : 3, 4, 
10-13). 

Babe, used of children generally (Matt. 
11 : 25 ; 21 : 16 ; Luke 10 : 21 ; Rom. 2 : 20). 
It is used also of those who are weak in 
Christian faith and knowledge (1 Cor. 3:1; 
Heb. 5 : 13 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 2). In Isa. 3 : 4 the 
word "babes" refers to a succession of 
weak and wicked princes who reigned over 
Judah from the death of Josiah do^ATiward 
to the destruction of Jerusalem. 



BABEL 



72 



BABYLON 



Barbel, tower of, the name given to the 
tower which the primitive fathers of our 
race built in the land of Shinar after the 
Deluge (Gen. 11 : 1-9). Their object in build- 
ing this tower was probably that it might 
be seen as a rallying-point in the extensive 
plain of Shinar, to which they had emi- 
grated from the uplands of Armenia, and 
so prevent their being scattered abroad. 
But God interposed and defeated their de- 
sign by confounding their language, and 
hence the name Babel, meaning "confu- 
sion." They thereupon "left off to build 
the city," and were "scattered abroad on 
the face of all the earth." 

The Temple of Belus, which is supposed 
to occupy its site, is described by the Greek 
historian Herodotus as a temple of great ex- 
tent and magnificence, erected by the Baby- 
lonians for their god Belus. The treasures 
Nebuchadnezzar brought from Jerusalem 
were laid up in this temple (2 Chr. 36 : 7). 

The Birs NimrHd, at ancient Borsippa, 




BIBS NIMRUD. 



about 7 miles south-west of Hillah, the 
modern town which occupies a part of the 



site of ancient Babylon, and 6 miles from 
the Euphrates, is an immense mass of broken 
and fire-blasted fragments, of about 2,300 
feet in circumference, rising suddenly to the 
height of 153 feet from the desert-plain, 
and is with probability regarded as the 
ruins of the tower of Babel. This is " one 
of the most imposing ruins in the country." 
Others think it to be the ruins of the 
Temple of Belus. 

Bab^ylon — the Greek form of Babel ; 
Semitic form, Babilu, meaning " The Gate 
of God " — the capital of Chaldea, the city 
which grew up around the tower of Babel. 
It stood on the Euphrates, about 200 miles 
above its junction with the Tigris, which 
flowed through its midst and divided it 
into two almost equal parts. The Elamites 
invaded Chaldea {i.e., Lower Mesopotamia 
or Shinar, and Upper Mesopotamia or 
Accad, now combined into one) and held 
it in subjection. At length Hammurabi 
delivered it from the foreign yoke, and 
founded the new empire of Chaldea {q.v.), 
making Babylon the capital of the united 
kingdom. This city gradually grew in 
extent and grandeur, but in process of time 
it became subject to Assyria. On the fall 
of Nineveh (b.c. 606) it threw off the As- 
syrian yoke, and became the capital of the 
growing Babylonian empire. Under Ne- 
buchadnezzar it became one of the most 
splendid cities of the ancient world. 

After passing through various vicissi- 
tudes the city was occupied by Cyrus, 
"king of Elam," B.C. 538, who issued a 
decree permitting the Jews to return to 
their own land (Ezra 1). It then ceased to 
be the capital of an empire. It was again 
and again visited by hostile armies, till its 
inhabitants were all driven from their 
homes, and the city became a complete 
desolation, its very site being forgotten 
from among men. 

On the west bank of the Euphrates, about 
50 miles south of Bagdad, there is found a 
series of artificial mounds of vast extent. 
These are the ruins of this once famous 
proud city. These ruins are princii^ally (1) 
the great mound called Bahil by the Arabs. 
This was probably the noted Temple of 
Belus, which was a pyramid about 480 feet 



BABYLON 



73 



BABYLON 



high. (2) The Kasr {i.e., "the palace"). 
This was the great palace of Nebuchad- 
nezzar. It is almost a square, each side of 
which is about 700 feet long. The little 
town of Hillah, near the site of Babylon, 
is built almost wholly of bricks taken from 
this single mound. (3) A lofty mound, on 
the summit of which stands a modern tomb 
called Amran ibn-Ali. This is probably 
the most ancient portion of the remains of 
the city, and represents the ruins of the 
famous hanging-gardens, or perhajDs of some 
royal palace. The utter desolation of the 



city once called "the glory of kingdoms" 
(Isa. 13 : 19) was foretold by the prophets 
(Isa. 13:4-22; Jer. 25:12; 50:2, 3; Dan. 
2 : 31-38). 

The Babylon mentioned in 1 Pet. 5 : 13 
was not Rome, as some have thought, but the 
literal city of Babylon, which was inhab- 
ited by many Jews at the time Peter wrote. 

In Rev. 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; and 18:2, 
"Babylon" is supposed to mean Rome, not 
considered a,s pagan, but as the prolongation 
of the ancient power in the papal form. 
Rome, pagan and papal, is regarded as one 




MAP OF BABYLONIA. 



power. " The literal Babylon was the be- 
ginner and supporter of tyranny and i dolatry 

This city and its whole empire were 

taken by the Persians under Cyrus ; the 
Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, 
and the Macedonians by the Romans ; so 
that Rome succeeded to the power of old 
Babylon. And it was her method to adopt 
the worship of the false deities she had 
conquered ; so that by her own act she 
became the heiress and successor of all the 
Babjdonian idolatry, and of all that was 
introduced into it by the immediate suc- 



cessors of Babylon, and consequently of all 
the idolatry of the earth." Rome, or 
"mystical Babylon," is "that great city 
which reigneth over the kings of the earth" 
(17 : 18). 

Bab'ylon, kingdom of, called "the 
land of the Chaldeans" (Jer. 24:5; Ezek. 
12 : 13), was an extensive province in 
Central Asia along the valley of the Tigris 
from the Persian Giilf northward for some 
300 miles. It was famed for its fertility 
and its riches. Its capital was the city of 
Babylon, a great commercial centre (Ezek. 



BABYLON 



74 



BACKSLIDE 



17:4; Isa. 43:14). This kingdom con- 
sisted of Accad or Northern Babylonia, and 
Shinar or Southern Babylonia. It was 
always a land of mixed races. From the 
high table -land of Central Asia, the 
"womb of nations," wave after wave of 
migrating tribes went forth and settled in 
the plains of the Tigro-Euphrates valley 
(Gen. 11:2). These emigrants "from the 
east," their original home, a mountain- 
land, found in Shinar an aboriginal popu- 
lation akin to the inhabitants of the moun- 
tains of Elam. But they brought with them 
their language — the Accadian language — 
and their civilization, and establishing 
themselves in these Chaldean plains, laid 
the foundation of the Chaldean empire 
and civilization. 

But another wave of emigrants from the 
west — Semitic nomads from the Syro- 
Arabian desert — invaded the valley of 
Shinar and settled in it, gradually becoming 
the predominant race. They adopted the 
cuneiform (wedge-shaped) mode of writing, 



God.. I . Brother. 



tTTTT 



^ 



Astrologer. 



cuneifor:,! writing. 

invented and used by the Accadians, but 
simplified it and invented the cursive style, 
which came to be in general use by the 
Babylonians and Assyrians. These Sem- 
ites, "bred to a nomad life, wandering for 
hundreds of miles over their former desert 
homes, regarding war and plunder as their 
trade, came now under the influence of 
settled life and contact with a less hot- 
blooded people, and directed these charac- 
teristics into the channels of trade ; and 
their caravans spread far and wide, bearing 
with them the elements of this new Semito- 
Accadian culture." 

The two provinces, as they may be 
called — Shinar and Accad — became at 
length one, ruled by a king, who bore the 
title of "lord of the double crown" {i.e., 
rnler of the two provinces). This was the 
kingdom of Babylon or Chaldea. 



Another result of the Semitic invasion 
was the founding of a colony on the banks 
of the Tigris, in the valley watered by the 
Upper and the Lower Zab. This became 
the "land of Assur," the kingdom of 
Assyria {q.v.). At first it was ruled by 
viceroys from Chaldea ; but at length it 
threw off the Chaldean yoke, and became 
a conquering power and subdued Babylon 
(about B.C. 1350), and Nineveh, the capital 
of Assyria, became now the great centre of 
civilization. 

Babylon once more gained her independ- 
ence, and under Nebuchadnezzar {q.v. ), who 
died B.C. 561, after a reign of forty-three 
years, attained great splendour. In the 
reign of Belshazzar the capital was taken 
by Darius the Median (Dan. 5 : 25-31), who 
entered it unexpectedly at the head of an 
army of Medes and Persians, as Isaiah (21 : 
1-9) and Jeremiah (51 : 31) had predicted 
some 170 years before. Then began the 
decay and ruin of this proud city, and the 
kingdom of Babylon became a part of the 
Persian empire. In course of time the 
"great city" became "heaps," and "an 
astonishment, and a hissing, without an 
inhabitant " ( Jer. 51 : 37-58). 

Many of the Jews who had been carried 
captive to Babylon remained there, not- 
withstanding the decree of Cyrus. After 
the destruction of Jerusalem there was 
established at Babylon a school of Jewish 
learning of great repute. (See Cykus.) 

Babylo^nish garment, a robe of rich 
colours fabricated at Babylon, and hence 
of great value (Josh. 7 : 21). 

Ba^ca, valley of (Ps. 84 : 6 ; R. Y., "val- 
ley of weeping," marg., " or halsam trees "), 
probably a valley in some part of Pales- 
tine, or generally some one of the valleys 
through which pilgrims had to pass on 
their way to the sanctuary of Jehovah on 
Zion; or it may be figuratively "a valley 
of weeping." 

Back^'bite. In Ps. 15 : 3, the rendering 
of a word which means to run about tat- 
tling, calumniating ; in Prov. 25 : 23, secret 
talebearing or slandering ; in Pom. 1 : 30 
and 2 Cor. 12 : 20, evil-speaking, maliciously 
defaming the absent. 

Back^slide, to draw back or apostatize 



BADGER 



75 



BALAAM 



in matters of religion (Acts 21 : 21 ; 2 Thess. 
2:3; 1 Tim. 4:1). This may be either 
partial (Prov. 14 : 14) or complete (Heb. 
6:4-6; 10 : 38, 39). The apostasy may be 
both docti'inal and moral. 

Partial backsliding may take place when 
the heart is in reality right with God, so 
that it is not always to be taken as an 
evidence of hypocrisy, which is a studied 
profession of what has no reality. The 
causes of backsliding in the case of Chris- 
tians are manifold, such as the cares of the 
world, self-indulgence, etc. ; and the cure 
is just giving a more earnest heed to the 
counsels and warnings of God's Word. 

Badg^er. This word is found in Ex. 
25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; 39:34; 
Num. 4 : 6, etc. The tabernacle was covered 
with badgers' skins ; the shoes of women 
were also made of them (Ezek. 16 : 10). 
The true interpretation of the Hebrew 
word {tahash) has been a matter of some 
doubt. It has been by different interpre- 
ters regarded as denoting an animal like 
a weasel ; by others as a kind of wolf, or 
a seal, or a dugong {Halicore Hemprichii), 
a genus of marine pachydermata which 
are found in the Indian and Red Seas. 
"Seals' skins " is perhaps the best transla- 
tion of the word, as in the Revised Version 
in the passages above referred to (but marg., 
"porpoise-skins "). 

Bag. (1.) A pocket of a cone-like shape 
in which Naaman bound two pieces of 
silver for Gehazi (2 Kings 5 : 23). 

The same Hebrew word occurs elsewhere 
only in Isa. 3 : 22, where it is rendered 
" crisping-pins, " but denotes the reticules 
(or as R.V., "satchels ") carried by Hebrew 
women. 

(2.) Another word (kecs) so rendered 
means a bag for carrying weights (Deut. 
25:13; Prov. 16:11; Micah 6:11). It 
also denotes a purse (Prov. 1 : 14) and a 
cup (23 : 31). 

(3.) Another word rendered "bag" in 1 
Sam. 17:40 is rendered "sack" in Gen. 
42:25; and in 1 Sam. 9:7 and 21:5 "ves- 
sel," or wallet for carrying food. 

(4.) The word rendered in the Author- 
ized "Version "bags," in which the priests 
bound up the money contributed for the 



restoration of the temple (2 Kings 12 : 10), 
is also rendered "bundle" (Gen. 42:35; 
1 Sam. 25 : 29). It denotes bags used by 
travellers for carrying money during a 
journey (Prov. 7 : 20 ; Hag. 1 : 6). 

(5.) The "bag" of Judas was a small 
box (John 12: 6; 13:29). 

Bahu^rim — young men — a place east of 
Jerusalem (2 Sam. 3 : 16 ; 19 : 16), on the 
road to the Jordan valley. Here Shimei 
resided, who poured forth vile abuse against 
David, and flung dust and stones at him and 
his party when they were making their way 
down the eastern slopes of Olivet toward 
Jordan (16 : 5) ; and here Jonathan and 
Ahimaaz hid themselves (17 : 18). 

With the exception of Shimei, Azmaveth, 
one of David's heroes, is the only other 
native of the place who is mentioned 
(2 Sam. 23 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 33). 

Ba^jith — house — probably a city of 
Moab, which had a celebrated idol-temple 
(Isa. 15 : 2). It has also been regarded as 
denoting simply the temple of the idol of 
Moab as oi^posed to the ' ' high place. " 

Bake. The duty of preparing bread 
was usually, in ancient times, committed 
to the females or the slaves of the family 
(Gen. 18:6; Lev. 26:26; 1 Sam. 8:13); 
but at a later period we find a class of 
public bakers mentioned (Hos. 7 : 4, 6 ; Jer. 
37 : 21). 

The bread was generally in the form of 
long or round cakes (Ex. 29 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 
2 : 36), of a thinness that rendered them 
easily broken (Isa. 58:7; Matt. 14:19; 
26 : 26 ; Acts 20 : 11). Common ovens were 
generally used ; at other times a jar was 
half-filled with hot pebbles, and the dough 
was spread over them. Hence we read of 
"cakes baken on the coals " (1 Kings 19 : 6), 
and "baken in the oven " (Lev. 2 : 4). (See 
Bee AD.) 

Bake-meats, baked provisions (Gen. 
40:17), literally "works of the baker," 
such as biscuits and cakes. 

Ba^laam — lord of the people; foreigner 
or glutton, as interpreted by others — the 
son of Beor, was a man of some rank among 
the Midianites (Num. 31 : 8 ; comp. 16). 
He resided at Pethor (Deut. 23:4), in 
Mesopotamia (Num. 23 : 7). It is evident 



BALADAN 



76 



BALM 



that though dwelling among idolaters he 
had some knowledge of the true God ; and 
was held in such reputation that it was 
supposed that he whom he blessed Was 
blessed, and he whom he cursed was 
cursed. When the Israelites were en- 
camped on the plains of Moab, on the 
east of Jordan, by Jericho, Balak sent for 
Balaam ' ' from Aram, out of the moun- 
tains of the east, " to curse them ; but by 
the remarkable interposition of God he 
was utterly unable to fulfil Balak's wish, 
however desirous he was to do so. The 
apostle Peter refers (2 Pet. 2 : 1.5, 16) 
to this as an historical event. In Micah 
6 : 5 reference also is made to the relations 
between Balaam and Balak. Though 
Balaam could not curse Israel, yet he sug- 
gested a mode by which the divine dis- 
pleasure might be caused to descend upon 
them (Num. 25). In a battle between 
Israel and the Midianites (g.f.) Balaam was 
slain while fighting on the side of Balak 
(Num. 31 : 8). 

The ' ' doctrine of Balaam " is spoken of 
in Pev. 2 : 14, in allusion to the fact that 
it was through the teaching of Balaam 
that Balak learned the way by which the 
Israelites might be led into sin. (See 
NicoLAiTANES.) Balaam was constrained 
to utter prophecies regarding the future 
of Israel of wonderful magnificence and 
beauty of expression (Num. 24 : 5-9, 17). 

Bal^adan ■ — valiant and loealthy — the 
father of the Babylonian king (2 Kings 20 : 
12 ; Isa. 39 : 1) Merodach-baladan {q.v.). 

Ba''lah, a city in the tribe of Simeon 
(Josh. 19 : 3), elsewhere called Bilhah (1 
Chr. 4 : 29) and Baalah (Josh. 15 : 29). 

Ba^lak — empty ; spoiler — a son of Zippor, 
and king of the Moabites (Num. 22 : 2, 4). 
From fear of the Israelites, who were en- 
camped near the confines of his territory, 
he applied to Balaam {q.v.) to curse them ; 
but in vain (Josh. 24 : 9). 

Bal^ance occurs in Lev. 19 : 36 and Isa. 
46 : 6, as the rendering of the Hebrew kaneh', 
which j)roperly means "a reed" or "a 
cane," then a rod or beam of a balance. 
This same word is translated "measuring 
reed " in Ezek. 40 : 3, 5 ; 42 : 16-18. There 
is another Hebrew word, mozena'yim — i.e., 



" two poisers " — also so rendered (Dan. 5 : 
27). The balances as represented on the 
most ancient Egyptian, monuments re- 
semble those now in use. 




A "pair of balances" is a symbol of 
justice and fair dealing (Job 31 : 6 ; Ps. 
62 : 9 ; Prov. 11 : 1). The expression de- 
notes great want and scarcity in Pev. 6 : 5. 

Bald^ness from natural causes was un- 
common (2 Kings 2:23; Isa. 3:24). It 
was included apparently under "scab" 
and "scurf," which disqualified for the 
priesthood (Lev. 21:20). The Egyptians 
were rarely subject to it. This probably 
arose from their custom of constantly 
shaving the head, only allowing the hair 
to grow as a sign of mourning. With the 
Jews artificial baldness was a sign of 
mourning (Isa. 22 : 12 ; Jer. 7 : 29 ; 16 : 6) ; 
it also marked the conclusion of a Nazar- 
ite's vow (Acts 18 : 18 ; 21 : 24 ; Num. 6 : 
9). It is often alluded to (Micah 1 : 16 ; 
Amos 8 : 10 ; Jer. 47 : 5). The Jews were 
forbidden to follow the customs of sur- 
rounding nations in making themselves 
bald (Deut. 14 : 1). 

Balm, contracted from Bal'sam, a 
general name for many oily or resinous 
substances which flow or trickle from cer- 
tain trees or plants when an incision is 
made through the bark. 

(1.) This word occitrs in the Authorized 
Version (Gen. 37 : 25 ; 43 : 11 ; Jer. 8 : 22 ; 
46 : 11 ; 51 : 8 ; Ezek. 27 : 17) as the render- 
ing of the Hebrew word tsori or tseri, 
which denotes the gum of a tree growing in 
Gilead {q.v. ), which is very precious. It was 
celebrated for its medicinal qualities, and 
was circulated as an article of merchandise 
by Arab and Ph(jenician merchants. The 



BAMAH 



77 



BANQUET 



shrub so named was highly valued, and 
was almost peculiar to Palestine. In the 
time of Josephus it was cultivated in the 
neighbourhood of Jericho and the Dead 
Sea. There is an Arab tradition that the 
tree yielding this balm was brought by 
the queen of Sheba as a present to Solo- 
mon, and that he planted it in his gardens 
at Jericho. 




.BALM OF GILEAD. 

(2.) There is another Hebrew word, 
hasam or bosem, from which our word "bal- 
sam," as well as the corresponding Greek 
halsamon, is derived. It is rendered " spi ce " 
(Cant. 5 : 1, 13 ; 6:2; margin of Revised 
Version, "balsam;" Ex. 35:28; 1 Kings 
10 : 10), and denotes fragrance in general. 
Basam also denotes the true balsam-plant, 
a native of South Arabia (Cant. I.e.). 

Ba''inah — a height — a name used simply 
to denote a high place where the Jews 
worshipped idols (Ezek. 20:29). The 
plural is translated " high places " in Num. 
22 : 41 and Ezek. 36 : 2. 

Ba''nioth — heir/Ms — the forty-seventh 
station of the Israelites (Num. 21 : 19, 20) in 
the territory of the Moabites. 

Ba^moth-Ba^al — heights of Baal— a, place 
on the river Arnon, or in the plains through 
which it flows, east of Jordan (Josh. 13 : 
17 ; comp. Num. 21 : 28). It has been sup- 
posed to be the same place as Bamoth. 

Bands (1) of love (Hos. 11 : 4) ; (2) of 
Christ (Ps. 2:3); (3) uniting together 
Christ's body the church (Col. 2 : 19 ; 3 : 14 ; 
Eph. 4:3); (4) the emblem of the captivity 
of Israel (Ezek. .34:27; Isa. 28:22; .52: 



2); (5) of brotherhood (Ezek. 37:15-28); 
(6) no bands to the wicked in their death 
(Ps. 73 : 4 ; Job 21 : 17 ; Ps. 10 : 6). Also 
denotes chains (Luke 8 : 29) ; companies of 
soldiers (Acts 21 : 31) ; a shepherd's staff, 
indicating the union between Judah and 
Israel (Zech. 11 : 7). 

■Bsi'ni— built. (l.)lChr. 6 :46. (2.) One of 
David's thirty-seven warriors — a Gadite (2 
Sam. 23 : 36). (3. ) Ezra 2 : 10 ; 10 : 29, 34, 38. 
(4.) A Levite who was prominent in the 
reforms on the return from Babylon (Neh. 
8:7; 9 : 4, 5). His son Rehum took part 
in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 
3 : 17). 

Ban^ner. (1.) The flag or banner of the 
larger kind, serving for three tribes march- 
ing together. These standards, of which 
there were four, were worked with em- 
broidery and beautifully ornamented (Num. 
1 : 52 ; 2 : 2, 3, 10, 18, 25 ; Cant. 2:4; 6:4, 
10). 

(2.) The flag borne by each separate tribe, 
of a smaller form. Probably it bore on it 
the name of the tribe to which it belonged, 
or some distinguishing device (Num. 2 : 
2, 34). 

(3.) A lofty signal-flag, not carried 
about, but stationary. It was usually 
erected on a mountain or other lofty place. 
As soon as it was seen the war-trumpets 
were blown (Ps. 60 : 4 ; Isa. 5 : 26 ; 11 : 12 ; 
13 : 2 ; 18 : 3 ; 30 : 17 ; Jer. 4:6, 21 ; Ezek. 
27 : 7). 

(4.) A "sign of fire" (Jer. 6:1) was 
sometimes used as a signal. 

The banners and ensigns of the Roman 
army had idolatrous images upon them, 
and hence they are called the "abomina- 
tion of desolation" {q.v.). The principal 
Roman standard, however, was an eagle. 
(See Matt. 24 : 28 ; Luke 17 : 37, where the 
Jewish nation is compared to a dead body, 
which the eagles gather together to devour. ) 

God's setting up or giving a banner (Ps. 
20 : 5 ; 60 : 4 ; Cant. 2 : 4) imports his pres- 
ence and protection and aid extended to 
his people. 

Ban^quet, a feast provided for the enter- 
tainment of a company of guests (Esther 
5, 7 ; 1 Pet. 4:3); such as was provided 
for our Lord by his friends in Bethany 



BANQUET 



78 



BAPTISM' 



(Matt. 26:6; Mark 14 : 3 ; comp. John 12 : 
2). These meals were in the days of 
Christ usually called " suppers," after the 
custom of the Romans, and were partaken 
of toward the close of the day. It was 
usual to send a second invitation (Matt. 
22 : 3 ; Luke 14 : 17) to those who had been 
already invited. When the whole com- 
pany was assembled, the master of the 
house shut the door with his own hands 
(Luke 13 : 25 ; Matt. 25 : 10). 

The guests were first refreshed with 
water and fragrant oil (Luke 7 : 38 ; Mark 
7:4). A less frequent custom was that of 
supplying each guest with a robe to be 
worn during the feast (Eccles. 9:8; Rev. 



3:4, 5; Matt. 22:11). At private ban- 
quets the master of the house presided ; 
but on public occasions a." governor of the 
feast " was chosen (John 2 : 8). The guests 
were placed in order according to seni- 
ority (Gen. ' 43 : 33), or according to the 
rank they held (Prov. 25 : 6, 7 ; Matt. 23 : 
6 ; Luke 14 : 7). 

As spoons and knives and forks are a 
modern invention, and were altogether un- 
known in the East, the hands alone were 
necessarily used, and were dipped in the 
dish, which was common to two of the 
guests (John 13 : 26), In the days of our 
Lord the guests reclined at table ; but the 
ancient Israelites sat around low tables, 




ORIENTALS SITTING AT MEAT. 



cross-legged, like the modern Orientals, 
Guests were specially honoured when ex- 
tra portions were set before them (Gen. 
43 : 34), and when their cup was filled with 
wine till it ran over (Ps. 23:5). The 
hands of the guests were usually cleaned 
by being rubbed on bread, the crumbs of 
which fell to the ground, and were the 
portion for dogs (Matt. 15 : 27 ; Luke 
16 : 21). 

At the time of the three annual festivals 
at Jerusalem family banquets were com- 
mon. To these the " widow, and the father- 



less, and the stranger " were welcome (Deut. 
16 : 11). Sacrifices also included a ban- 
quet (Ex. 34:15; Judg. 16:23). Birth- 
day banquets are mentioned (Gen. 40 : 20 ; 
Matt. 14 : 6). They were sometimes pro- 
tracted, and attended with revelry and 
excess (Gen. 21 : 8 ; 29 : 22 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 
36 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 23). Portions were some- 
times sent from the table to poorer friends 
(Neh. 8:10; Esther 9:19, 22). (See 
Meals. ) 

Bap'tism, Christian, an ordinance im- 
mediately instituted by Christ (Matt. 28 : 



BAPTISM 



79 



BAPTISM 



19, 20), and designed to be observed in the 
church, like that of the Supper, "till he 
come." The words "baptize" and "bap- 
tism " are simply Greek words transferred 
into English. This was necessarily done 
by the translators of the Scriptures, for no 
Uteral translation could properly express 
all that is implied in them. 

The mode of baptism can in no way be 
determined from the Greek word rendered 
"baptize." Baptists say that it means 
"to dip," and nothing else. That is an 
incorrect view of the meaning of the word. 
It means both (1) to dip a thing into an 
element or liquid, and (2) to put an 
element or liquid over or on it. Nothing 
therefore as to the mode of baptism can 
be concluded from the mere word used. 
The word has a wide latitude of meaning, 
not only in the New Testament, but also 
in the LXX. Version of the Old Testa- 
ment, where it is used of the ablutions and 
baptisms required by the Mosaic law. 
These were effected by immersion, and by 
affusion and sprinkling; and the same 
word, " washings " (Heb. 9:10, 13, 19, 21) 
or "baptisms," designates them all. In the 
New Testament there cannot be found a 
single well-authenticated instance of the 
occurrence of the word where it necessarily 
means immersion. Moreover, none of the 
instances of baptism recorded in the Acts 
of the Apostles (2 : 38-41 ; 8 : 26-39 ; 9 : 17, 
18 ; 22 : 12-16 ; 10 : 44-48 ; 16 : 32-34) fa- 
vours the idea that it was by dipping the 
person baptized, or by immersion, while 
in some of them such a mode was highly 
improbable. 

The gospel and its ordinances are de- 
signed for the whole world, and it cannot 
be supposed that a form for the adminis- 
tration of baptism would have been pre- 
scribed which would in any place (as in 
a tropical country or in polar regions) or 
under any circumstances be inapplicable 
or injurious or impossible. 

Baptism and the Lord's Supper are the 
two symbolical ordinances of the New 
Testament. The Supper represents the 
work of Christ, and Baptism the work of 
the Spirit. As in the Supper a small 
amount of bread and wine used in this 



ordinance exhibits in symbol the great 
work of Christ, so in Baptism the work of 
the Holy Spirit is fully seen in the water 
poured or sprinkled on the person in the 
name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. 
That which is essential in baptism is only 
"washing with water," no mode being 
specified and none being necessary or 
essential to the symbolism of the ordi- 
nance. 

The apostles of our Lord were baptized 
with the Holy Ghost (Matt. 3 : 11) by his 
coming upon them (Acts 1 : 8). The fire 
also with which they were baptized sat 
upon them. The extraordinary event of 
Pentecost was explained by Peter as a 
fulfilment of the ancient promise that the 
Spirit would be poured out in the last days 
(2 : 17). He uses also with the same refer- 
ence the expression shed forth as descrip- 
tive of the baptism of the Spirit (33). In 
the Pentecostal baptism ' ' the apostles were 
not dipped into the Spirit, nor plunged 
into the Spirit ; but the Spirit was shed 
forth, poured out, fell on them (11 : 15), 
came upon them, sat on them. " That was 
a real and true baptism. We are war- 
ranted from such language to conclude 
that in like manner when water is poured 
out, falls, comes upon or rests upon a per- 
son when this ordinance is administered, 
that person is baptized. Baptism is there- 
fore, in view of all these arguments, 
"rightly administered by pouring or 
sprinkling water upon the person. " 

The subjects of baptism. This raises 
questions of greater importance than those 
relating to its mode. 

1. The controversy here is not about 
"believers' baptism," for that is common 
to all parties. Believers were baptized in 
apostolic times, and they have been bap- 
tized in all time by all the branches of the 
church. It is altogether a misrepresenta- 
tion to allege, as is sometimes done by 
Baptists, that their doctrine is " believers' 
baptism," and that the doctrine of the 
other branches of the church is "infant 
baptism." Every instance of adult bap- 
tism, or of " believers' baptism, " recorded 
in the New Testament (Acts 2 : 41 ; 8 : 37 ; 
9 : 17, 18 ; 10 : 47 ; 16 : 15 ; 19 : 5, etc.) is just 



BAPTISM 



80 



BAPTISM 



such as would be dealt with in precisely 
the same way by all branches of the Pro- 
testant Church — a profession of faith or 
of their being "believers" would be re- 
quired from every one of them before bap- 
tism. The point in dispute is not the 
baptism of believers, but whether the in- 
fant children of believers — i.e., of members 
of the church— ought to be baptized. 

2. In support of the doctrine of infant 
baptism — i.e., of the baptism of the in- 
fants, or rather the "children," of believ- 
ing parents — the following considerations 
may be adduced : — 

The Church of Christ exists as a divinely 
organized community. It is the "king- 
dom of God," one historic kingdom under 
all dispensations. The commonwealth of 
Israel was the "church" (Acts 7:38; Rom. 
9 : 4) under the Mosaic dispensation. The 
New Testament church is not a new and 
different church, but one with that of the 
Old Testament. The terms of admission 
into the church have always been the same 
— viz., a profession of faith and a promise 
of subjection to the laws of the kingdom. 
Now it is a fact beyond dispute that the 
children of God's people under the old dis- 
pensation were recognized as members of 
the church. Circumcision was the sign and 
seal of their membership. It was not because 
of carnal descent from Abraham, but as be- 
ing the children of God's professing people, 
that this rite was administered (Pom. 4 : 11). 
If children were members of the church 
under the old dispensation, which they un- 
doubtedly were, then they are members of 
the church now by the same right, unless 
it can be shown that they have been ex- 
pressly excluded. Under the Old Testa- 
ment parents acted for their children and 
represented them. (See Gen. 9:9; 17 : 10 ; 
Ex. 24 : 7, 8 ; Deut. 29 : 9-13.) When par- 
ents entered into covenant with God, they 
brought their children with them. This 
was a law in the Hebrew Church. When 
a proselyte was received into membership, 
he could not enter without bringing his 
children with him. The New Testament 
does not exclude the children of believers 
from the church. It does not deprive them 
of any privilege they enjoyed under the 



Old Testament. There is no command or 
statement of any kind, that can be inter- 
preted as giving any countenance to such 
an idea, anywhere to be found in the New 
Testament. The church membership of 
infants has never been set aside. The an- 
cient practice, originally appointed by God 
himself, must remain a law of his kingdom 
till repealed by the same divine authority. 
There are lambs in the fold of the Good 
Shepherd (John 21 : 15 ; comp. Luke 1 : 15 ; 
Matt. 19 : 14 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 14). 

"In a company of converts applying for 
admission into Christ's house there are 
likely to be some heads of families. How 
is their case to be treated ? How, for ex- 
ample, are Lydia and her neighbour the 
keeper of the city prison to be treated? 
Both have been converted. Both are heads 
of families. They desire to be received into 
the infant church of Philippi. What is 
Christ's direction to them ? Shall we say 
that it is to this effect : ' Arise, and wash 
away your sins, and come into my house. 
But you must come in by yourselves. 
These babes in your arms — you must leave 
them outside. They cannot believe yet, and 
so they cannot come in. Those other little 
ones by your side — their hearts may per- 
haps have been touched with the love of 
God ; still, they are not old enough to 
make a personal profession, so they too 

must be left outside For the present 

you must leave them where they are and 
come in by yourselves.' One may reason- 
ably demand very stringent proofs before 
accepting this as a fair representation of 
the sort of welcome Christ offers to parents 
who come to his door bringing their chil- 
dren with them. Surely it is more con- 
sonant with all we know about him to sup- 
pose that his welcome will be more ample 
in its scope, and will breathe a more gra- 
cious tone. Surely it would be more like 
the Good Shepherd to say, 'Come in, and 
bring your little ones along with you. The 
youngest needs my salvation ; and the 
youngest is accessible to my salvation. 
You may be unable as yet to deal with 
them about either sin or salvation, but my 
gracious power can find its way into their 
hearts even now. I can impart to them 



BAPTISM 



81 



BARAK 



pardon and a new life, rrom Adam thej^ 
have inherited sin and death ; and I can so 
unite them to myself that in me they shall 
be heirs of righteousness and life. You may 
without misgiving bring them to me. And 
the law of my house requires that the same 
day which witnesses your reception into it 
by baptism must witness their reception 
also ' " {The Church, by Professor Bin- 
nie, D.D.). 

Baptism of Christ. Christ h ad to be form- 
ally inaugurated into the j)ublic discharge 
of his ofl&ces. For this purpose he came to 
John, who was the representative of the 
law and the prophets, that by liim he might 
be introduced into his ofl&ces, and thus be 
publicly recognized as the Messiah of whose 
coming the prophecies and types had for 
many ages borne witness. 

John refused at first to confer his bap- 
tism on Christ, for he understood not what 
he had to do with the "baptism of re- 
pentance." But Christ said, "'Suffer it 
to be so now, ' — now as suited to my state 
of humiliation, my state as a substitute in 
the room of sinners." His reception of 
baptism was not necessary on his own ac- 
count. It was a voluntary act, the same 
as his act of becoming incarnate. Yet if 
the work he had engaged to accomplish was 
to be completed, then it became him to 
take on him the likeness of a sinner, and 
to fulfil all righteousness (Matt. 3 : 15). 

The official duty of Christ and the sinless 
person of Christ are to be distinguished. 
It was in his official capacity that he sub- 
mitted to baptism. In coming to John 
our Lord virtually said, "Though sinless, 
and without any personal taint, yet in my 
public or official capacity as the Sent of 
God, I stand in the room of many, and 
bring with me the sin of the world, for 
which I am the propitiation. " Christ was 
not made under the law on his own account. 
It was as surety of his people — a position 
■which he spontaneously assumed. The 
administration of the rite of baptism was 
also a symbol of the baptism of suffering 
before him in this official capacity (Luke 
12 : 50). In thus presenting himself he in 
effect dedicated or consecrated himself to 
the work of fulfilling all righteousness. 



Baptism, John's, was not Christian bap- 
tism, nor was that which was practised by th e 
disciples previous to our Lord's crucifixion. 
Till then the New Testament economy did 
not exist. John's baptism bound its sub- 
jects to repentance, and not to the faith of 
Christ. It was not administered in the 
name of the Trinity, and those whom John 
baptized were rebaptized by Paul (Acts 
18:24; 19:7). 

Baptism for the dead, only mentioned 
in 1 Cor. 15 : 29, This expression as used 
by the apostle may be equivalent to sajdng, 
' ' He who goes through a baptism of blood 
in order to join a glorified church which 
has no existence [i.e., if the dead rise not] 
is a fool. " Some also regard the statement 
here as an allusion to the strange practice 
which began, it is said, to prevail at Cor- 
inth, in which a person was baptized in the 
stead of others who had died before being 
baptized, to whom it was hoped some of 
the benefits of that rite would be extended. 
This they think may have been one of the 
erroneous customs which Paul went to 
Corinth to "set in order." 

Bar, used to denote the means by which 
a door is bolted (Neh. 3:3); a rock in the 
sea (Jonah 2:6); the shore of the sea (Job 
38 : 10) ; strong fortifications and powerful 
impediments, etc. (Isa. 45 : 2 ; Amos 1:5); 
defences of a city (1 Kings 4 : 13). A bar 
for a door was of iron (Isa. 45 : 2), brass 
(Ps. 107 : 16), or wood (Nah. 3 : 13), 

BaraVhas — i.e., son of Abba or of a 
father — a notorious robber whom Pilate 
l")roiJOsed to condemn to death instead of 
Jesus, whom he wished to release, in ac- 
cordance with the Roman custom (John 
18 : 40 ; Mark 15 : 7 ; Luke 23 : 19), But 
the Jews were so bent on the death of 
Jesus that they demanded that Barabbas 
should be pardoned (Matt, 27 : 16-26 ; Acts 
3 : 14), This Pilate did, 

Bar^achel — whom God has blessed — a 
Buzite, the father of Elihu, one of Job's 
friends (Job 32 : 2, 6). 

Barachi^ah — luhom Jehovah hath blessed 
— the father of the prophet Zechariah 
(Zech. 1 : 1, 7 ; Matt. 23 : 35). 

Ba^rak — lightning — the son of Abinoam 
( Judg. 4 : 6). At the summons of Deborah 

6 



BARBARIAN 



82 



BARNABAS 



he made war against Jabin. She accom- 
panied him into the battle, and gave the 
signal for the little army to make the at- 
tack, in which the host of Jabin was 
completely routed. The battle was fought 
(Judg. 4 : 16) in the plain of Jezreel {q.v.). 
This deliverance of Israel is commemo- 
rated in Judg. 5. Barak's faith is com- 
mended (Heb. 11 : 32). " The character of 
Barak, though pious, does not seem to have 
been heroic. Like Gideon, and in a sense 
Samson, he is an illustration of the words 
in Heb. 11 : 34, ' Out of weakness were made 
strong.'" (See Deborah.) 

Barba'rian, a Greek word used in the 
New Testament (Rom. 1 : 14) to denote one 
of another nation. In Col. 3:1], the word 
more definitely designates those nations 
of the Roman empire that did not speak 
Greek. In 1 Cor. 14 : 11, ^t simply refers 
to one speaking a different language. The 
inhabitants of Malta are so called (Acts 
28 : 1, 2, 4). They were originally a Car- 
thaginian colony. This word nowhere in 
Scripture bears the meaning it does in 
modern times. 

Bar'ber. Found only once, in Ezek. 5 : 1, 
where reference is made to the Jewish cus- 
tom of shaving the head as a sign of mourn- 
ing. The Nazarites were untouched by the 
razor from their birth (Num. 6 : 5). Comp. 
Judg. 16 : 19. 

Barefoot. To go barefoot was a sign of 
great distress (Isa. 20 : 2, 3, 4), or of some 
great calamity having fallen on a person 
(2 Sam. 15 : 30). 

Bari''ah — fugitive — one of Shemaiah's 
five sons. Their father is counted along 
with them in 1 Chr. 3 : 22. 

Bar-je^sus — son of Joshua — the patro- 
nymic of Elymas the sorcerer (Acts 13 : 6), 
who met Paul and Barnabas at Paphos. 
Elymas is a word of Arabic origin meaning 
"wise." 

Bar-jo'na— son of Jonah— the patronymic 
of Peter (Matt. 16:17; John 1:42), because 
his father's name Avas Jonas. (See Peter.) 

"Bsbr^lLOS— painter — (Ezra 2 : 53 ; Neh. 7 : 
55). The father of some of the Nethinim. 

Bar^ley, a grain much cultivated in 
Egypt (Ex. 9 : 31) and in Palestine (Lev. 
27:16; Deut. 8:8). It was usually the 



food of horses (1 Kings 4 : 28). Barley 
bread was used by the poorer people (Judg. 
7 : 13 ; 2 Kings 4 : 42). Barley of the first 
crop was ready for the hairvest by the time 
of the Passover, in the middle of April 
(Ruth 1 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 9). Mention is 
made of barley -meal (Num. 5 : 15). Our 
Lord fed five thousand with "five barley 
loaves and two small fishes " (John 6 : 9). 

Barn, a storehouse (Deut. 28 : 8 ; Job 
39 : 12 ; Hag. 2 : 19) for grain, which was 
iisually under ground, although also some- 
times above ground (Luke 12 : 18). 

Bar^nabas — son of consolation — the sur- 
name of Joses, a Levite (Acts 4 : 36). His 
name stands first on the list of prophets 
and teachers of the church at Antioch 
(13:1). Luke speaks of him as a "good 
man " (11 : 24). He was born of Jewish 
parents of the tribe of Levi. He was a 
native of Cyprus, where he had a posses- 
sion of land (Acts 4 : 36, 37), which he sold. 
His personal appearance is supposed to 
have been dignified and commanding (Acts 
14 : 8-12). When Paul returned to Jeru- 
salem after his conversion, Barnabas took 
him by the hand and introduced him to 
the apostles (9 : 27). They had probably 
been companions as students in the school 
of Gamaliel. 

The prosperity of the church at Antioch 
led the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem 
to send Barnabas thither to superintend 
the movement. He found the work so ex- 
tensive and weighty that he went to Tar- 
sus in search of Saul to assist him. Saul 
returned with him to Antioch and laboured 
with him for a whole year (Acts 11 : 25, 26). 
The two were at the end of this period 
sent up to Jerusalem with the contribu- 
tions the church at Antioch had made for 
the poorer brethren there (11 : 28-30). 
Shortly after they returned, bringing John 
Mark with them, they were appointed as 
missionaries to the heathen world, and in 
this capacity visited Cyprus and some of 
the principal cities of Asia Minor (Acts 
13 : 14). Returning from this first mission- 
ary journey to Antioch, they were again 
sent up to Jerusalem to consult with the 
church there regarding the relation of 
Gentiles to the church (Acts 15 : 2 ; Gal. 



BARREL 



83 



BASHAN 



2:1). This matter having been settled, 
they returned again to Antioch, bringing 
the decree of the council as the rule by which 
Gentiles were to be admitted into the church. 

When about to set forth on a second 
missionary joxirney, a dispute arose be- 
tween Saul and Barnabas as to the pro- 
priety of taking John Mark with them 
again. The dispute ended by Saul and 
Barnabas taking separate routes. Saul 
took Silas as his companion, and journeyed 
through Syria and Cilicia ; while Barnabas 
took his nephew John Mark, and visited 
Cyprus (15 : 36-41). Barnabas is not again 
mentioned by Luke in the Acts. 

Bar^rel, a vessel used for keeping flour 
(1 Kings 17 : 12, 14, 16). The same word {cad) 
so rendered is also translated "pitcher," a 
vessel for carrying water (Gen. 24 : 14 ; 
Judg. 7 : 16). 

Bar^ren. For a woman to be barren was 
accounted a severe punishment among the 
Jews (Gen. 16 : 2 ; 30 : 1-23 ; 1 Sam. 1 : 6, 
27 ; Isa. 47 : 9 ; 49 : 21 ; Luke 1 : 25). In- 
stances of barrenness are noticed (Gen. 
11:30; 25:21; 29:31; Judg. 13:2, 3; 
Luke 1 : 7, 36). 

Bar^sabas — son of Saha — the surname 
(1) of JosejDh, also called Justus (Acts 1 :23), 
—some identify him with Barnabas ; (2) of 
Judas, who was a "prophet." Nothing 
more is known, of him than what is men- 
tioned in Acts 15 : 32. 

Barthol^omew — son of Tolmai — one of 
the twelve apostles (Matt. 10 : 3 ; Acts 
1 : 13) ; generally supposed to have been the 
same as Nathanael. In the synoptic gos- 
pels Philip and Bartholomew are always 
mentioned together, while Nathanael is 
never mentioned ; in the fourth gospel, on 
the other hand, Philip and Nathanael are 
similarly mentioned together, but nothing 
is said of Bartholomew. He was one of 
the disciples to whom our Lord appeared 
at the Sea of Tiberias after his resurrection 
(.John 21 : 2),' He was also a witness of 
the Ascension (Acts 1 : 4, 12, 13). He was 
an "Israelite indeed " (John 1 : 47). 

Bartimae'us— soTi of Timceus— one of the 
two blind beggars of Jericho (Mark 10 : 46 ; 
Matt, 20 : 30). His blindness was miracu- 
lously cured on the ground of his faith. 



Ba''ruch — blessed. (1. ) The secretary of 
the prophet Jeremiah (32 : 12 ; 36 : 4). He 
was of the tribe of Judah (51 : 59). To him 
Jeremiah dictated his prophecies regarding 
the invasion of the Babylonians and the 
Captivity. These he read to the people 
from a window in the temple in the fourth 
year of the reign of Jehoiakim, king of 
Judah ( Jer. 36), He afterwards read them 
before the counsellors of the king at a 
private interview; and then to the king 
himself, who, after hearing a i)art of the 
roll, cut it with a penknife, and threw it 
into the fire of his winter parlour, where he 
was sitting. 

During the siege of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, he was the keeper of the deed 
of purchase Jeremiah had made of the ter- 
ritory of Hanameel (Jer. 32 : 12). Being 
accused by his enemies of favouring the 
Chaldeans, he was cast, with Jeremiah, 
into prison, where he remained till the 
capture of Jerusalem (B.C. 586). He prob- 
ably died in Babylon. 

(2.) Neh. 3:20; 10:6; 11:5. 

Barzil'lai— o/ iron. (1. ) A Meholathite, 
the father of Adriel (2 Sam, 21 : 8), 

(2.) A Gileadite of Rogelim who was 
distinguished for his loyalty to David, 
He liberally provided for the king's fol- 
lowers (2 Sam. 17:27). David on his 
death-bed, remembering his kindness, com- 
mended Barzillai's children to the care of 
Solomon (1 Kings 2 : 7). 

(3. ) A priest who married a daughter of 
the preceding (Ezra 2 : 61). 

Ba^shan — light soil — first mentioned in 
Gen. 14 : 5, where it is said that Chedorla- 
omer and his confederates "smote the Re- 
phaim in Ashteroth," where Og the king of 
Bashan had his residence. At the time of 
Israel's entrance into the Promised Land, 
Og came out against them, but was utterly 
routed (Num. 21:33-35; Deut. 3:1-3). 
This country extended from Gilead in the 
south to Hermon in the north, and from 
the Jordan on the west to Salcah on the 
east. Along -with the half of Gilead it was 
given to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 
13 : 29-31). Golan, one of its cities, became 
a "city of refuge " (Josh. 21 : 27). Argob, 
in Bashan, was one of Solomon's commis- 



BASHAN 



84 



BASKET 



sariat districts (1 Kings 4 : 13). The cities 
of Bashan were taken by Hazael (2 Kings 
10 : 33), but were soon after reconquered 
by Jehoash (2 Kings 13 : 25), who overcame 
the Syrians in three battles, according to 
the word of Elisha (19). From this time 
Bashan almost disappears from history, 
although we read of the wild cattle of its 
rich pastures (Ezek. 27:6; 39:18; Ps. 
22 : 12), the oaks of its forests (Isa. 2 : 13 ; 
Zech. 11 : 2), and the beauty of its exten- 
sive plains (Amos 4:1; Ps. 68 : 15 ; Jer. 
50 : 19). Soon after the Conquest, the name 
"Gilead"was given to the whole country 
beyond Jordan. After the Exile, Bashan 
was divided into four districts — (1.) Gaul- 
onitis, or Jauldn, the most western ; (2. ) 
Auranitis, the Haurdn (Ezek. 47 : 16) ; (3.) 
Argob or Trachonitis, now the Lejah ; and 
(4.) Batanaea, now Ard-el-Bathanyeh, on 
the east of the Lejah, with many deserted 
towns almost as perfect as when they 
were inhabited. (See Hauran.) 

Ba'shan, Hill of (Ps. 68 : 15), probably 
another name for Hermon, which lies to 
the north of Bashan. 

Ba^shan-hav^oth-ja'ir — the Bashan of 
the villages of J air — the general name given 
to Argob by Jair, the son of Manasseh 
(Deut. 3 : 14), containing sixty cities with 
walls and brazen gates (Josh. 13:30; 1 
Kings 4 : 13). (See Argob. ) 

"BsisYifexasitli.— sweet- smelling. (1.) The 
daughter of Ishmael, the last of Esau's 
three wives (Gen. 36 : 3, 4, 13), from whose 
son Reuel four tribes of the Edomites 
sprung. She is also called Mahalath (Gen. 
28 : 9). It is noticeable that Esau's three 
wives receive different names in the gene- 
alogical table of the Edomites (Gen. 36) 
from those given to them in the history 
(Gen. 26 : 34 ; 28 : 9). 

(2. ) A daughter of Solomon, and wife of 
Ahimaaz, one of his officers (1 Kings 4 : 15). 

Basilisk (in KV., Isa. 11:8; 14:29; 
59:5; Jer. 8:17), the "king serpent," as 
the name imports ; a fabulous serpent said 
to be three spans long, with a spot on its 
head like a crown. Probably the yellow 
snake is intended. (See Cockatrice.) 

Ba^sin or Ba''son. (1. ) A trough or laver 
(Heb. g.ggan') for washing (Ex. 24 : 6) ; ren- 



dered also "goblet" (Cant. 7:2) and "cups" 
(Isa. 22 : 24). 

(2.) A covered dish or urn (Heb. kfor) 
among the vessels of the temple (1 Chr. 
28 : 17 ; Ezra 1 : 10 ; 8 : 27). 

(3.) A vase (Heb. mizrdk) from which to 
sprinkle anything. A metallic vessel ; 
sometimes rendered "bowl" (Amos 6:6; 
Zech. 9 : 15). The vessels of the tabernacle 
were of brass (Ex. 27 : 3), while those of 
the temple were of gold (2 Chr. 4:8). 

(4.) A utensil (Heb. saph) for holding 
the blood of the victims (Ex. 12 : 22) ; also a 
basin for domestic purposes (2 Sam. 17 : 28). 

The various vessels spoken of by the 
names "basin, bowl, charger, cup, and dish," 
cannot now be accurately distinguished. 

The basin in which our Lord washed the 
disciples' feet (John 13 : 5) must have been 
larger and deeper than the hand-basin. 

Bas^ket. There are five different He- 
brew words so rendered in the Authorized 
Version : — 

(1.) A basket (Heb. sal, a twig or osier) 
for holding bread (Gen. 40 : 16 ; Ex. 29 : 3, 
23 ; Lev. 8 : 2, 26, 31 ; Num. 6 : 15, 17, 19). 
Sometimes baskets were made of twigs 
peeled ; their manufacture was a recognized 
trade among the Hebrews. 

(2. ) That used (Heb. salsilloth') in gath- 
ering grapes (Jer. 6 : 9). 

(3.) That in which the first fruits of the 
harvest were presented — Heb. tine — (Deut. 
26 : 2, 4). It was also used for household 
purposes. In form it tapered downwards 
like that called corbis by the Romans. 

(4. ) A basket (Heb. kelUb') having a lid, 
resembling a bird-cage. It was made of 
leaves or rushes. The name is also applied 
to fruit-baskets (Amos 8 : 1, 2). 

(5.) A basket (Heb. dud) for carrying 
figs (Jer. 24 : 2), also clay to the brick-yard 
(R.V., Ps. 81:6), and bulky articles (2 
Kings 10 : 7). This word is also rendered 
in the Authorized Version "kettle" (1 
Sam. 2:14), "caldron" (2 Chr. 35:13), 
' ' seething-pot " (Job 41 : 20). 

In the New Testament mention is made 
of the basket (Gr. kophinos, small "wicker- 
basket ") for the "fragments " in the miracle 
recorded Mark 6 : 43, and in that recorded 
Matt. 15:37 (Gr. spuris, large "rope-bas- 



BASTARD 



85 



BATTLEMENT 



ket"); also of the basket in which Paul 
escaped (Acts 9 : 25, Gr. spurts ; 2 Cor. 11 : 
33, Gr. sargane, "basket of plaited cords"). 

Bas^tard. In the Old Testament the 
rendering of the Hebrew word mamzer', 
which means ' ' polluted. " In Deut. 23 : 2, it 
occurs in the ordinary sense of illegitimate 
offspring. In Zech. 9 : 6, the word is used 
in the sense of foreigner. From the his- 
tory of Jephthah we learn that there were 
bastard offspring among the Jews (Judg. 
11:1-7). In Heb. 12:8, the word (Gr. 
nothoi) is used in its ordinary sense, and 
denotes those who do not share the privi- 
leges of God's children. 

Bastina^do — beating — a mode of punish- 
ment common in the East. It is referred to 
by "the rod of correction" (Prov. 22:15), 
"scourging" (Lev. 19:20), "chastening" 
(Deut. 22 : 18). The number of blows could 
not exceed forty (Deut. 25 : 2, 3). 

Bat. The Hebrew word [atalleph') so ren- 
dered (Lev. 11 : 19 ; Deut. 14 : 18) implies 
"flying in the dark." The bat is reckoned 
among the birds in the list of unclean ani- 
mals. To cast idols to the "moles and to 
the bats " means to carry them into dark 
caverns or desolate places to which these 
animals resort (Isa. 2:20) — i.e., to consign 
them to desolation or ruin. 

Bath, a Hebrew liquid measure, the 
tenth part of an homer (1 Kings 7 : 26, 38 ; 
Ezek. 45 : 10, 14). It contained 8 gallons 
3 quarts of our measTire. " Ten acres of 
vineyard shall yield one bath " (Isa. 5 : 10) 
denotes great unproductiveness. 

Baths. The use of the bath was very- 
frequent among the Hebrews (Lev. 14 : 8 ; 
Num. 19 : 19, etc. ). The high priest at his 
inauguration (Lev. 13 : 6), and on the day of 
atonement, was required to bathe himself 
(16:4, 24). The "pools" mentioned in 
Neh. 3:15, 16, 2 Kings 20:20, Isa. 22:11, 
John 9 : 7, were public bathing-places. 

Bath'-rab'bim — daughter of viany— the 
name of one of the gates of the city of 
Heshbon, near which were pools (Cant. 7 : 4). 

Bath''-she'ba — dav/ihter of the oath, or of 
sevew— called also Bath-shu'a (1 Chr. 3 : 5), 
was the daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. 11 : 3) 
or Ammiel (1 Chr. 3 : 5), and wife of Uriah 
the Hittite. David committed adi;ltery 



with her (2 Sam. 11 : 4, 5 ; Ps. 51). The 
child born in adultery died (2 Sam. 
12 : 15-19). After her husband was slain 
(11 : 15) she was married to David (11 : 27), 
and became the mother of Solomon (12 : 24 ; 
1 Kings 1 : 11 ; 2 : 13). She took a promi- 
nent part in securing the succession of 
Solomon to the throne (1 Kings 1 : 11, 16-21). 

Bat^tering-ram (Ezek. 4:2; 21 : 22), a 
military engine, consisting of a long beam 
of wood hung upon a frame, for making 
breaches in walls. The end of it which 
was brought against the wall was shaped 
like a ram's head. 

Bat^tle-axe, a mallet or heavy war-club. 
Applied metaphorically ( Jer. 51 : 20) to 
Cyrus, God's instrument in destroying 
Babylon. 

Bat''tle"bow, the war-bow used in fight- 
ing (Zech. 9 : 10 ; 10 : 4). " Thy bow was 
made quite naked " (Hab. 3 : 9) means that 
it was made ready for use. By David's 
order (2 Sam. 1 : 18) the young men were 
taught the use, or rather the song of the 
bow. (See Aemoue, Bow. ) 

Bat'^tlement, a parapet wall or balus- 
trade surrounding the flat roofs of the 
houses, required to be built by a special 




BATTLEMENT ON HOUSE-TOP. 

law (Deut. 22 : 8). In Jer. 5 : 10, it denotes 
the parapet of a city wall. 



BAY 



86 



BEARD 



Bay, denotes the estuary of the Dead 
Sea at the mouth of the Jordan (Josh. 
15 : 5 ; 18 : 19), also the southern extremity 
of the same sea (15 : 2). The same Hebrew 
word is rendered "tongue" in Isa. 11 : 15, 
where it is used with reference to the 
forked mouths of the Nile. 

Bay in Zech. 6 : 3, 7 denotes the colour 
of horses, but the original Hebrew means 
strong, and is here used rather to describe 
the horses as fleet or spirited. 

Bay tree, named only in Ps. 37 : 35, 
Authorized "Version. The Hebrew word 
so rendered is ereh, which simply means 
"native born" — i.e., a tree not trans- 
planted, but growing on its native soil, 
and therefore luxuriantly. If the psalmist 
intended by this word to denote any par- 
ticular tree, it may have been the ever- 
green bay laurel {Laurus nobilis), which is 
a native of Palestine. Instead of ' ' like a 
green bay tree " in the Authorized Version, 
the Revised Version has, "like a green 
tree in its native soil." 

Bdell^ium, occurs only in Gen. 2 : 12, 
where it designates a j^roduct of the land 
of Havilah ; and in Num. 11 : 7, where the 
manna is likened to it in colour. It was 
jprobably an aromatic gum like balsam 
which exuded from a particular tree {Bor- 
assus flahelliformis) still found in Arabia, 
Media, and India. It bears a resem- 
blance in colour to myrrh. Others think 
the word denotes "pearls," or some preci- 
ous stone. 

Bea''con, a pole (Heb. to'ren) used as a 
standard or ensign set on the tops of 
mountains as a call to the people to as- 
semble themselves for some great national 
purpose (Isa. 30 : 17). In Isa. 33 : 23 and 
Ezeki 27 : 5, the same word is rendered 
' ' mast. " (See Banner. ) 

Beali''ah — wJiose Lord is Jehovah — a 
Benjamite, one of David's thirty heroes of 
the sling and bow (1 Chr. 12 : 5). 

Be'^aloth — citizens — a town in the ex- 
treme south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 24) ; prob- 
ably the same as Baalath-beer (19 : 8). In 
1 Kings 4 : 16, the Authorized Version has 
"in Aloth," the Revised Version "Be- 
aloth." 

Beam occurs in the Authorized Version 



as the rendering of various Hebrew words. 
In 1 Sam. 17 : 7, it means a weaver's frame 
or principal beam ; in Hab. 2 : 11, a cross- 
beam or girder ; 2 Kings 6:2, 5, a cross- 
piece or rafter of a house ; 1 Kings 7:6, an 
architectural ornament as a projecting step 
or moulding ; Ezek. 41 : 25, a thick plank. 
In the New Testament the word occurs 
only in Matt. 7:3, 4, 5, and Luke 6 : 41, 
42, where it means (Gr. dokos) a large piece 
of wood used for building purposes, as con- 
trasted with "mote" (Gr. Jcarphos), a small 
piece or mere splinter. "Mote" and 
"beam" became proverbial for little and 
great faults. 

Beans, mentioned in 2 Sam. 17 : 28 as 
having been brought to David when flying 
from Absalom. They formed a constituent 
in the bread Ezekiel (4 : 9) was commanded 
to make, as they were in general much 
used as an article of diet. They are exten- 
sively cultivated in Egypt and Arabia and 
Syria. 

Bear, a native of the mountain regions 
of Western Asia, frequently mentioned 
in Scripture. David defended his flocks 
against the attacks of a bear (1 Sam. 
17 : 34-37). Bears came out of the wood 
and destroyed the children who mocked 
the prophet Elisha (2 Kings 2 : 24). Their 
habits are referred to in Isa. 59 : 11 ; 
Prov. 28:15; Lam. 3:10. The fury of 
the female bear when robbed of her young 
is spoken of (2 Sam. 17 : 8 ; Prov. 17 : 12 ; 
Hos. 13 : 8). In Daniel's vision of the 
four great monarchies, the Medo-Persian 
empire is represented by a bear (7 : 5). 

Beard. The mode of wearing it was 
definitely prescribed to the Jews (Lev. 
19 : 27 ; 21 : 5). Hence the import of Eze- 
kiel 's (5 : 1-5) description of the "razor " — 
i.e., the agents of an angry providence 
being used against the guilty nation of the 
Jews. It was a part of a Jew's daily 
toilet to anoint his beard with oil and per- 
fume (Ps. 133 : 2). Beards were trimmed 
with the most fastidious care (2 Sam. 
19 : 24), and their neglect was an indication 
of deep sorrow (Isa. 15 : 2 ; Jer. 41 : 5). 
The custom was to shave or pluck off the 
hair as a sign of mourning (Isa. 50 : 6 ; Jer. 
48 : 37 ; Ezra 9 : 3). The beards of David's 



BEAST 



87 



BED 



ambassadors were cut off by Hanun (2 
Sam. 10 : 4) as a mark of indignity. 




EGYPTIAN MODES OF WEARING BEARD. 




ASSYRIAN MODES OF WEARING BEARD. 

On the other hand, the Egyptians care- 
fully shaved the hair off their faces, and 
they compelled their slaves to do so also 
(Gen. 41 : 14). 

Beast. This word is used of flocks or 
herds of grazing animals (Ex. 22 : 5 ; Num. 
20:4, 8, 11; Ps. 78:48); of beasts of 
burden (Gen. 45 : 17) ; of eatable beasts 
(Prov. 9:2); and of swift beasts or drome- 
daries (Isa. 60 : 6). In the New Testament 
it is used of a domestic animal as property 
(Rev. 18:13); as xised for food (1 Cor. 
15:39), for service (Luke 10:34; Acts 
23 : 24), and for sacrifice (Acts 7 : 42). 

When used in contradistinction to man 
(Ps. 36:6), it denotes a brute creature gen- 
erally, and when in contradistinction to 
creeping things (Lev. 11 : 2-7 ; 27 : 26), a 
four-footed animal. 

The Mosaic law required that beasts of 
labour should have rest on the Sabbath 
(Ex. 20 : 10 ; 23 : 12), and in the Sabbatical 
year all cattle were allowed to roam about 
freely, and eat whatever grew in the fields 
(Ex. 23 : 11 ; Lev. 25 : 7). No animal could 
be castrated (Lev. 22 : 24). Animals of 
different kinds were to be always kept sep- 



arate (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:10). Oxen 
when used in threshing were not to be pre- 
vented from eating what was within their 
reach (Deut. 25 : 4 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 9). 

This word is used figuratively of an in- 
furiated multitude (1 Cor. 15 : 32 ; Acts 19 : 
29 ; comp. Ps. 22 : 12, 16 ; Eccl. 3 : 18 ; Isa. 
11 : 6-8), and of wicked men (2 Pet. 2:12). 
The four beasts of Daniel 7 : 3, 17, 23 repre- 
sent fovir kingdoms or kings. 

Beat^en gold, in Num. 8 : 4, means 
" turned " or roimded work in gold. The 
Greek Version, however, renders the word 
"solid gold ; " the Revised Version, "beaten 
work of gold." In 1 Kings 10:16, 17, it 
probably means "mixed" gold, as the 
word ought to be rendered — i.e., not pure 
gold. Others render the word in these 
places "thin plates of gold." 

Beat'en oil (Ex. 27 : 20 ; 29 : 40), obtained 
by pounding olives in a mortar, not by 
crushing them in a mill. It was reckoned 
the best. (See Olive.) 

Beautiful gate, the name of one of the 
gates of the temple (Acts 3 : 2). It is sup- 
posed to have been the door which led from 
the court of the Gentiles to the cotirt of the 
women. It was of massive structure, and 
covered with plates of Corinthian brass. 

Be^'cher — first-horn; a youth — the second 
son of Benjamin (Gen. 46 : 21), who came 
down to Egypt with Jacob. It is probable 
that he married an Ephraimitish heiress, 
and that his descendants were consequently 
reckoned among the tribe of Ephraim 
(Num. 26 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 20, 21). They are 
not reckoned among the descendants of 
Benjamin (Num. 26 : 38). 

Bed (Heb. onittcih), for rest at night (Ex. 
8:3; 1 Sam. 19:13, 15, 16, etc.); durmg 
sickness (Gen. 47 : 31 ; 48 : 2 ; 49 : 33, etc.) ; 
as a sofa for rest (1 Sam. 28 : 23 ; Amos 3 : 
12). Another Hebrew word [er'es) so ren- 
dered denotes a canopied bed, or a bed 
with curtains (Deut. 3:11; Ps. 132:3), for 
sickness (Ps. 6:7; 41:4.) 

In the New Testament it denotes some- 
times a litter with a coverlet (Matt. 9 : 2, 
6; Luke 5: 18; Acts 5 : 15). 

The Jewish bedstead was frequently 
merely the divan or platform along the 
sides of the house, sometimes a very slight 



BEDAN 



88 



BEEROTH 



portable frame, sometimes only a mat or 
one or more qnilts. The only material for 
bed-clothes is mentioned in 1 Sam. 19 : 13. 
Sleeping in the open air was not uncommon, 
the sleeper wrapping himself in his outer 
garment (Ex. 22 : 26, 27; Deut. 24 : 12, 13). 




EASTERN BEDS. 

Be^dan, one of the judges of Israel (1 
Sam. 12 : 11). It is uncertain who he was. 
Some suppose that Barak is meant, others 
Samson, but most probably this is a con- 
tracted form of Abdon (Judg. 12 : 13). 

Bed-chamber, an apartment in Eastern 
houses, furnished with a slightly elevated 
l^latform at the upper end and sometimes 
along the sides, on which were laid mat- 
tresses. This was the general arrangement 
of the public sleeping-room for the males 
of the family and for guests, but there 
were usually besides distinct bed-chambers 
of a more private character (2 Kings 4 : 10 ; 
Ex. 8 : 3 ; 2 Kings 6 : 12). In 2 Kings 11 : 
2 this word denotes, as in the margin of 
the Revised Version, a store-room in which 
mattresses were kept. 

Bed^stead, used in Deut. 3 : 11, but else- 
where rendered "couch," "bed." In 2 
Kings 1:4, 20 : 2, Ps. 132 : 3, Amos 3 : 12, 
the divan is meant by this word. 

Bee. First mentioned in Deut. 1 : 44. 



Swarms of bees, and the danger of their 
attacks, are mentioned in Ps. 11 8 : 12. 
Samson found a "swarm of bees" in the 
carcass of a lion he had slain (Judg. 14 : 
8). Wild bees are described as laying up 
honey in woods and in clefts of rocks 
(Deut. 32:13; Ps. 81:16). In Isa. 7:18 
the "fly" and the "bee "are personifica- 
tions of the Egyptians and Assyrians, the 
inveterate enemies of Israel. 

Beel^zebub (Gr. form Beel^'zebul), the 
name given to Satan, and found only in 
the New Testament (Matt. 10:25; 12:24, 
27 ; Mark 3 : 22). It is probably the same as 
Baalzebub {q.v.), the god of Ekron, mean- 
ing " the lord of flies," or, as others think, 
" the lord of dung," or " the dung-god." 

Be'er — loell. (1.) A place where a well 
was dug by the direction of Moses, at the 
forty-fourth station of the Hebrews in 
their wanderings (Num. 21 : 16-18) in the 
wilderness of Moab. (See Well.) 

(2.) A town in the tribe of Judah to 
which Jotham fled for fear of Abimelech 
(Judg. 9 : 21). Some have identified this 
place with Beeroth. 

Be^er-e'lim — loell of heroes — probably 
the name given to Beer, the place where 
the chiefs of Israel dug a well (Num. 21 : 
16; Isa. 15:8). 

Bee''ri — illustrious, or the well - man. 
(1.) The father of Judith, one of the wives 
of Esau (Gen. 26 : 34), the same as Anah 
(Gen. 36 : 2). (2. ) The father of the prophet 
Hosea (1 : 1). 

Be^er-lahai'-roi — i.e., "the well of him 
that li veth and seeth me, " or, as some render 
it, "the well of the vision of life"— the well 
where the Lord met with Hagar (Gen. 16 : 7- 
14). Isaac dwelt beside this well (24 : 62 ; 25 : 
11). It has been identified with 'Ain3£uivei- 
leh, or Moilahhi, south-west of Beersheba, 
and about 12 miles W. from Kadesh-barnea. 

Bee''roth — lodh — one of the four cities 
of the Hivites which entered by fraud into 
a league with Joshua. It belonged to 
Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 25). It has by some 
been identified with el-Bireh on the way to 
NablCis, 10 miles north of Jerusalem. 

Bee^roth of the children of Jaakan 
(Deut. 10:6). The same as Bene-jaakan 
(Num. 33 : 31). 



BEERSHEBA 



89 



BELA 



Be'ershe'ba — loell of the oath, or well of 
seven— d, well dug by Abraham, and so 
named because he and Abimelech here 
entered into a compact (Gen. 21:31). On 
re opening it, Isaac gave it the same name 
(Gen. 26 : 31-33). It was a favourite place 
of abode of both of these patriarchs (21 : 
33-22:1, 19; 26:33; 28:10). It is men- 
tioned among the "cities" given to the 
tribe of Simeon (19 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 28). Erom 
Dan to Beersheba, a distance of about 144 
miles (Judg. 20:1; 1 Chr. 21:2; 2 Sam. 
24 : 2), became the usual way of designating 
the whole Promised Land, and passed into 
a proverb. After the return from the Cap- 
tivity the phrase is narrowed into "from 
Beersheba unto the valley of Hinnom" 




iMOUTH OF ONE OF THE WELLS AT BEEESHEBA. 

(Neh. 11:30). The kingdom of the ten 
tribes extended from Beersheba to Mount 
Ephraim (2 Chr. 19 : 4). The name is not 
found in the New Testament. It is still 
called by the Arabs Bir es-Seba — i.e., 
"well of the seven" — where there are to 
the present day two i^rincipal wells and 
live smaller ones. It is nearly midway 
between the southern end of the Dead Sea 
and the Mediterranean. 

Bee'tle (Heb. hargol, meaning " leaper "). 
Mention of it is made only in Lev. 11 : 22, 
where it is obvious the word cannot mean 
properly the beetle. It denotes some 
\vinged creeper with at least four feet, 
"which has legs above its feet, to leap 
withal." The description plainly points 



to the locust {q. v.). This has been an article 
of food from the earliest times in the East 
to the present day. The word is rendered 
" cricket " in the Revised Version. 

Beeves (an old English plural of the 
word heef), a name applicable to all rumi- 
nating animals except camels, and espe- 
cially to the Bovidce, or homed cattle (Lev, 
22 : 19, 21; Num. 31 : 28, 30, 33, 38, 44). 

Beg. That the poor existed among the 
Hebrews we have abundant evidence (Ex. 
23 : 11; Deut. 15 : 11), but there is no men- 
tion of beggars properly so called in the 
Old Testament. The poor were provided 
for by the law of Moses (Lev. 19:10; 
Deut. 12 : 12 ; 14 : 29). It is predicted of 
the seed of the wicked that they shall be 
beggars (Ps. 37 : 25; 109 : 10). 

In the New Testament we find not sel- 
dom mention made of beggars (Mark 10 : 
46; Luke 16: 20, 21; Acts 3:2), yet there 
is no mention of such a class as vagrant 
beggars, who are found so numerously in 
the East at the present day. 

Behead^ a method of taking away life 
practised among the Egj^ptians (Gen. 40 : 
17-19). There are instances of this mode 
of jDunishment also among the Hebrews 
(2 Sam. 4 : 8 ; 20 : 21, 22 ; 2 Kings 10 : 6-8). 
It is also mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment (Matt. 14 : 8-12 ; Acts 12 : 2). 

Be'hemoth (Job 40 : 15-24). Some have 
supposed this to be an Egj^ptian word 
meaning a "water-ox." The Revised 
Version has here in the margin ' ' hippopo- 
tamus, " which is probably the correct ren- 
dering of the word. The word occurs fre- 
quently in Scripture, but, except here, 
always as a common name, and translated 
"beast "or "cattle." 

Be'kah. Both the name and its expla- 
nation, "a half shekel," are given in Ex. 
38:26. The word properly means a "di- 
vision," a "part." 

Bel, the Aramaic form of Baal, the 
national god of the Babylonians (Isa. 46 : 
1 ; Jer. 50 : 2 ; 51 : 44). It signifies "lord. " 
(See Baal.) 

Be'la — a thing sivalloioed. (1.) A city 
on the shore of the Dead Sea, not far from 
Sodom, called also Zoar. It was the only 
one of the five cities that was spared at 



BELIAL 



90 



BENAIAH 



Lot's intercession (Gen. 19 : 20, 36), It is 
first mentioned in Gen. 14 : 2, 8. 

(2.) The eldest son of Benjamin (Gen. 
46:21; Num. 26:38). 

(3.) The son of Beor, and a king of 
Edom (Gen. 36 : 32, 33 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 43). He 
was a Chaldean by birth. 

(4.) A son of Azaz, a Reubenite (1 Chr. 
5:8). 

Be^lial — tvorthlessness — f reqiiently used 
in the Old Testament as a proper name. 
It is first used in Deut. 13 : 13. In the 
New Testament it is found only in 2 Cor. 
6 : 15, where it is used as a name of Satan, 
the personification of all that is bad. It 
is translated "wicked" in Deut. 15:9; 
Ps. 41 : 8 (marg.) ; 101 : 3 ; Prov. 6 : 12, etc. 
The expression " son " or "man of Belial " 
means simply a worthless, lawless person 
(Judg. 19:22; 20:13; 1 Sam. 1:16; 2:12; 
10:27, etc.). 

Bell. The bells first mentioned in Scrip- 
ture are the small golden bells attached 
to the hem of the high priest's ephod (Ex. 
28 : 33, 34, 35). Their number is not given. 
Tradition mentions 66, also 72. The en- 
trance into the holy place by the high 
priest was heralded by the sound of the 
bells which he wore. This sound also in- 
dicated to the peoj)le the time during 
which he was engaged in his sacred min- 
istrations (Luke 1 : 9, 10). 

The "bells of the horses" mentioned by 
Zechariah (14:20) were attached to the 
bridles or belts round the necks of horses 
trained for war, so as to accustom them to 
noise and tumult. But it is probable, as 
some have supposed, that the " bells " here 
spoken of were cymbals or flat pieces of 
brass attached to the horses as ornaments ; 
and the circumstance that on these would 
be inscribed "Holiness to the Lord," de- 
notes that in those happier days to come 
everything, from the highest to the lowest, 
the common events and things of life, would 
be sanctified to the Lord. 

Bells of bronze with iron tongues have 
been found among the Assyrian ruins, but 
no notice of their existence has been found 
on the ancient monuments of Egypt. 

Bel''lows occurs only in Jer. 6 : 29, in 
relation to the casting of metal. Probably 



they consisted of leather bags similar to 
those common in Egypt. 

Belly, the seat of carnal affections (Titus 
1 : 12 ; Phil. 3 : 19 ; Rom. 16 : 18). The word 
is used symbolically for the heart (Prov. 
18 : 8 ; 20 : 27 ; 22 : 18, marg.). The " belly 
of hell " signifies the grave or under- world 
(Jonah 2 : 2). 

Belshaz^'zar — BeVs prince — the last of 
the kings of Babylon (Dan. 5:1). He was 
the son of Nabonadius by Nitocris, who 
was the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar and 
the widow of Nergal-sharezer. When still 
young he made a great feast to a thousand 
of his lords, and when heated by Avine sent 
for the sacred vessels his " father " (Dan. 
5:2) — i.e., grandfather — Nebuchadnezzar 
had carried away from the temi^le in Jeru- 
salem, and he and his princes drank out of 
them. In the midst of their mad revelry 
a hand was seen by the king tracing on 
the wall the announcement of God's judg- 
ment, which that night fell upon him. At 
the instance of the queen {i.e., his mother) 
Daniel was brought in, and he interpreted 
the writing. That night the kingdom of 
the Chaldeans came to an end, and the 
king was slain (Dan. 5 : 30). (See Nergal- 
sharezer.) 

Belteshaz^zar — BeVs prince— the Chal- 
dee name given to Daniel by Nebuchad- 
nezzar (Dan. 1:7). 

Benai^ah — built up hy Jehovah. (1. ) The 
son of Jehoiada, the chief priest (1 Chr. 
27 : 5). He was set by David over his 
body-guard of Cherethites and Pelethites 
(2 Sam. 8:18; 1 Kings 1:32; 1 Chr. 18: 
17). His exploits are enumerated in 2 
Sam. 23 : 20, 21, 22 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 22. He re- 
mained faithful to Solomon (1 Kings 1 : 8, 
10, 26), by whom he was ultimately raised 
to the rank of commander-in-chief of his 
whole army in room of Joab, whom he 
had put to death (1 Kings 2 : 25, 29, 30, 34, 
35; 4:4). 

(2. ) A Pirathonite, one of David's thirty 
mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 30; 1 Chr. 11 : 31). 

(3.) A musical Levite in the time of 
David (1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20). 

(4. ) A priest appointed to blow the trum- 
pet when the ark was brought into Jeru- 
salem (1 Chr. 15:24; 16:6). 



BEN-AMMI 



91 



BERACHAH 



(5.) The son of Jeiel and father of Zech- 
ariah (2 Chr. 20 : 14). 

Ben>ain^ini — son of my kindred; i.e., 
"born of incest" — the son of Lot by his 
youngest daughter (Gen. 19 : 38) ; called 
also Ammon. 

Bench, the deck of a Tyrian ship, de- 
scribed by Ezekiel (27 : 6) as overlaid with 
box-wood. 

Ben^e-ja^akan — children of Jaakan 
(Num. 33:31, 32) — the same as Beeroth 
[q. V. ) ; the wells which the Jaakanites, the 
descendants of a grandson of Seir the 
Horite, had dng; the name of one of the 
encampments of Israel in the wilderness, 
identified with el-Mayin, 60 miles west of 
Mount Hor. 

Ben-ha'dad, the standing title of the 
Syrian kings, meaning "the son of Ha- 
dad," the chief deity of the Syrians. 

(1.) The king of Syria whom Asa, king 
of Judah, employed to invade Israel (1 
Kings 15 : 18). 

(2.) Son of the preceding, also king of 
Syria. He was long engaged in war 
against Israel. He was murdered prob- 
ably by Hazael, by whom he was suc- 
ceeded (2 Kings 8 : 7-15), after a reign of 
some thirty years. 

(3.) King of Damascus, and successor of 
his father Hazael on the throne of Syria 
(2 Kings 13 : 3,. 4). His misfortunes in 
war are noticed by Amos (1 : 4). 

Ben^jamin — son of my right hand. (1.) 
The younger son of Jacob by Rachel (Gen. 
35 : 18). His birth took place at Ephrath, 
on the road betM^een Bethel and Beth- 
lehem, at a short distance from the latter 
place. His mother died in giving him 
birth, and with her last breath named him 
Ben-oni — son of my pain — a name which 
was changed by his father into Benjamin. 
His posterity are called Benjamites (Gen. 
49 : 27 ; Deut. 33 : 12 ; Josh. 18 : 21). 

The tribe of Benjmmn at the Exodus was 
the smallest but one (Num. 1 : 36, 37 ; Ps. 68 : 
27). During the march its place M-as along 
with Manasseh and Ef)hraim on the west 
of the tabernacle. At the entrance into 
Canaan it counted 45,600 warriors. It has 
been inferred by some from the words of 
Jacob (Gen. 49 : 27) that the figure of a wolf 



was on the tribal standard. This tribe is 
mentioned in Rom. 11 : 1 ; Phil. 3 : 5. 

The inheritance of this tribe lay imme- 
diately to the south of that of Ephraim, 
and was about 26 miles in length and 12 
in breadth. Its eastern boundary was the 
Jordan. Dan intervened between it and 
the Philistines. Its chief towns are named 
in Josh. 18 : 21-28. 

The history of the tribe contains a sad 
record of a desolating civil war in which 
they were engaged with the other eleven 
tribes. By it they w^ere almost exter- 
minated (Judg. 20:20, 21; 21:10). (See 

GiBEAH. ) 

The first king of the Jews was Saul, a 
Benjamite. A close alliance was formed 
between this tribe and that of Judah in 
the time of David (2 Sam. 19 : 16, 17), w^hich 
continued after his death (1 Kings 11 :13; 
12 : 20). After the Exile these two tribes 
formed the great body of the Jewish na- 
tion (Ezra 11 : 1 ; 10 : 9). 

The tribe of Benjamin was famous for 
its archers (1 Sam. 20:20; 36; 2 Sam. 1: 
22 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 40; 12 : 2) and sUngers (Judg. 
20 : 6). 

The gate of Benjamin ( Jer. 37 : 13 ; 38 : 
7 ; Zech. 14 : 10) was so called because it 
led in the direction of the tribe of Benja- 
min, on the north side of Jerusalem. It is 
called by Jeremiah (20:2) "the high gate 
of Benjamin;" also "the gate of the chil- 
dren of the people" (17:19-27). Comp. 
2 Kings 14 : 13. 

"Ze'or— a torch. (1.) The father of Bela, 
one of the kings of Edom (Gen. 36 : 32). 

(2.) The father of Balaam (Num. 22:5 ; 
24 : 3, 15 ; 31 : 8). In 2 Pet. 2 : 15 he is 
called Bosor. 

Be'ra — gift, or son of evil — king of 
Sodom at the time of the invasion of the 
four kings under Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14: 
2; 17:21). 

Bera^chah — blessing. (1.) A valley not 
far from Engedi, where Jehoshaphat over- 
threw the Moabites and Ammonites (2 Chr. 
20 : 26). It has been identified with the 
valley of Bereikut. 

(2.) One of .the Benjamite warriors, 
Saul's brethren, who joined David when 
at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 3). 



BEREA 



92 



BETH-ANATH 



Bere'a, a city of Macedonia to which 
Paul with Silas and Timotheus went when 
persecuted at Thessalonica (Acts 17 : 10, 
13), and from which also he was compelled 
to withdraw, when he fled to the sea-coast 
and thence sailed to Athens (14, 15). 
Sopater, one of Paul's companions, be- 
longed to this city, and his conversion 
probably took place at this time (Acts 
20 : 4). It is now called Verria. 

Berechi^ah — blessed by Jehovah. (1.) 
Son of Shimea, and father of Asaph the 
musician (1 Chr. 6 : 39 ; 15 : 17). 

(2. ) One of the seven Ephraimite chief- 
tains, son of Meshillemoth (2 Chr. 28 : 12). 

(3.) The fourth of the five sons of Zerub- 
babel, of the royal family of Judah (1 Chr. 
3 : 20). 

(4. ) The father of the prophet Zechariah 
(1:1,7). 

Beared — hail. (1.) A town in the south 
of Palestine (Gen. 16 : 14), in the desert of 
Shur, near Lahai-roi. 

(2.) A son of Shuthelah, and grandson 
of Ephraim (1 Chr. 7 : 20). 

Beri^ah — a gift, or in evil. (1. ) One of 
Asher's four sons, and father of Heber 
(Gen. 46 : 17). 

(2.) A son of Ephraim (1 Chr. 7 : 20-23), 
born after the slaughter of his brother, and 
so called by his father "because it went 
evil with his house " at that time. 

(3.) A Benjamite who with his brother 
Shema founded Ajalon and expelled the 
Gittites (1 Chr. 8 : 13). 

Berni^ce — bearer of. victory — the eldest 
daughter of Agrippa I., the Herod Agrippa 
of Acts 12 : 20. After the early death of 
her first husband she was married to her 
uncle Herod, king of Chalcis. After his 
death (a.d. 40) she lived in incestuous con- 
nection with her brother Agrippa II. (Acts 
25 : 13, 23 ; 26 : 30). They joined the Ro- 
mans at the outbreak of the final war be- 
tween them and the Jews, and lived after- 
wards at Rome. 

Bero'dach-bal'adan, the king of Baby- 
lon who sent a friendly deputation to 
Hezekiah (2 Kings 20 : 12). In Isa. 39 : 1 
he is called Merodach-baladan {q.v.). 

Ber'yl, the rendering in the Authorized 
Version of the Hebrew word tarshish, a 



precious stone ; probably so called as being 
brought from Tarshish. It was one of the 
stones on the breastplate of the high priest 
(Ex. 28:20; R.V. marg., "chalcedony;" 
39 : 13). The colour of the wheels in Ezek- 
iel's vision was as the colour of a beryl 
stone (1:16; 10:9; R.V., "stone of Tar- 
shish "). It is mentioned in Cant. 5 : 14 ; 
Dan. 10 : 6; Rev. 21 : 20. In Ezek. 28 : 13 
the LXX. render the word by "chryso- 
lite," which the Jewish historian Josephus 
regards as its proper translation. This also 
is the rendering given in the Authorized 
Version in the margin. That was a gold- 
coloured gem, the topaz of ancient authors. 

Be'som, the rendering of a Hebrew word 
meaning siveeper, occurs only in Isa. 14 : 23, 
of the sweeping away, the utter ruin, of 
Babylon. 

Be^sor — cold — a ravine or brook in the 
extreme south-west of Judah, where 200 of 
David's men stayed behind because they 
were faint, while the other 400 pursued the 
Amalekites (1 Sam. 30 : 9, 10, 21). Prob- 
ably the Wddy es Sheriah, south of Gaza. 

Bestead'', the rendering in Isa. 8 : 21, 
where alone it occurs, of a Hebrew word 
meaning to oppress, or be in circi^mstances 
of hardship. 

Be^tah — confidence— a, city belonging to 
Hadadezer, king of Zobah, which yielded 
much spoil of brass to David (2 Sam. 8 : 8). 
In 1 Chr. 18 : 8 it is called Tibhath. 

Beth occurs frequently as the appella- 
tion for a house, or dwelling-place, in such 
compounds as the words immediately 
following : — 

Beth^ab^ara — house of the ford — a place 
on the east bank of the Jordan, where 
John was baptizing (John 1 : 28). It may 
be identical with Bethbara, the ancient 
ford of Jordan of which the men of Eph- 
raim took iDossession ( Judg. 7 : 24). The 
Revised Version reads "Bethany beyond 
Jordan." It was the great ford, and still 
bears the name of "the ford," Makhadhet 
'Abarah, " the ford of crossing over," about 
25 miles from Nazareth. (See Bethbarah. ) 

Beth-a^nath — house of response — one of 
the fenced cities of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 38). 
It is perhaps identical with the modern 
village ''A inata, 6 miles west of Kedesh. 



BETH-ANOTH . 



93 



BETH-ARBEL 



Beth-a''noth — house of ansivers — a city 
in the mountainous district of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 59). It has been identified with 
the modern Beit-'Aniln, about 3 miles north- 
east of Hebron. 

Beth'any — house of dates. (1.) The 
Revised Version in John 1 : 28 has this 
word instead of Bethabara, on the authority 
of the oldest manuscripts. It appears to 
have been the name of a place on the east 
of Jordan. 

(2.) A village on the south-eastern slope 
of the Mount of Ohves (Mark 11 : 1), about 
2 miles east of Jerusalem, on the road to 



Jericho. It derived its name from the 
number of palm-trees which grew there. 
It was the residence of Lazarus and his 
sisters. It is frequently mentioned in con- 
nection with memorable incidents in the 
life of our Lord (Matt. 21 : 17 ; 26 : 6 ; Mark 
11 : 11, 12; 14 : 3; Luke 24 : 50; John 11 : 1; 
12 : 1). It is now known by the name of el- 
Azai'tyeh—i. e. , " place of Lazarus, " or simply 
Lazariyeh. Seen from a distance, the village 
has been described as "remarkably beauti- 
ful, the perfection of retirement and repose, 
of seclusion and lovely peace. " Now a mean 
village, containing about twenty families. 




BETHANY (eL-AZARIYEh). 



Beth-ar'abah— ^owse of the desert— one 
of the six cities of Judah, situated in the 
sunk valley of the Jordan and Dead Sea 
(Josh. 18 : 22). In Josh. 15 : 61 it is said 
to have been "in the wilderness." It was 
afterwards included in the towns of Benja- 
min. It is called Arabah (Josh. 18 : 18). 

Beth-a^ram — house of the height; i.e., 
"mountain-house" — one of the towns of 
Gad, 3 miles east of Jordan, opposite Jeri- 
cho (Josh. 13 : 27). Probably the same as 



Beth-haran in Num. 32 : 36. It was called 
by king Herod, Julias, or Livias, after 
Livia, the wife of Augustus. It is now 
called Beit-haran. 

Beth-ar''bel — house of GdB.^s court — a 
place alluded to by Hosea (10 : 14) as the 
scene of some ^eat military exploit, but 
not otherwise mentioned in Scripture. 
The Shalman here named was probably 
Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria (2 Kings 
17 : 3). 



BETH-AVEN 



94 



BETHESDA 



Beth-a^ven — house of nothingness; i.e., 
"of idols" — a place in the mountains of 
Benjamin, east of Bethel (Josh. 7:2; 
18:12; 1 Sam. 13 : 5). InHos. 4:15; 5:8; 
10: 5 it stands for "Bethel" {q.v.), and it 
is so called because it was no longer the 
" house of God," but " the house of idols," 
referring to the calves there worshipped. 

Beth-ba''rah — house of crossing — a place 
south of the scene of Gideon's victory 
( Judg. 7 : 24). It was probably the chief 
ford of the Jordan in that district, and 
may have been that by which Jacob crossed 
when he returned from Mesopotamia, near 
the Jabbok (Gen. 32 : 22), and at which 
Jephthah slew the Ephraimites (Judg. 
12 : 4). Nothing, however, is certainly 
known of it. (See Bethabaea.) 

Beth-car — sheep-house — a place to which 
the Israelites pursued the Philistines west 
from Mizpeh (1 Sam. 7 : 11). 

Beth-da^gon — house of Dagon. (1.) A 
city in the low country or plain of Judah, 
near Philistia (Josh. 15 : 41) ; the modern 
Beit Degan, about 5 miles from Lydda. 

(2.) A city near the south-east border of 
Asher (Josh. 19 : 27). It was a Philistine 
colony. It is identical with the modern 
ruined village of TcU D''ailk. 

Beth-dib^latha'im — house of two cakes of 
figs — a city of Moab, upon which Jeremiah 
(48 : 22) denoiinced destruction. It is called 
also Almon-diblathaim (Num. 33 : 46) and 
Diblath (Ezek. 6 : 14). 

Beth^el — house of God. (1.) A jDlace in 
Central Palestine, about 10 miles north of 
Jerusalem, at the head of the pass of Mich- 
mash and Ai. It was originally the royal 
Canaanite city of Luz (Gen. 28 : 19). The 
name Bethel was at first api^arently given to 
the sanctuary in the neighbourhood of Luz, 
and was not given to the city itself till 
after its conquest by the tribe of Ephraim. 
When Abram entered Canaan he formed 
his second encampment between Bethel 
and Hai (Gen. 12 : 8) ; and on his return 
from Egypt he came back to it, and again 
" called upon the name of the Lord " (13 : 4). 
Here Jacob, on his way from Beersheba to 
Haran, had a vision of the angels of God 
ascending and descending on the ladder 
whose top reached unto heaven (28 : 10, 19) ; 



and on his return he again visited this place, 
"where God talked with him" (35:1-15), 
and there he "built an altar, and called the 
place El-beth-el" {q.v.). To this second 
occasion of God's speaking with Jacob at 
Bethel, Hosea (12 : 4, 5) makes reference. 

In troublous times the people went to 
Bethel to ask counsel of God (Judg, 20 : 18, 
31 ; 21 : 2). Here the ark of the covenant 
was kept for a long time under the care of 
Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron (20 : 26- 
28). Here also Samuel held in rotation 
his court of justice (1 Sam. 7 : 16). It 
was included in Israel after the kingdom 
was divided, and it became one of the seats 
of the worship of the golden calf (1 Kings 
12:28-33; 13:1). Hence the prophets 
(Amos 5:5; Hos. 4 : 15; 5 : 8; 10 : 5, 8) call 
it in contempt Beth-aven — i.e., "house of 
idols. " Bethel remained an abode of priests 
even after the kingdom of Israel was deso- 
lated by the king of Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 28, 
29). At length all traces of the idolatries 
were extiri^ated by Josiah, king of Judah 
(2 Kings 23:15-18) ; and the place was still 
in existence after the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 28 ; 
Neh. 7 : 32). It has been identified with the 
ruins of Beittn, a small village amid exten- 
sive ruins some 9 miles south of Shiloh. 

(2.) Mount Bethel was a hilly district 
near Bethel (Josh. 16 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 2). 

(3. ) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. 
12 : 16 ; 15 : 30). 

Beth^elite, a designation of Hiel {q.v.), 
who rebuilt Jericho and experienced the 
curse pronounced long before (1 Kings 16:34). 

Be''ther — dissection or separation — cer- 
tain mountains mentioned in Cant. 2 : 17 ; 
probably near Lebanon. 

Bethes^da — house of mercy— a, reservoir 
(Gr. kolumhethra, "a swimming bath") 
with five porches, close to the sheep-gate 
or market (Neh. 3:1; John 5 : 2). Euse- 
bius the historian (a.d. 330) calls it "the 
sheep-pool." It is also called "Bethsaida " 
and "Beth-zatha" (John 5 : 2, R.V. marg.). 
Under these " porches " or colonnades were 
usually a large number of infirm peoj^le wait- 
ing for the " troubling of the water." It is 
usually identified with the modern so-called 
Fountain of the Virgin, in the valley of 
the Kidron, and not far from the Pool of 



BETH-GAMUL 



95 



BETH-HORON. 



Siloam (g.r.); and also with the Birket 
Israel, a pool near the mouth of the val- 
ley which runs into the Kidron south of 
" St. Stephen's Gate." Others again iden- 
tify it with the twin pools called the 
"Souterrains," under the convent of the 
Sisters of Zion, situated in what must have 
been the rock-hewn ditch between Bezetha 



and the fortress of Antonia. But quite re- 
cently Schick has discovered a large tank, 
as sketched here, situated about 100 feet 
north-west of St. Anne's Church, which 
is, as he contends, very probably the Pool 
of Bethesda. No certainty as to its iden- 
tification, however, has as yet been ar- 
rived at. (See Fountain.) 



RujLTLS icEartlv'y 





'^y.f'^-' '■• . '.V I -'j^-' sapposad/JjbotJU'Tn/ 



vi'-owm, 



ISO Feet 



Scale 

PROBABLE POOL OF BETHESDA. SECTION FROM EAST TO WEST. 
(By pertnission of the Cotntnittee of the Palestine Exploratio7i Fund.) 



Beth-ga^mul — camel-house — a city in 
the "plain country" of Moab denounced 
by the prophet ( Jer, 48 : 23) ; probably the 
modern Um-el-Jemal, near Bozrah, one of 
the deserted cities of the Hauran. 

Beth-giVgal — house of Gilgal — a place 
from which the inhabitants gathered for 
the purpose of celebrating the rebuilding 
of the walls on the return from exile (Neh. 
12:29). (See Gilgal.) 

Beth-hac^cerem — house of a vineyard — 
a place in the tribe of Judah (Neh. 3 : 14) 
where the Benjamites were to set up a 
beacon when they heard the trumpet 
against the invading army of the Baby- 
lonians (Jer. 6 : 1). It is probable that 
this place is the modern ^Ain Kdrim, or 



"well of the vineyards," near which there 
is a ridge on which are cairns which may 
have served as beacons of old, one of which 
is 40 feet high and 130 in diameter. 

Beth-ho^ron— /lOMse of the hollotv, or of the 
cavern — the name of two towns or villages 
(2 Chr. 8 : 5 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 24) in the territory 
of Ephraim, on the way from Jerusalem to 
Joppa. They are distinguished as Beth- 
horon "the upper" and Beth-horon "the 
nether." They are about 2 miles apart, the 
former being about 10 miles north-west of 
Jerusalem. Between the two places was 
the ascent and descent of Beth-horon, lead- 
ing from Gibeon down to the western plain 
(Josh. 10 : 10, 11 ; 18 : 13, 14), down which the 
five kings of the Amorites were driven by 



BETH-JESHIMOTH 



96 



BETHLEHEM 



Joshua in that great battle, the most im- 
portant in which the Hebrews had been as 
yet engaged, being their first conflict with 
their enemies in the open field. This was 
indeed one of the decisive battles of the 
world — "like the battle of the Milvian 
Bridge, which involved the fall of pagan- 
ism ; or the battle of Poitiers, which sealed 
the fate of Arianism ; or like the battle of 
Lutzen, which determined the balance of 
power between Romanism and Protestant- 
ism in Germany." Jehovah interposed in 
behalf of Israel by a terrific hail-storm, 
which caused more deaths among the 
Canaanites than did the swords of the 



Israelites. (Comp. Ex. 9 : 19, 25 ; Job 
38 : 22, 23 ; Ps. 18 : 12-14 ; Isa. 30 : 30. ) The 
modern name of these places is Beit-ur, 
distinguished by el-F6ka, " the upper," and 
el-Tahta, "the nether." (See Gibeon.) 

Beth-jesh^imoth — house of wastes, or^ 
deserts — a town near Abel-shittim, east of 
Jordan, in the desert of Moab, where the 
Israelites encamj)ed not long before cross- 
ing the Jordan (Num. 33 : 49). It was 
within the territory of Sihon, king of the 
Amorites (Josh. 12 : 3). 

Beth''lehein — house of bread. (1. ) A city 
in the "hill country" of Judah. It was 
originally called Ephrath (Gen. 35:16, 19; 




BETHLEHEM (bEIT-LAHM). 



48:7; Ruth 4:11). It was also called 
Beth-lehem Ephratah (Micah 5 : 2), Beth- 
lehem-judah (1 Sam. 17:12), and "the 
city of David" (Luke 2:4). It is first 
noticed in Scripture as the place where 
Rachel died and was buried " by the way- 
side," directly to the north of the city 
(Gen. 48 : 7). The valley to the east was 
the scene of the story of Ruth the Moab- 
itess. There are the fields in which she 



gleaned, and the path by which she and 
Naomi returned to the to\^Ti. Here was 
David's birth-place, and here also, in after 
years, he was anointed as king by Samuel 
(1 Sam. 16 : 4-13) ; and it was from the 
well of Bethlehem that three of his heroes 
brought water for him at the risk of their 
lives when he was in the cave of AduUam 
(2 Sam. 23:13-17). But it was distin- 
guished above every other city as the 



BETH-LE-APHRAH 



97 



BETH-SHEMESH 



birth-place of "Him whose goings forth 
were of old " (Matt. 2:6; comp. Micah 
5:2). Afterwards Herod, "when he saw 
that he was mocked of the wise men, " sent 
and slew "all the children that were in 
Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, 
from two years old and under " (Matt. 2 : 
16, 18; Jer. 31:15). 

Bethlehem hears the modern name of 
Beit-Lahm — i.e., "house of flesh." It is 
about 5 miles south of Jerusalem, standing 
at an elevation of about 2,550 feet above 
the sea, thus 100 feet higher than Jeru- 
salem. 

There is a church still existing, built by 
Constantine the Great (a.d. 330), called 
the " Church of the Nativity," over a grotto 
or cave called the "holy crypt," and said 
to be the " stable " in which Jesus was born. 
All the facts and circumstances, however, 
are against this tradition. Close to it is 
another grotto, where Jerome the Latin 
father is said to have spent thirty years of 
his life in translating the Scriptures into 
Latin. (See Versions.) 

(2.) A city of Zebulun, mentioned only 
in Josh. 5 19 : 15. Now Beit-Lahm, a ruined 
village about 6 miles west-north-west of 
Nazareth, 

Beth-le-Aph'rah (R. V. Micah 1 : 10)— 
house of dust. The Authorized Version 
reads " in the house of Aphrah." This is 
probably the name of a town in the Sheph- 
elah, or "low country," between Joppa 
and Gaza. 

Beth-pe^or — house of Peor ; i.e., "temple 
of Baal-peor" — a place in Moab, on the 
east of Jordan, opposite Jericho. It was 
in the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 20 ; Deut. 
3:29; 4:46). In the "ravine" over 
against Beth-peor Moses was probably 
buried (Deut. 34 : 6). 

Beth-phage — house of the unripe fig — a 
village on the Mount of Olives, on the road 
from Jerusalem to Jericho (Matt. 21 : 1 ; 
Mark 11 : 1 ; Luke 19 : 29), and very close 
to Bethany. It was the limit of a Sab- 
bath-day's journey from Jerusalem — i.e., 
2,000 cubits. It has been identified with 
the modern Kefr-et-THr. 

Bethsai^'da — house offish. (1. ) A town 
in Galilee, on the west side of the sea of 



Tiberias, in the "land of Gennesaret." It 
was the native place of Peter, Andrew, and 
Philip, and was frequently resorted to by 
Jesus (Mark 6 : 45; Johnl : 44; 12 : 21). It is 
supposed to have been at the modern ^Ain 
Tdbiyhcdi, a bay to the north of Gennesaret. 

(2.) A city near which Christ fed 5,000, 
and where the blind man had his sight re- 
stored (Luke 9 : 10), on the east side of the 
lake (Mark 8:22; John 6:17; Matt. 
14 : 15-21), two miles up the Jordan. It 
stood within the region of Gaulonitis, and 
was enlarged by Philip the tetrarch, who 
called it "Julias," after the emperor's 
daughter. Or, as some have supposed, there 
may have been but one Bethsaida built on 
both sides of the lake, near where the Jor- 
dan enters it. 

Beth-she^'an — house of security or rest — a 
city which belonged to Manasseh (1 Chr. 
7 : 29), on the west of Jordan. The bodies 
of Saul and his sons were fastened to 
its walls. In Solomon's time it gave its 
name to a district (1 Kings 4 : 12). The 
name is found in an abridged form, Beth- 
shan, in 1 Sam. 31 : 10, 12 and 2 Sam. 21 : 12. 
It is on the road from Jerusalem to Da- 
mascus, about 5 miles from the Jordan, 
and 14 from the south end of the Lake of 
Gennesaret. After the Captivity it was 
called Scythopolis — i.e., "the city of the 
Scythians," who about B.C. 640 came down' 
from the steppes of Southern Russia and 
settled in different places in Syria. It is 
now called Beisdn. 

Beth-she^mesh — house of the sun. (1. ) A 
sacerdotal city in the tribe of Dan (Josh. 
21 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 15), on the north border of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 10). It was the scene of an 
encounter between Jehoash, king of Israel, 
and Amaziah, king of Judah, in which 
the latter was made prisoner (2 Kings 14 : 
11, 13). It was afterwards taken by the 
Philistines (2 Chr. 28:18). It is the 
modern ruined Arabic village 'Ain-shems, 
on the north-west slopes of the mountains 
of Judah, 14 miles west of Jerusalem. 

(2.) A city between Mount Tabor and 
the [Jordan, near the southern border of 
Jerusalem (Josh. 19 : 22), 7^ miles south of 
Beth-shean. It is the modern Ain-esh- 
Shemsiyeh. 

7 



BETH-TAPPUAH 



98 



BIBLE 



(3. ) One of the fenced cities of Naphtali 
(Josh. 19:38). Now Khurbet Shema, 3 
miles west of Saf ed. Biit perhaps the same 
as No. 2. 

(4.) An idol sanctuary in Egypt (Jer. 
43 : 13); called by the Greeks Heliopolis, and 
by the Egyptians On {q.v.) — Gen. 41 : 45. 

Beth-tap'^puah — house of apples — a town 
of Judah, now Tuffiih, 5 miles west of 
Hebron (Josh. 15 : 53). 

Bethu''el — man of God, or virgin of God, 
or house of God. (1.) The son of Nahor by 
Milcah ; nephew of Abraham, and father of 
Rebekah (Gen. 22 : 22, 23 ; 24 : 15, 24, 47). 
He appears in person only once (24 : 50). 

(2. ) A southern city of Judah (1 Chr. 4 : 
30) ; called also Bethul (Josh. 19 : 4) and 
n Bethel (12 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 27). 

Beth''zur — house of rock — a town in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 58), about 4 
miles to the north of Hebron. It was 
built by Rehoboam for the defence of his 
kingdom (2 Chr. 11 : 7). It stood near the 
modern ed-Dirweh. Its ruins are still seen 
on a hill which bears the name of Beit-Sur, 
and which commands the road from Beer- 
sheba a^nd Hebron to Jerusalem from the 
south. 

Betroth'', to promise "by one's truth." 
Men and women were betrothed when 
they were engaged to be married. This 
usually took place a year or more before 
marriage. Erom the time of betrothal the 
woman was regarded as the lawful wife of 
the man to whom she was betrothed (Deut. 
28:30; Judg. 14:2, 8; Matt. 1:18-21). 
The term is figuratively employed of the 
spiritual connection between God and his 
people (Hos. 2 : 19, 20). 

Beu^lah — married—is used in Isa. 62 : 4 
metaphorically as the name of Judea : ' ' The 
land shall be married," i.e., favoured and 
blessed of the Lord. 

Bewray^ to reveal or disclose ; an old 
English word equivalent to " betray " 
(Prov. 27:16; 29:24, R.V., "uttereth;" 
Isa. 16 : 3 ; Matt. 26 : 73). 

Beyond'', when used with reference to 
Jordan, signifies in the writings of Moses 
the west side of the river, as he wrote on 
the east bank (Gen. 1 : 10, 11 ; Deut. 1 : 1, 
5 ; 3 : 8, 20 ; 4 : 46) ; but in the writings of 



Joshua, after he had crossed the river, it 
means the east side (Josh. 5:1; 12 : 7 ; 
22 : 7). 

BezaFeel — in the shadow of God; i.e., 
" under his protection " — the artificer who 
executed the work of art in connection 
with the tabernacle in the wilderness (Ex. 
31 : 2 ; 35 : 30). He was engaged princi- 
pally in works of metal, wood, and stone ; 
while Aholiab, who was associated with 
him and subordinate to him, had the 
charge of the textile fabrics (36 : 1, 2 ; 38 : 
22). He was of the tribe of Judah, the 
son of Uri, and grandson of Hur (31 : 2). 
Mention is made in Ezra 10 : 30 of another 
of the same name. 

Be^'zek — lightning. (1.) The residence 
of Adoni-bezek, in the lot of Judah (Judg. 
1 : 5). It was in the mountains, not far 
from Jerusalem. Probably the modern 
Bezkah, 6 miles south-east of Lydda. 

(2. ) The place where Saul numbered the 
forces of Israel r.nd Judah (1 Sam. 11 : 8) ; 
somewhere in the centre of the country, 
near the Jordan valley. Probably the 
modern Ihzik, 13 miles north-east of 
Shechem. 

Be'zer — ore of gold or silver. (1. ) A city 
of the Peubenites ; one of the three cities 
of refuge on the east of Jordan (Deut. 4 : 
43 ; Josh. 20 : 8). It has been identified 
with the modern ruined village of Burazin, 
some 12 miles north of Heshbon ; also with 
Kasur-el-Besheir, 2 miles south-west of 
Dibon. 

(2.) A descendant of Asher (1 Chr. 7 : 37). 

Bible, the English form of the Greek 
name Biblia, meaning " books," the 
name which in the fifth century began to 
be given to the entire collection of sacred 
books, the "Library of Divine Revela- 
tion." The name Bible was adopted by 
Wickliffe, and came gradually into use in 
our English language. The Bible consists 
of sixty-six different books, composed by 
many different writers, in three different 
languages, under different circumstances ; 
writers of almost every social rank — states- 
men and peasants, kings, herdsmen, fisher- 
men, priests, tax-gatherers, tentmakers ; 
educated and uneducated, Jews and Gen- 
tiles ; most of them unknown to each 



BIBLE 



99 



BILHAH 



other, and writing at various periods dur- 
ing the space of about IGOO years : and yet, 
after all, it is only one book dealing with 
only one subject in its numberless aspects 
and relations — the subject of man's re- 
demption. 

It is divided into the Old Testament, 
containing thirty-nine books, and the New 
Testament, containing twenty-seven books. 
The names given to the Old in the writings 
of the New are "the scriptures" (Matt. 
21:42), "scripture" (2 Pet. 1:20), "the 
holy scriptures " (Rom. 1:2), " the law " 
(John 12 : 34), " the law, the prophets, and 
the psalms " (Luke 24 : 44)^ "the law and the 
prophets " (Matt. 5 : 17). There is a break 
of 400 years between the Old Testament 
and the New, " the four centuries of 
silence " as they have been called. 

The Old Testament is divided into three 
parts : — 1. The Laiv {Tordh), consisting of 
the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses. 
2. The Projjhets, consisting of (1) the 
former — namely, Joshua, Judges, the 
Books of Samuel, and the Books of Kings ; 
(2) the latter — namely, the greater pro- 
phets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and 
the twelve minor prophets. 3. The Har/i- 
ographa, or holy writings, including the 
rest of the books. These were ranked in 
three divisions: — (1) The Psalms, Pro- 
verbs, and Job, distinguished by the 
Hebrew name, a word formed of the initial 
letters of these books, emeth, meaning truth. 

(2) Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Eccle- 
siastes, and Esther, called the five rolls, as 
being written for the synagogue use on 
five separate rolls. (3) Daniel, Ezra, Ne- 
hemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles. Between 
the Old and the New Testament no addi- 
tion was made to the revelation God had 
already given. The period of New Testa- 
ment revelation, extending over a century, 
began with the appearance of John the 
Baptist. 

The Wew Testament consists of (1) the 
historical books — viz., the Gospels, and the 
Acts of the Apostles ; (2) the Epistles ; and 

(3) the book of prophecy, the Revelation. 
The di\T.sion of the Bible into chapters 

and verses is altogether of human inven- 
tion, designed to facilitate reference to it. 



The ancient Jews divided the Old Testa- 
ment into certain sections for use in the 
synagogue service, and then at a later 
period, in the ninth century A.D., into 
verses. Our modern system of chapters 
for all the books of the Bible was intro- 
duced by Cardinal Hugo about the middle 
of the thirteenth century (he died 12G3). 
The system of verses for the New Testa- 
ment was introduced bj" Stephens in 1551 
and generally adopted, although neither 
Tyndale's nor Coverdale's English transla- 
tion of the Bible has verses. The division 
is not always wisely made, yet it is very 
usefuL (See Veesions.) 

Bier, the frame on which dead bodies 
were conveyed to the grave (Luke 7 : 14). 

Big^tha — garden, or gift of fortune — one 
of the seven eunuchs or chamberlains who 
had charge of the harem of Ahasuerus 
(Esther 1 : 10). 

Big^than, one of the eunuchs Avho 
" kept the door " in the court of Ahasuerus. 
With Teresh he conspired against the 
king's life. Mordecai detected the con- 
spiracy, and the culprits were hanged 
(Esther 2: 21-23; 6:1-3). 

Bil^dad — son of contention — one of Job's 
friends. He is called " the Shuhite," prob- 
ably as belonging to Shixah, a district in 
Arabia, in which Shuah, the sixth son of 
Abraham by Keturah, settled (Gen. 25 : 2). 
He took part in each of the three contro- 
versies into which Job's friends entered 
AAith him (Job 8:1; 18 : 1 ; 25 : 1), and de- 
livered three speeches, very severe and 
stern in their tone, although less violent 
than those of Zophar, but more so than 
those of Eliphaz. 

Bil^'gah — cTieerfid. (1.) The head of the 
fifteenth sacerdotal course for the temple 
service (1 Chr. 24:14). (2.) A priest who 
returned from Babylon wdth Zerubbabel 
(Neh. 12 : 5, 18). 

Bil^hah — faltering ; hashful — Rachel's 
handmaid, whom she gave to Jacob 
(Gen. 29 : 29). She was the mother of Dan 
and Naphtali (Gen. 30 : 3-8). Reuben was 
cursed by his father for committing adul- 
tery \ATith her (35 : 22 ; 49 : 4). He was de- 
prived of the birth-right, which was given 
to the sons of Joseph. 



BILSHAN 



100 



BIT 



BiFshan — son of the tongue; i.e., "elo- 
quent " — a man of some note who returned 
from the Captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
2:2; Neh. 7 : 7). 

Bird. Birds are divided in the Mosaic 
law into two classes — (1) the clean (Lev. 
1:14-17; 5:7-10; 14:4-7), which were 
offered in sacrifice ; and (2) the unclean 
(Lev. 11 : 13-20). When offered in sacri- 
fice, they were not divided as other victims 
were (Gen. 15 : 10). They are mentioned 
also as an article of food (Deut. 14 : 11). 
The art of snaring wild birds is referred to 
(Ps. 124 : 7 ; Prov. 1 : 17 ; 7 : 23 ; Jer. 5 : 27). 
Singing birds are mentioned in Ps. 104 : 12 ; 
Eccl. 12 : 4. Their timidity is alluded to 
(Hos. 11 : 11). The reference in Ps. 84 : 3 
to the swallow and the sparrow may be 
only a comparison equivalent to, "What 
her house is to the sparrow, and her nest 
to the swallow, that thine altars are to my 
soul." 

Bir'sha — son of %oickedness—a, king of 
Gomorrah whom Abraham succoured in 
the invasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 2). 

Birth. As soon as a child was born it 
was washed, and rubbed with salt (Ezek. 
16 : 4), and then swathed with bandages 
(Job 38:9; Luke 2:7, 11). A Hebrew 
mother remained forty days in seclusion 
after the birth of a son, and after the 
birth of a daughter double that number of 
days. At the close of that period she 
entered into the tabernacle or temple 
and offered up a sacrifice of purification 
(Lev. 12 : 1-8 ; Luke 2 : 22). A son was 
circumcised on the eighth day after his 
birth, being thereby consecrated to God 
(Gen. 17 : 10-12 ; comp. Pom. 4 : 11). Sea- 
sons of misfortune are likened to the pains 
of a woman in travail, and seasons of pros- 
perity to the joy that succeeds child-birth 
(Isa. 13:8; Jer. 4:31; John 16:21, 22). 
The natural birth is referred to as the em- 
blem of the new birth (John 3 : 3-8 ; Gal. 
6:15; Titus 3 : 5, etc.). 

Birth''-day. The observance of birth- 
days was common in early times (Job 1 : 4, 
13, 18). They were specially celebrated in 
the land of Egypt (Gen. 40 : 20). There is 
no recorded instance in Scripture of the 
celebration of birth-days among the Jews. 



On the occasion of Herod's birth-day John 
the Baptist was beheaded (Matt. 14 : 6). 

Birth^right. (1.) This word denotes 
the special privileges and advantages be- 
longing to the first-born son among the 
Jews. He became the priest of th^ family. 
Thus Reuben was the first-born of the 
patriarchs, and so the priesthood of the 
tribes belonged to him. That honour was, 
however, transferred by God from Reuben 
to Levi (Num. 3 : 12, 13 ; 8 : 18). 

(2.) The first-born son had allotted to 
him also a double portion of the paternal 
inheritance (Deut. 21 : 15-17). Reuben 
was, because of his undutiful conduct, de- 
prived of his birth-right (Gen. 49 : 4 ; 1 
Chr. 5 : 1). Esau transferred his birth- 
right to Jacob (Gen. 25 : 33). 

(3.) The first-born inherited the judicial 
authority of his father, whatever it might 
be (2 Chr. 21 : 3). By divine appointment, 
however, David excluded Adonijah in 
favour of Solomon. 

' (4.) The Jews attached a sacred import- 
ance to the rank of " first-born " and 
"first-begotten" as applied to the Mes- 
siah (Rom. 8 : 29 ; Col. 1 : 18 ; Heb. 1 : 4-6). 
As first-born he has an inheritance su- 
perior to his brethren, and is the alone 
true priest. 

Bishop — an overseer. In apostolic 
times, it is quite manifest that there was 
no difference as to order between bishops 
and elders or presbyters (Acts 20 : 17-28 ; 
1 Pet. 5 : 1, 2 ; Phil.' 1 : 1 ; 1 Tim. 3). The 
term bishop is never once used to denote a 
different office from that of elder or pres- 
byter. These different names are simply 
titles of the same office, "bishop" desig- 
nating the function— nsimely, that of over- 
sight — and "presbyter" the dignity apper- 
taining to the office. Christ is figuratively 
called "the bishop [episcopos] of souls" 
(1 Pet. 2 : 25). 

Bit, the curb put into the mouths of 
horses to restrain them. The Hebrew 
word {metkeg) so rendered in Ps. 32 : 9 is 
elsewhere translated "bridle" (2 Kings 
19:28; Prov. 26:3; Isa. 37:29). Bits 
were generally made of bronze or iron, but 
sometimes also of gold or silver. In James 
3 : 3 the Authorized Version translates 



BITH-ROX 



101 



BLASPHEMY 



the Greek word by "bits," but the Re- 
vised Version by " bridles." 

Bith-ron — the hroken or divided place — 
a district in the Arabah or Jordan valley, 
on the east of the river (2 Sam. 2 : 29). It 
was probably the designation of the region 
in general, which is broken and inter- 
sected by ravines. 

Bithyn'ia, a province in Asia Minor, to 
the south of the Euxine and Propontis. 
Christian congregations were here formed 
at an early time (1 Pet. 1 : 1). Paul was 
prevented by the Spirit from entering this 
province (Acts 16 : 7). It is noted in 
church history as the province ruled over 
by Pliny as Roman proconsul, who was 
perplexed as to the course he should take 
'VAT.th the numerous Christians brought be- 
fore his tribunal on account of their pro- 
fession of Christianit}^ and their conduct, 
and wrote to Trajan, the emperor, for in- 
structions (a.d. 107). 

Bit''ter. Bitterness is symbolical of af- 
fliction, misery, and servitude (Ex. 1 : 14 ; 
Ruth 1 : 20 ; Jer. 9 : 15). The Chaldeans 
are called the "bitter and hasty nation" 
(Hab. 1:6). The "gaU of bitterness" 
expresses a state of great wickedness 
(Acts 8:23). A "root of bitterness " is a 
wicked person or a dangerous sin (Heb. 
12 : 15). 

The Passover Avas to be eaten wdth 
" bitter herbs " (Ex. 12 : 8 ; Num. 9 : 11). 
The kind of herbs so designated is not 
known. Probably they were any bitter 
herbs obtainable at the place and time 
when the Passover was celebrated. They 
represented the severity of the servitude 
under which the people groaned ; and have 
been regarded also as typical of the suffer- 
ings of Christ. 

Bit'tern is found three times in connec- 
tion with the desolations to come upon 
Babylon, Idumea, and Nineveh (Isa. 14 : 
23; 34:11; Zeph. 2:14). This bird be- 
longs to the class of cranes. Its scientific 
name is Botaurus stellaris. It is a solitary 
bird, frequenting marshy ground. The 
Hebrew Avord {kippod) thus rendered in 
the Authorized Version is rendered " por- 
cupine " in the Revised Version. But in 
the passages noted the kippod is associated 



wT^th birds, with pools of water, and with 
solitude and desolation. This favours the 
idea that not the "porcupine" but the 
" bittern " is really intended by the word. 




Bit^umen (Gen. 11:3, R.V., margin, 
rendered in the A.V. "sHme"), a mineral 
pitch. With this the ark was pitched (6 : 
14. See also Ex. 2:3.) (See Slime.) 

Black, properly the absence of all colour. 
In Prov. 7 : 9 the Hebrew word means, as 
in the margin of the Revised Version, ' ' the 
pupil of the eye." It is translated "apple " 
of the eye in Deut. 32 : 10 ; Ps. 17 : 8 ; Prov. 
7:2. It is a different word which is rendered 
"black" in Lev. 13:31, 37; Cant. 1:5; 
5 : 11 ; and Zech. 6:2, 6. It is uncertain 
what the " black marble " of Esther 1 : 6 
was which formed a part of the mosaic 
pavement. 

Blade, applied to the glittering point of 
a spear (Job 39 : 23) or sword (Nah. 3 : 3), 
the blade of a dagger ( Judg. 3 : 22) ; the 
"shoulder blade" (Job 31:22); the 
" blade " of cereals (Matt. 13 : 26). 

Blains occurs only in connection with 
the sixth plagrue of Egypt (Ex. 9 : 9, 10). 
In Deut. 28 : 27, 35, it is called " the botch 
of Egj^pt." It seems to have been the 
fearful disease of black leprosj^, a kind of 
elephantiasis, producing burning ulcers. 

Blas^phemy. In the sense of speaking 
evil of God this word is found in Ps. 74 : 
18 : Isa. 52 : 5 ; Rom. 2 : 24 ; Rev. 13 : 1, 6 ; 



BLASTUS 



102 



BLOOD 



16 : 9, 11, 21. It denotes also any kind 
of calumny, or evil-speaking, or abuse 
(1 Kings 21: 10; Acts 13:45; 18:6, etc.). 
Our Lord was accused of blasphemy when 
he claimed to be the Son of God (Matt. 
26:65; comp. Matt. 9:3; Mark 2:7). 
They who deny his Messiahship blaspheme 
Jesus (Luke 22 : 65 ; John 10 : 36). 

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost (Matt. 
12 : 31, 32 ; Mark 3 : 28, 29 ; Luke 12 : 10) 
is regarded by some as a continued and 
obstinate rejection of the gospel, and 
hence is an unpardonable sin, simply be- 
cause as long as a sinner remains in un- 
belief he voluntarily excludes himself from 
pardon. Others regard the expression as 
designating the sin of attributing to the 
power of Satan those miracles which 
Christ performed, or generally those works 
which are the result of the Spirit's agency. 

Blas^tus, chamberlain to king Herod 
Agrippa I. (Acts 12 : 20). Such persons 
generally had great influence with their 
masters. 

Blem^ish, imperfection or bodily de- 
formity excluding men from the priest- 
hood, and rendering animals unfit to be 
offered in sacrifice (Lev. 21:17-23; 22: 
19-25). The Christian church, as justi- 
fied in Christ, is " without blemish " (Eph. 
5 : 27). Christ offered himself a sacrifice 
"without blemish," acceptable to God 
(1 Pet. 1 : 19). 

Bless. (1. ) God blesses his peofjle when 
he bestows on them some gift temporal or 
spiritual (Gen. 1 : 22 ; 24 : 35 ; Job 42 : 12 ; 
Ps. 45 : 2 ; 104 : 24, 35). 

(2.) We bless God when we thank him 
for his mercies (Ps. 103 : 1, 2 ; 145 : 1-3). 

(3.) A man blesses himself when he in- 
vokes God's blessing (Isa. 65 : 16), or re- 
joices in God's goodness to him (Deut. 
29 : 19 ; Ps. 49 : 18). 

(4.) One blesses another when he ex- 
presses good wishes or offers prayer to God 
for his welfare (Gen. 24 : 60 ; ' 31 : 55 ; 1 
Sam. 2 : 20). Sometimes blessings were 
uttered under divine inspiration, as in the 
case of Noah, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses 
(Gen. 9 : 26, 27 ; 27 : 28, 29, 40 ; 48 : 15-20 ; 
49:1-28; Deut. 33). The priests were 
divinely authorized to bless the people 



(Deut. 10 : 8 ; Num. 6 : 22-27). We have 
many examples of apostolic benediction 
(2 Cor. 13:14; Eph. 6:23, 24; 2 Thess. 
3:16, 18; Heb. 13:20, 21; 1 Pet. 5:10, 

11)- 

(5.) Among the Jews in their thank- 
offerings the master of the feast took a 
cup> of wine in his hand, and after having 
blessed God for it and for other mercies 
then enjoyed, handed it to his guests, 
who all partook of it. Ps. 116 : 13 refers 
to this custom. It is also alluded to in 
1 Cor. 10 : 16, where the apostle speaks of 
the "cui:) of blessing." 

Blind. Blind beggars are frequently 
mentioned (Matt. 9:27; 12:22; 20:30; 
John 5 : 3). The blind are to be treated 
with compassion (Lev. 19 : 14 ; Deut. 
27 : 18). Blindness was sometimes a pun- 
ishment for disobedience (1 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 
Jer. 22 : 12), sometimes the effect of old 
r.ge (Gen. 27:1; 1 Kings 14:4; 1 Sam. 
^ ; 15). Conquerors sometimes blinded their 
captives (2 Kings 25:7; 1 Sam. 11:2). 
Bhndness denotes ignorance as to spiritual 
things (Isa. 6 : 10 ; 42 : 18, 19 ; Matt. 15 : 14 ; 
Eph. 4 : 18). The opening of the eyes of 
the blind is peculiar to the Messiah (Isa. 
29 : 18). Elymas was smitten with blind- 
ness at Paul's word (Acts 13 : 11). 

Blood. (1.) As food, prohibited in Gen. 
9 : 4, where the use of animal food is first 
allowed. Comp. Deut. 12 : 23 ; Lev. 3 : 17 ; 
7 : 26 ; 17 : 10-14. The injunction to ab- 
stain from blood is renewed in the decree 
of the council of Jerusalem (Acts 15 : 29). 
It has been held by some, and we think 
correctly, that this law of prohibition was 
only ceremonial and temporary ; while 
others regard it as still binding on all. 
Blood was eaten by the Israelites after the 
battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 14 : 32-34). 

(2. ) The blood of sacrifices was caught by 
the j)riest in a basin, and then sprinkled 
seven times on the altar ; that of the pass- 
over on the doorposts and lintels of the 
houses (Ex. 12; Lev. 4:5-7; 16:14-19). 
At the giving of the law (Ex. 24:8) the 
blood of the sacrifices was sprinkled on the 
people as well as on the altar, and thus the 
people wei'e consecrated to God, or entered 
into covenant with him, hence the blood of 



BLOODY 



103 



BOLSTER 



the covenant (Matt. 26 : 28 ; Heb. 9 : 19, 20 ; 
10 : 29 ; 13 : 20). 

(3.) Human blood. The murderer was to 
be punished (Gen. 9 : 5). The blood of the 
murdered "crieth for vengeance" (Gen. 
4:10). The "avenger of blood" was the 
nearest relative of the murdered, and he 
was reqiiired to avenge his death (Num. 
35 : 24, 27). No satisfaction could be made 
for the guilt of murder (Num. 35 : 31), 

(4.) Blood VL&ed. metaphorically to denote 
race (Acts 17 : 26), and as a sjonbol of 
slaughter (Isa. 34 : 3). To " wash the feet 
in blood" means to gain a great victory 
(Ps. 58 : 10). Wine, from its red colour, 
is called "the blood of the grape" (Gen. 
49 : 11). 

Blood and water issued from our Saviour's 
side when it was pierced by the Roman 
soldier (John 19 : 34). This has led path- 
ologists to the conclusion that the proper 
cause of Christ's death was rupture of the 
heart. (Comp. Ps. 69 : 20. ) 

Bloody sweat, the sign and token of 
our Lord's great agony (Luke 22 : 44). 

Blot, a stain or reproach (Job 31 : 7 ; 
Prov. 9 : 7). To blot out sin is to forgive 
it (Ps. 51 : 1, 9 ; Isa. 44 : 22 ; Acts 3 : 19). 
Christ's blotting out the handwriting of 
ordinances was his fulfilling the law in our 
behalf (Col. 2 : 14). 

Blue, generally associated with purple 
(Ex. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36, etc.). It is sup- 
posed to have been obtained from a shell- 
fish of the Mediterranean, the Helix ianthina 
of Linnaeus. The robe of the high priest's 
ephod was to be all of this colour (Ex. 28 : 31), 
also the loops of the curtains (26 : 4) and the 
ribbon of the breastplate (28 : 28) , Blue cloths 
were also made for various sacred purposes 
(Num. 4 : 6, 7, 9, 11, 12). (See CoLOUKS.) 

Boaner''ges — sons of thunder — a surname 
given by our Lord to James and John 
(Mark 3 : 17) on account of their fervid and 
imi^etuous temper (Luke 9 : 54). 

Boar occurs only in Ps. 80 : 13. The 
same Hebrew word is elseAvhere rendered 
"swine" (Lev. 11:7; Deut. 14:8; Prov. 
11 : 22 ; Isa. 65 : 4 ; 66 : 3, 17). The Hebrews 
abhorred swine's flesh, and accordingly 
none of these animals were reared, except 
in the district beyond the Sea of Galilee. 



In the psalm quoted above the powers that 
destroyed the Jewish nation are compared 
to wild boars and wild beasts of the field. 

Bo^az — alacrity. (1.) The husband of 
Ruth, a wealthy Bethlehemite. By the 
"levirate law" the duty devolved on him 
of marrying Ruth the Moabitess (Ruth 
4 : 1-13). He was a kinsman of Mahlon, 
her first husband. 

(2. ) The name given (for what reason is 
unknown) to one of the two (the other was 
called Jachin) brazen pillars which Solo- 
mon erected in the court of the temple 
(1 Kings 7 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 17). These pil- 
lars were broken up and carried to Baby- 
lon by Nebuchadnezzar. 

Bo''chiin — iveepers — a place where the 
angel of the Lord reproved the Israel- 
ites for entering into a league with the 
people of the land. This caused them bit- 
terly to weep, and hence the name of the 
place ( Judg. 2 : 1, 5). It lay probably at 
the head of one of the valleys between 
Gilgal and Shiloh. 

Boil (rendered " botch " in Deut. 28 : 27, 
35), an aggravated ulcer, as in the case of 
Hezekiah (2 Kings 20 : 7 ; Isa. 38 : 21) or of 
the Egyptians (Ex. 9:9, 10, 11; Deut. 
28 : 27, 35). It designates the disease of 
Job (2 : 7), which was probably the black 
leprosy. 

BoFled (Ex. 9:31), meaning "swollen 
or podded for seed," was adopted in the 
Authorized Version from the version of 
Coverdale (1535). The Revised Version 
has in the margin "was in blossom," which 
is the more probable rendering of the 
Hebrew word. It is the fact that in Egypt 
when barley is in ear (about February) 
flax is blossoming. 

Bol^ster. The Hebrew word kehir, ren- 
dered "pillow " in 1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16, but in 
Revised Version marg. "quilt" or "net- 
work," probably means some counterpane 
' or veil intended to protect the head of the 
sleeper. A different Hebrew word [meraa- 
shoth') is used for " bolster " (1 Sam. 26 : 7, 
11, 16). It is rightly rendered in Revised 
Version " at his head." In Gen. 28 : 11, 18 
the Authorized Version renders it "for his 
pillows," and the Revised Version "under 
his head." In Ezek. 13:18, 21 another 



BOND 



104 



BOOK 



Hebrew word [Jcesathoth) is used, properly 
denoting "ctisliions" or "pillows," as so 
rendered both in the Authorized and the 
ReAdsed Version. 

Bond, an obligation of any kind (Num. 
30 : 2, 4, 12). The word means also oppres- 
sion or affliction (Ps. 116 : 16 ; Phil. 1:7). 
Christian love is the "bond of perfect- 
ness " (Col. 3 : 14), and the influences of the 
Spirit are the "bond of peace" (Ej)h. 4:3). 

Bond^age of Israel in Egypt (Ex. 2 : 23- 
25 ; 5), which is called the " house of bond- 
age " (13 : 3 ; 20 : 2). This word is used also 
with reference to the captivity in Babylon 
(Isa. 14 : 3), and the oppression of the Per- 
sian king (Ezra 9 : 8, 9). 

Bon'net (Heb. peer)— 'Ex. 39:28 (R.V., 
"head-tires ") ; Ezek. 44 : 18 (R. V., " tires ") 



— denotes properly a tvirban worn by priests, 
and in Isa. 3:20 (R.V., "head-tires") a 
head-dress or tiara worn b)^ females. The 
Hebrew word so rendered literally means 
an ornament, as in Isa. 61 : 10 (R. V., "gar- 
land"), and in Ezek. 24:17, 23 "tire" 
(R.V., " head - tire "). It consisted of a 
piece of cloth twisted about the head. In 
Ex. 28 : 40 ; 29 : 9 it is the translation of a 
different Hebrew word {migha'ah), which 
denotes the turban (R.V., " head-tire ") of 
the common priest as distinguished from 
the mitre of the high priest. (See Mitee.) 
Book. This word has a comprehensive 
meaning in Scripture. In the Old Testa- 
ment it is the rendering of the Hebrew 
word sepher, which properly means a 
"writing," and then a "volume" (Ex. 




ANCIBNT BOOKS. 



17 : 14 ; Deut. 28 : 58 ; 29 : 20 ; Job 19 : 23) 
or "ron"(Jer. 36:2, 4). 

Books were originally written on skins, 
on linen or cotton cloth, and on Egyptian 
papyrus, whence our word ' ' paper. " The 
leaves of the book were generally written 
in columns, designated by a Hebrew word 
properly meaning "doors" and "valves" 
(Jer. 36:23, R.V., marg. "columns"). 

Among the Hebrews books were gener- 
ally rolled up like our maps, or if very 
long they were rolled from both ends, 
forming two rolls (Luke 4 :17-20). Thus 
they were arranged when the writing was 
on flexible materials; but if the writing 
was on tablets of wood or brass or lead, 
then the several tablets were bound to- 



gether by rings through which a rod was 
passed. 

A sealed book is one whose contents are 
secret (Isa. 29:11 ; Rev. 5:1-3). To "eat" 
a book (Jer. 15 : 16 ; Ezek. 2 : 8-10 ; 3 : 1-3 ; 
Rev. 10 : 9) is to study its contents care- 
fully. 

The book of judgment (Dan. 7 : 10) refers 
to the method of human courts of justice 
as illustrating the proceedings which will 
take place at the day of God's final judg- 
ment. 

The book of the %vars of the Lord (Num. 
21 : 14), the book of Jasher (Josh. 10 : 13), 
and the 600/1: of the chronicles of the kings 
of Judah and of Israel (1 Kings 14 : 19), 
were probably ancient documents known 



BOOTH 



105 



BOTTLE 



to the Hebrews, but not forming a part of 
the canon. 

The hook of life (Ps. 69 : 28) suggests the 
idea that as the redeemed form a community 
or citizenship (Phil. 3 : 20 ; 4:3), a cata- 
logue of the citizens' names is preserved 
(Luke 10 : 20 ; Rev. 20 : 15). Their names 
are registered in heaven (Luke 10 : 20 ; Rev. 
3:5). 

The hook of the covenant (Ex. 24 : 7), con- 
taining Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 33, is the first book 
actually mentioned as a part of the written 
word. It contains a series of laws, civil, 
social, and religious, given to Moses at Sinai 
immediately after the delivery of the deca- 
logue. These were written in this "book." 

Booth, a hut made of the branches of 
a tree. In such tabernacles Jacob so- 
journed for a season at a place named from 
this circumstance Succoth (Gen. 33 : 17). 
Booths were erected also at the feast of 
Tabernacles [q.v.) — Lev. 23:42, 43 — which 
commemorated the abode of the Israelites 
in the wilderness. 

Boot'y, captives or cattle or objects of 
value taken in war. In Canaan all that 
breathed were to be destroyed (Deut. 20 : 
16). The "pictures and images" of the 
Canaanites were to be destroyed also (Num. 
33 : 52). The law of booty as to its division 
is laid down in Num. 31 : 26-47. David 
afterwards introduced a regulation that 
the baggage-guard should share the booty 
eqvxally with the soldiers engaged in battle. 
He also devoted of the spoils of war for 
the temple (1 Sam. 30 : 24-26 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 11 ; 
1 Chr. 26 : 27). 

Bor'row. The Israelites "borrowed" 
from the Egyptians (Ex. 12:35, R.V., 
"asked ") in accordance with a divine com- 
mand (3 : 22 ; 11 : 2). But the word [sha'al) 
so rendered here means simply and always 
to "request "or " demand." The Hebrew 
had another word which is proj)erly trans- 
lated "borrow" in Deut. 28:12; Ps. 37: 
21, It was well known that the parting 
was final. The Egyptians were so anxious 
to get the Israelites aAvay out of their land 
that "they let them have what they asked" 
(Ex. 12:36, R.V.), or literally "made them 
to ask" — urged them to take whatever they 
desired and depart. (See Loan.) 



Bo'^som. In the East objects are carried 
in the bosom which Europeans carry in the 
pocket. To have in one's bosom indicates 
kindness, secrecy, or intimacy (Gen. 16 : 5 ; 
2 Sam. 12 : 8). Christ is said to have been 
in "the bosom of the Eather" — i.e., he 
had the most perfect knowledge of the 
Eather, had the closest intimacy with him 
(John 1 : 18). John (21 : 20) was " leaning on 
Jesus' bosom " at the last shipper. Our Lord 
carries his lambs in his bosom — i.e., has a 
tender, watchful care over them (Isa. 40 : 11). 

Bos''ses, the projecting parts of a shield 
(Job 15 : 26). The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered means anything convex or arched, 
and hence the back, as of animals. 

Bo'sor, the Chaldee or Aramaic form 
of the name Beor, the father of Balaam 
(2 Pet. 2 : 15). 

Botch, the name given in Deut. 28 : 27, 
35 to one of the Egyptian plagues (Ex. 
9:9). The word so translated is usually 
rendered "boil" [q.v.). 

Bot'tle, a vessel made of skins for hold- 
ing wine (Josh. 9:4, 13 ; 1 Sam. 16 : 20 ; 




Matt. 9 : 17 ; Mark 2 : 22 ; Luke 5 : 37, 38), 
or milk ( Judg. 4 : 19), or water (Gen. 21 : 14, 
15, 19), or strong drink (Hab. 2 : 15). 



BOW 



106 



BOX-TREE 



Earthenware vessels were also similarly 
used (Jer. 19:1-10; 1 Kings 14:3; Isa. 
30 : 14). In Job 32 : 19 (comp. Matt. 9 : 17 ; 
Luke 5 : 37, 38 ; Mark 2 : 22) the reference 
is to a wine-skin ready to burst through 
the fermentation of the wine. "Bottles 
of wine" in the Authorized Version of 
Hos. 7 : 5 is properly rendered in the Re- 
vised Version by "the heat of wine " — i.e., 
the fever of wine, its intoxicating strength. 

The clouds are figuratively called the 
' ' bottles of heaven " (Job 38 : 37). A bottle 
blackened or shrivelled by smoke is referred 
to in Ps. 119 : 83 as an image to which the 
psalmist hkens himself. 

Bow. The bow was in use in early times 
both in war and in the chase (Gen. 21 : 20 ; 
27:3; 48:22). The tribe of Benjamin 
were famous for the use of the bov/ (1 Chr. 
8 : 40; 12 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 14 : 8 ; 17 : 17) ; so also 
were the Elamites (Isa. 22 : 6) and the 
Lydians (Jer. 4G : 9). The Hebrew word 
commonly used for bow means proiDerly to 
tread (1 Chr. 5 : 18 ; 8 : 40), and hence it is 
concluded that the foot was employed in 
bending the bow. Bows of steel (correctly 
"copper") are mentioned (2 Sam. 22:35; 
Ps. 18 : 35). 

The arroios were carried in a quiver (Gen. 
27 : 3 ; Isa. 22 : 6 ; 49 : 2 ; Ps. 127 : 5). They 
were apparently sometimes shot with some 
burning material attached to them (Ps. 
120 : 4). 

The bow is a symbol of victory (Ps. 7 : 12). 
It denotes also falsehood, deceit (Ps. 64 : 34 ; 
Hos. 7 : 16 ; Jer. 9 : 3). 

"The use of the bow" in 2 Sam. 1:18 
(A.V.) ought to be "the song of the bow," 
as in the Revised Version — the song which 
follows ; so called from the mention of the 
bow in ver. 22. 

Bowing, a mode of showing respect. 
Abraham "bowed himself to the people 
of the land " (Gen. 23 : 7) ; so Jacob to Esau 
(Gen. 33 : 3) ; and the brethren of Joseph 
before him as the governor of the land 
(Gen. 43 : 28). 

Bowing is also frequently mentioned as 
an act of adoration to idols (Josh. 23 : 7 ; 
2 Kings 5:18; Judg. 2:19; Isa. 44:15), 
and to God (Josh. 5 : 14 ; Ps. 22 : 29 ; 72 : 9 ; 
Micah 6:0; Ps. 95 : 6 ; Eph. 3 : 14). 



Bowl. The sockets of the lamps of the 
golden candlestick of the tabernacle are 
called bowls (Ex. 25 : 31, 33, 34 ; 37 : 17, 19, 
20) ; the same word so rendered being else- 
where rendered "cup " (Gen. 44 : 2, 12, 16), 
and wine-" pot" (Jer. 35:5). The reser- 
voir for oil, from which pipes led to each 
lamp in Zechariah's vision of the candle- 
stick, is called also by this name (Zech. 4 : 2, 
3) ; so also are the vessels used for libations 
(Ex. 25 : 29 ; 37 : 16). 

Box, for holding oil or perfumery (Mark 
14 : 3). It was of the form of a flask or 
bottle. The Hebrew word [pak) used for it 
is more appropriately rendered "vial" in 
1 Sam. 10 : 1, and should also be so ren- 
dered in 2 Kings 9 : 1, where alone else it 
occurs. 

Box-tree (Heb. teashshur), mentioned in 
Isa. 60 : 13 ; 41 : 19, was, according to some, 
a species of cedar growing in Lebanon, 




BRANCH OF BOX-TREE. 

The words of Ezek. 27 : 6 literally trans- 
lated are, "Thy benches they have made 
of ivory, the daughter of the ashur tree " — 
— i.e., inlaid with ashur wood. The ashur 
is the box-tree, and accordingly the Re- 



BOZRAH 



107 



BRAVERY 



vised Version rightly reads "inlaid in box- 
wood." This is the Buxus scmpervirens oi 
botanists. It is remarkable for the beauty 
of its evergreen foliage and for the utility 
of its hard and durable wood. 

"Boz^rali— enclosure: fortress. (1. ) The city 
of Jobab, one of the early Edomite kings 
(Gen. 36 : 33). This place is mentioned by 
the prophets in later times (Isa. 34 : 6 ; 
Jer. 49:13; Amos 1:12; Micah 2:12). 
Its modern representative is el-Busseireh. 
It lies in the mountain district of Petra, 
20 miles to the south-east of the Dead Sea. 

(2.) A Moabite city in the "plain coun- 
try" (Jer. 48:24) — i.e., on the high level 
down on the east of the Dead Sea. It is 
probably the modern Buzrah. 

Bracelet. (1.) Anklets (Nimi. 31:50; 
2 Sam. 1 : 10), and with reference to men. 

(2.) The rendering of a Hebrew word 
meaning fasteners, found in Gen. 24 : 22, 
30, 47. 

(3.) In Isa. 3:19, the rendering of a 
Hebrew word meaning chains — i.e., twisted 
or chain-like bracelets. 

(4. ) In Ex. 35 : 22 it designates properly 
a clasp for fastening the dress of females. 
Some interpret it as a nose-ring. 

(5.) In Gen. 38:18, 25, the rendering of 
a Hebrew word meaning "thread," and 
may denote the ornamental cord with 
which the signet was susi^ended from the 
neck of the wearer. 

Bracelets were worn by men as well as by 
women (Cant. 5 : 14, R.V.). They were of 
many various forms. The weight of those 
presented by Eliezer to Rebekah was ten 
shekels (Gen. 24 : 22). 

Bram^ble. (1. ) Hebrew atad, Judg. 9 : 14 ; 
rendered "thorn," Ps. 58:9. The LXX. 
and Vialgate render by rhamnus, a thorny 
shrub common in Palestine, resembling the 
hawthorn. 

(2.) Hebrew hoah, Isa. 34:13 (R.V. 
"thistles"); "thickets" in 1 Sam. 13:6; 
" thistles " in 2 Kings 14 : 9, 2 Chr. 25 : 18, 
Job 31 : 40 ; "thorns " in 2 Chr. 33 : 11, Cant. 
2 : 2, Hos. 9 : 6. The word may be regarded 
as denoting the comqion thistle, of which 
there are many species which encvimber the 
corn-fields of Palestine. (See Thorns.) 

Branch, a symbol of kings descended 



from royal ancestors (Ezek. 17 : 3, 10 ; Dan. 
11 : 7) ; of prosperity (Job 8 : 16) ; of the 
Messiah — a branch out of the root of the 
stem of Jesse (Isa. 11:1), the "beautiful 
branch " (4 : 2), a "righteous branch " (Jer. 
23 : 5), "the Branch " (Zech. 3:8; 6 : 12). 

Disciples are branches of the true vine 
(John 15 : 5, 6). ' ' The branch of the terrible 
ones " (Isa. 25 : 5) is rightly translated in 
the Revised Version "the song of the ter- 
rible ones"— i.e., the song of victory shall be 
brought low by the destruction of Babylon 
and the return of the Jews from captivity. 

The "abominable branch" is a tree on 
which a malefactor has been hanged (Isa. 
14:19). The "highest branch" in Ezek. 
17 : 3 represents Jehoiakim the king. 

Brass, which is an alloy of copper and 
zinc, was not known till the thirteenth 
century. What is designated by this word 
in Scripture is properly copper (Deut. 8 : 9). 
It was used for fetters (Judg. 16 : 21 ; 
2 Bangs 25 : 7), for pieces of armour (1 Sam. 
17 : 5, 6), for musical instruments (1 Chr. 
15 : 19 ; 1 Cor. 13 : 1), and for money (Matt. 
10 : 9). 

It is a symbol of insensibility and ob- 
stinacy in sin (Isa. 48 : 4 ; Jer. 6 : 28 ; Ezek. 
22 : 18), and of strength (Ps. 107 : 16; Micah 
4 : 13). 

The Macedonian empire is described as 
a kingdom of brass (Dan. 2 : 39). The 
"mountains of brass" Zechariah (6:1) 
speaks of have been supposed to represent 
the immutable decrees of God. 

The serpent of brass was made by Moses 
at the command of God (Num. 21 : 4-9), 
and elevated on a pole, so that it might be 
seen by all the people when wounded by 
the bite of the serpents that were sent to 
them as a punishment for their murmurings 
against God and against Moses. It was af- 
terwards carried by the Jews into Canaan, 
and preserved by them till the time of 
Hezekiah, who caused it to be at length 
destroyed because it began to be viewed 
by the peoj)le with superstitious reverence 
(2 Kings 18 : 4). (See Nehushtan. ) 

The brazen serpent is alluded to by our 
Lord in John 3 : 14, 15. (See Serpent.) 

Brav'ery (Isa. 3 : 18), an old English 
w^ord meaning comeliness or beauty. 



BREACH 



108 



BRICKS 



Breacli, an opening in a wall (1 Kings 
11 : 27 ; 2 Kings 12 : 5) ; the fracture of a 
limb (Lev. 24 : 20), and hence the expres- 
sions "heal" (Ps. 60:2), "bind up" the 
breach (Isa. 30 : 26). 

Bread among the Jews was generally 
made of wheat (Ex. 29:2; Judg. 6:19), 
though also sometimes of other grains 
(Gen. 14 : 18 ; Judg. 7 : 13). Parched grain 
was sometimes used for food without any 
other prej)aration (Ruth 2 : 14). 

Bread was prepared by kneading in 
wooden bowls or "kneading troughs" 
(Gen. 18 : 6 ; Ex. 12 : 34 ; Jer. 7 : 18). The 
dough was mixed with leaven and made 
into thin cakes, round or oval, and then 
baked. The bread eaten at the Passover 
was always unleavened (Ex. 12 : 15-20 ; 
Deut. 16 : 3). In the towns there were 
public ovens, which were much made use 
of for baking bread ; there were also bakers 
by trade (Hos. 7:4; Jer. 37:21). Their 
ovens were not unlike those of modern 
times. But sometimes the bread was 
baked by being placed on the ground that 
had been heated by a fire, and by covering 
it with the embers (1 Kings 19 : 6). This 
was probably the mode in which Sarah 
prepared bread on the occasion referred to 
in Gen. 18 : 6. 

In Lev. 2 there is an account of the 
different kinds of bread and cakes used by 
the Jews. (See Bake.) 

The shew-hread {q.v.) consisted of twelve 
loaves of unleavened bread prepared and pre- 
sented hot on the golden table every Sab- 
bath. They were square or oblong, and repre- 
sented the twelve tribes of Israel. The old 
loaves were removed every Sabbath, and 
were to be eaten only by the priests in the 
court of the sanctuary (Ex. 25 : 30 ; Lev. 
24 : 8 ; 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6 ; Matt. 12 : 4). 

The word bread is used figuratively in 
such expressions as "bread of sorrows " (Ps. 
127 : 2), "bread of tears " (80 : 5)— -i.e., sorrow 
and tears are like one's daily bread, they form 
so great a part in life. The bread of ' 'wicked- 
ness" (Prov. 4 : 17) and "of deceit " (20:17) 
denote in like manner that wickedness and 
deceit are a part of the daily life. 

Breast^plate. (1.) That piece of ancient 
armour that protected the breast. This 



word is vised figuratively in Eph. 6 : 14 and 
Isa. 59 : 17. (See Armour.) 

(2.) An ornament covering the breast of 
the high priest, first mentioned in Ex. 
25 : 7. It was made of embroidered cloth, 
set with four rows of precious stones, three 
in each row. On each stone was engraved 
the name of one of the twelve tribes (Ex. 
28 : 15-29 ; 39 : 8-21). It was in size about 
ten inches square. The two upper corners 
were fastened to the ephod by blue rib- 
bons. It was not to be "loosed from the 
ephod" (Ex. 28:28). The lower corners 
were fastened to the girdle of the priest. 
As it reminded the priest of his represent- 
ative character, it was called the memorial 
(28 : 12, 29). It was also called the breast- 
plate of judgment (28 : 15). (See Priest.) 

Breech^es (Ex. 28:42), rather linen 
drawers, reaching from the waist to a little 
above the knee, worn by the priests (Ezek. 
44 : 17, 18). 

Bribe. Nor 3 to be taken ; "for the gift 
maketh open eyes blind, and perverteth 
the cause of the righteous " (Ex. 23 : 8, 
literally rendered). 

Bricks, the making of, formed the chief 
labour of the Israelites in Egypt (Ex. 




EGYPTIAN BEICK-MAKING. 

1 : 13, 14). Those found among the ruins 
of Babylon and Nineveh are about a foot 
square and four inches thick. They were 
usually dried in the sun, though also some- 
times "in kilns (2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; Jer. 43 : 9 ; 
Nah. 3 : 14). (See N|:buchadnezzak.) 

The bricks used in the tower of Babel 
were burnt bricks, cemented in the build- 
ing by bitumen (Gen. 11 : 3). 



BRIDE 



109 



BROTHER 



Bride, frequently used in the ordinary 
sense (Isa. 49:18; 61:10, etc.). The re- 
lation between Christ and his church is 
set forth under the figure of that between 
a bridegroom and bride (John 3 : 29). The 
church is called "the bride" (Rev. 21:9; 
22 : 17). Compare parable of the Ten Vir- 
gins (Matt. 25 : 1-13). 

Bri^dle. Three Hebrew words are thus 
rendered in the Authorized Version. (1.) 
Heb. mahsom' signifies a muzzle or halter 
or bridle, by which the rider governs his 
horse (Ps. 39 : 2). 

(2.) Me'theg, rendered also "bit" in Ps. 
32 : 9, which is its proper meaning. Pound 
in 2 Kings 19 : 28, where the restraints of 
God's providence are metaphorically styled 
his "bridle" and "hook." God's placing 
a "bridle in the jaws of the people" (Isa. 
30 : 28 ; 37 : 29) signifies his preventing the 
Assyrians from carrying out their purpose 
against Jerusalem. 

(3. ) Another word, re^sen, was emi)loyed 
to rei^resent a halter or bridle-rein, as used 
Ps. 32 : 9 ; Isa. 30 : 28. In Job 30 : 11 the 
restraints of law and humanity ate called 
a bridle. 

Bri''er. This word occurs freqiiently, 
and is the translation of several different 
terms. (1. ) Micah 7:4, it denotes a species 
of thorn shrub used for hedges. In Prov. 
15 : 19 the word is rendered "thorn" (Heb. 
hedek, "stinging"), supposed by some to 
be what is called the "apple of Sodom" 
{q.v.). 

(2. ) Ezek. 28 : 24, sallon', properly a 
"prickle," such as is found on the shoots 
of the palm tree. 

(3. ) Isa. 55 : 13, probably simply a thorny 
bush. Some, following the Vulgate Ver- 
sion, regard it as the "nettle." 

(4.) Isa. 5:6; 7:23-25, etc., frequently 
used to denote thorny shrubs in general. 
In 10 : 17 ; 27 : 4, it means troublesome men. 

(5.) In Heb. 6 : 8 the Greek word (tribolos) 
so rendered means "three-pronged," and 
denotes the land caltrop, a low thorny 
shrub resembling in its spikes the military 
"crow-foot." Comp.Matt. 7:16, "thistle." 

Brig^andine ( Jer. 46 : 4 ; 51 : 3), an ob- 
solete English word denoting a scale coat 
of armour, or habergeon, worn by light 



troops called "brigands." The Revised 
Version has "coat of mail." 

Brim^stone, an inflammable mineral sub- 
stance found in quantities on the shores of 
the Dead Sea. The cities of the jjlain were 
destroyed by a rain of fire and brimstone 
(Gen. 19 : 24, 25). In Isa. 34 : 9 allusion is 
]nade to the destruction of these cities. 
This word figuratively denotes dpstruction 
or punishment (Job 18 : 15 ; Isa. 30 : 33 ; 
34 : 9 ; Ps. 11 : 6 ; Ezek. 38 : 22). It is used 
to express the idea of excruciating torment 
in Rev. 14 : 10 ; 19 : 20 ; 20 : 10. 

Brook, a torrent. (1. ) Applied to small 
streams, as the Arnon, Jabbok, etc. Isaiah 
(15:7) speaks of the "brook of the willows," 
probably the Wady-el-Asha. 

(2. ) It is also applied to winter torrents 
(Job 6 : 15 ; Num. 34 : 5 ; Josh. 15 : 4, 47), and 
to the torrent-bed or wady as well as to the 
torrent itself (Num. 13:23; 1 Kings 17 : 3). 

(3. ) In Isa. 19 : 7 the river Nile is meant, 
as rendered in the Revised Version. 

Brother. (1.) In the natural and com- 
mon sense (Matt. 1:2; Luke 3 : 1, 19). 

(2.) A near relation, a cousin (Gen. 13:8; 
14:16; Matt. 12 : 46; John 7: 3; Acts 1 : 14; 
Gal. 1 : 19). 

(3.) Simply a fellow-countryman (Matt. 

5 : 47 ; Acts 3 : 22 ; Heb. 7 : 5). 

(4.) A disciple or follower (Matt. 25 : 40 : 
Heb. 2 : 11, 12). 

(5. ) One of the same faith (Amos 1:9; 
Acts 9 : 30 ; 11 : 29 ; 1 Cor. 5 : 11) ; whence 
the early disciples of our Lord were known 
to each other as brethren, 

(6.) A colleague in office (Ezra 3:2; 
1 Cor. 1 : 1 ; 2 Cor. 1 : 1). 

(7.) A fellow -man (Gen. 9:5; 19:7; 
Matt, 5 : 22, 23, 24 ; 7 : 5 ; Heb, 2 : 17), 

(8,) One beloved or closely united with 
another in affection (2 Sam, 1 : 26 ; Acts 

6 : 3 ; 1 Thess, 5 : 1), 

Brethren of Jesus (Matt, 1:25; 12:46, 50, 
55; Mark 3:31; Gal, 1:19; 1 Cor. 9 : 5, etc, ) 
were probably the younger children of Jo- 
seph and Mary, Some have supposed that 
they may have been the children of Joseph 
by a former marriage, and others that they 
were the children of Mary, the Virgin's 
sister, and wife of Cleophas, The first in- 
terpretation, however, is the most natural. 



BRUIT 



110 



BULRUSH 



Bruit, a rumour or report ( Jer. 10 : 22, 
R.V. "rumour;" Nah. 3:19). 

Bucket, a vessel to draw water with 
(Isa. 40 : 15) ; used figuratively, probably, 
of a numerous issue (Num. 24 : 7). 

Buckler. (1. ) A portable shield (2 Sam. 
22 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 18). 

(2. ) A shield surrounding the person ; 
the targe or round form ; used once figura- 
tively (Ps. 91 : 4). 

(3. ) A large shield protecting the whole 
body (Ps. 35 : 2 ; Ezek. 23 : 24 ; 26 : 8). 

(4. ) A lance or spear ; improperly ren- 
dered "buckler" in the Authorized Version 
(1 Chr. 12 : 8), but correctly in the Revised 
Version "spear." 

The leather of shields required oiling 
(2 Sam. 1 : 21 ; Isa. 21 : 5), so as to prevent 
its being injured by moisture. Copper 
( = "brass ") shields were also in use (1 Sam. 
17 : 6 ; 1 Kings 14 : 27). Those spoken of in 
1 Kings 10 : 16, etc. ; 14 : 26, were probably 
of massive metal. 

The shields David had taken from his 
enemies were suspended in the temple as 
mementoes (2 Kings 11 : 10). (See Akmoue, 
Shield. ) 

Building among the Jews was suited 
to the climate and conditions of the coun- 
try. They probably adopted the kind of 
architecture for their dwellings which they 
found already existing when they entered 
Canaan (Deut. 6 : 10 ; Num. 13 : 19). Phoe- 
nician artists (2 Sam. 5 : 11 ; 1 Kings 5 : 6, 
18) assisted at the erection of the royal 
palace and the temple at Jerusalem. 
Foreigners also assisted at the restoration 
of the temple after the Exile (Ezra 3:7). 

In Gen. 11 : 3, 9, we have the first re- 
corded instance of the erection of build- 
ings. The cities of the plain of Shinar 
were founded by the descendants of Shem 
(10 : 11, 12, 22). 

The Israelites were by occupation shep- 
herds and dwellers in tents (Gen. 47 : 3) ; 
but from the time of their entering Canaan 
they became dwellers in towns, and in 
houses built of the native limestone of 
Palestine. Much building was carried on 
in Solomon's time. Besides the buildings 
he completed at Jerusalem, he also built 
Baalath and Tadmor (1 Kings 9:15, 24). 



Many of the kings of Israel and Judah were 
engaged in erecting various buildings. 

Herod and his sons and successors re- 
stored the temple, and built fortifications 
and other structures of great magnificence 
in Jerusalem (Luke 21 : 5). 

The instruments used in building are 
mentioned as the plumb line (Amos 7:7), 
the measuring-reed (Ezek. 40 : 3), and the 
saw (1 Kings 7 : 9). 

Believers are "God's building" (1 Cor. 
3:9); and heaven is called " a building of 
God" (2 Cor. 5:1). Christ is the only 
foundation of his church (1 Cor. 3 : 10-12), 
of which he also is the builder (Matt. 16 : 
18). 

l&nl^produce — the eighth ecclesiastical 
month of the year (1 Kings 6 : 38), and 
the second month of the civil year ; later 
called Marchesvan (q.r.). (See Month.) 

Bullock. (1. ) The translation of a word 
which is a generic name for horned cattle 
(Isa. 65:25). It is also rendered "cow" 
(Ezek. 4 : 15), " ox " (Gen. 12 : 16). 

(2.) The translation of a word always 
meaning an animal of the ox kind, without 
distinction of age or sex (Hos. 12 : 11). It 
is rendered "cow" (Num. 18:17) and 
"ox "(Lev. 17:3). 

(3.) Another word is rendered in the 
same way (Jer. 31 : 18). It is also trans- 
lated "calf " (Lev. 9:3; Micah 6 : 6). It 
is the same word used of the ' ' molten calf " 
(Ex. 32:4, 8) and "the golden calf" (1 
Kings 12 : 28). 

(4.) In Judg. 6:25; Isa. 34:7, the He- 
brew word is different. It is the custom- 
ary word for bulls offered in sacrifice. In 
Hos. 14 : 2, the Authorized Version has 
" calves," the Revised Version " bullocks." 

Bulrush. (1. ) In Isa. 58 : 5 the render- 
ing of a word which denotes "belonging 
to a marsh," from the nature of the soil in 
which it grows (Isa. 18 : 2). It was some- 
times platted into ropes (Job 41 : 2 ; A.V., 
"hook," R.V., "rope," lit. "cord of 
rushes "). 

(2.) In Ex. 2:3, Isa. 18:2 (R.V., "pa- 
pyrus ") this word is the translation of the 
Hebrew gome, which designates the plant 
as absorbing moisture. In Isa. 35 : 7 and 
Job 8:11 it is rendered "rush." This 



BULWARKS 



111 



BURIAL 




EGYPTTAJSr PAPYRUS. 



was the Egyptian papyrus [papyrus Nilo- 
tica). It was anciently very abundant in 
Egypt. The Egyptians made garments 
,-^ and shoes and vari- 
ous utensils of it. 
It was used for the 
construction of the 
ark of Moses (Ex. 
2 : 3, 5). The root 
portions of the stem 
were used for food. 
The inside bark 
was cut into strips, 
which were sewed 
together and dried 
in the sun, forming 
the papyrus used 
for writing. It is 
no longer found in 
Egj^pt, but grows 
luxuriantly in Pal- 
estine, in the marshes of the Huleh, and 
in the swamps at the north end of the 
Lake of Gennesaret. (See Cane.) 

Bulwarks, mural towers, bastions, were 
introduced by king Uzziah (2 Chr. 26 : 15 ; 
Zeph. 1 : 16 ; Ps. 48 : 13 ; Isa. 26 : 1). There 
are five Hebrew words so rendered in the 
Authorized Version, but the same word 
is also variously rendered. 

Bunch. (1.) A bundle of twigs (Ex. 
12:22). (2.) Bunch or cake of raisins 
(2 Sam. 16:1). (3.) The "bunch of a 
camel " (Isa. 30 : 6). 

Burden. (1. ) A load of any kind (Ex. 23 : 
5). (2.) A severe task (Ex. 2:11). (3.) A 
difficult duty, requiring effort (Ex. 18 : 22). 
(4. ) A prophecy of a calamitous or disastrous 
nature (Isa. 13 : 1 ; 17 : 1 ; Hab. 1 : 1, etc.). 
Burial. The first burial we have an 
account of is that of Sarah (Gen. 23). 
The first commercial transaction recorded 
is that of the purchase of a burial-place, 
for which Abraham weighed to Ephron 
' ' four hundred shekels of silver current 
money with the merchants." Thus the 
patriarch became the owner of a part of 
the land of Canaan, the only part he ever 
possessed. When he himself died, " his 
sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the 
cave of Machpelah," beside Sarah his wife 
(Gen. 25 : 9). 



Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was buried 
under Allon-bachuth, ' ' the oak of weep- 
ing " (Gen. 35 : 8), near to Bethel. Rachel 
died, and was buried near Ephrath ; * ' and 
Jacob set a pillar upon her grave " (16-20). 
Isaac was buried at Hebron, where he had 
died (27, 29). Jacob, when charging his 
sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah, 
said, " There they buried Abraham and 
Sarah his wife ; there they buried Isaac 
and Rebekah ; and there I biiried Leah " 
(49 : 31). In compliance with the oath which 
he made him swear unto him (47 : 29-31), 
Joseph, assisted by his brethren, buried 
Jacob in the cave of MachjDelah (50 : 2, 13). 
At the Exodus, Moses " took the bones of 
Joseph with him, " and they were buried in 
the "parcel of ground" which Jacob had 
bought of the sons of Hamor (Josh. 24 : 32), 
which became Joseph's inheritance (Gen. 
48:22; 1 Chr. 5:1; John 4:5). Two 
burials are mentioned as having taken 
place in the wilderness. That of Miriam 
(Num. 20:1), and that of Moses, "in the 
land of Moab" (Deut. 34 : 5, 6, 8). There is 
no account of the actual burial of Aaron, 
which probably, however, took i^lace on the 
summit of Mount Hor (Num. 20 : 28, 29). 

Joshua w^as buried ' ' in the border of his 
inheritance in Timnath-serah " (Josh. 24 : 
30, 33). 

In Job we find a reference to burying- 
places, which were probably the Pyramids 
(3:14, 15). The Hebrew word for "waste 
places" here resembles in sound the Egyp- 
tian word for "pyramids." 

Samuel, like Moses, was honoured with 
a national burial (1 Sam. 25 : 1). Joab (1 
Kings 2 : 34) " was buried in his own house 
in the wilderness. " 

In connection with the burial of Saul 
and his three sons we meet for the first 
time A\dth the practice of burning the dead 
(1 Sam. 31 : 11-13). The same practice is 
again referred to by Amos (6 : 7-10). 

Absalom was buried "in the wood" 
where he was slain (2 Sam. 18 : 17, 18). 
The raising of the heap of stones over his 
grave was intended to mark abhorrence of 
the person buried (comp. Josh. 7 : 26 and 
8 : 29). There was no fixed royal burying- 
l place for the Hebrew kings. We find 



BURNT 



112 



BY 



several royal burials taking place, how- 
ever, "in the city of David" (1 Kings 2: 
10 ; 11 : 43 ; 15 : 8 ; 2 Kings 14 : 19, 20 ; 15 : 
38 ; 1 Kings 14 : 31 ; 22 : 50 ; 2 Chr. 21 : 19, 
20; 2 Chr. 24:25, etc.). Hezekiah was 
buried in the mount of the sepulchres of 
the sons of David; "and all Judah and 
the inhabitants of Jerusalem did him hon- 
our at his death " (2 Chr. 32 : 33). 

Little is said regarding the burial of the 
kings of Israel. Some of them were buried 
in Samaria, the capital of their kingdom 
(2 Kings 10 : 35 ; 13 : 9 ; 14 : 16). 

Our Lord was buried in a new tomb, 
hewn out of the rock, which Joseph of 
Arimathea had prepared for himself (Mark 
15 : 46 ; John 19 : 41, 42). 

The grave of Lazarus was " a cave, and 
a stone lay on it " (John 11 : 38). Graves 
were frequently either natural caverns or 
artificial excavations formed in the sides 
of rocks (Gen. 23 : 9 ; Matt. 27 : 60) ; and 
coffins were seldom used, unless when the 
body was brought from a distance. 

Burnt oflfering — Hebrew '^oldh; i.e., 
"ascending," the whole being consumed 
by fire, and regarded as ascending to God 
while being consumed. Part of every 
offering was burnt in the sacred fire, but 
this was ivhoUy burnt — a " whole burnt 
offering. " It was the most frequent form 
of sacrifice, and apparently the only one 
mentioned in the book of Genesis. Such 
were the sacrifices offered by Abel (Gen. 
4:3, 4, here called minhdh; i.e., "a gift"), 
Noah (8:20), Abraham (12:7; 22:2, 7, 
8, 13), Jacob (33 : 20), and by the Hebrews 
in Egypt (Ex. 10 : 25). 

The law of Moses afterwards prescribed 
the occasions and the manner in which 
burnt sacrifices were to be offered. There 
were "the continual burnt offering" (Ex. 
29:38-42; Lev. 6:9-13), "the burnt offer- 
ing of every sabbath," which was double 
the daily one (Num. 28:9, 10), "the burnt 
offering of every month " (28 : 11-15), the 
offerings at the Passover (19-23), at Pente- 
cost (Lev. 23:16), the feast of Trumpets 
(23:23-25), and on the day of Atonement 
(Lev. 16). 

On other occasions special sacrifices were 
offered, as at the consecration of Aaron 



(Ex. 29) and the dedication of the temple 
(1 Kings 8 : 5, 62-64). 

Eree-will burnt offerings were also per- 
mitted (Lev. 1:13), and were offered at 
the accession of Solomon to the throne 
(1 Chr. 29 : 21), and at the reformation 
brought about by Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29: 
31-35). 

These offerings signified the complete 
dedication of the offerers unto God. This 
is referred to in Rom. 12 : 1. (See Altar, 
Saceifice. ) 

Bush, in which Jehovah appeared to 
Moses in the wilderness (Ex. 3:2; Acts 
7 : 30). It is difficult to say what particu- 
lar kind of plant or bush is here meant. 
Probably it was the mimosa or acacia. 
The words " in the bush " in Mark 12 : 26 ; 
Luke 20:37, mean "in the passage or 
paragraph on the bush ;" i.e., in Ex. 3. 

But^'ler, properly a servant in charge of 
the wine (Gen. 40 : 1-13 ; 41 : 9). The He- 
brew word, mashkeh, thus translated is ren- 
dered also (plural) " cup-bearers " (1 Kings 
10 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 4). Nehemiah (1 : 11) was 
cup-bearer to king Artaxerxes. It was a 
position of great responsibility and honour 
in royal households. 

Butter (Heb. hemdh), curdled milk 
(Gen. 18:8; Judg. 5:25; 2 Sam. 17: 
29), or butter in the form of the skim of 
hot milk or cream, called by the Arabs 
kaiviak, a semi-fluid (Job 20 : 17 ; 29 : 6 ; 
Deut. 32 : 14). The words of Prov. 30 : 33 
have been rendered by some "the pres- 
sure [not churning] of milk bringeth forth 
cheese." 

Buz — contempt. (1.) The second son of 
Nahor and Milcah, and brother of Huz 
(Gen. 22 : 21). Elihu was one of his de- 
scendants (Job 32 : 2). 

(2.) One of the chiefs of the tribe of Gad 
(1 Chr. 5 : 14). 

(3.) A district in Arabia Petrea (Jer. 
25 : 23). 

Bu'^zi, the father of the prophet Ezekiel 
(1:3). 

By, in the expression "by myself" 
(A.V. 1 Cor. 4:4), means, as rendered in 
the Revised Version, "against." The 
sentence is equivalent to "my conscience 
brings no accusation against myself. " 



BY-WAYS 



113 



CyESAREA 



By-ways, only in Judg. 5 : 6 and Ps. 
125:5; literally "winding or twisted 
roads." The margin has " crooked ways." 

By-word — Hebrew millah (Job 30: 9) — 
a word or speech, and hence object of talk ; 



Hebrew mashal (Ps. 44 : 14), a proverb or 
parable. When it denotes a sharp word of 
derision, as in Deut. 28 : 37, 1 Kings 9 : 7, 
2 Chr. 7 : 20, the Hebrew sheninah is used. 
In Jer. 24 : 9 it is rendered " taunt." 



c 



Cab — holloio (R. V. , " kab ") — occurs only 
in 2 Kings 6 : 25 ; a dry measure, the sixth 
psbTt of a seah, and the eighteenth part of an 
ephah, equal to about two English quarts. 

Cabins — only in Jer. 37:16 (R.Y., 
"cells") — arched vaults or recesses off a 
passage or room ; cells for the closer con- 
finement of prisoners. 

Csil>VLl—how little/ as nothing. (1.) A 
town on the eastern border of Asher (Josh. 
19 : 27), probably one of the towns given 
by Solomon to Hiram ; the modern Kabul, 
some 8 miles east of Accho, on the very 
borders of Galilee. 

(2. ) A district in the north-west of Galilee, 
near to Tyre, containing twenty cities given 
to Hiram by Solomon as a reward for 
various services rendered to him in build- 
ing the temple (1 Kings 9 : 13), and as pay- 
ment of the six score talents of gold he had 
borrowed from him. Hiram gave the cities 
this name because he was not pleased with 
the gift, the name signifying "good for 
nothing." Hiram seems afterwards to 
have restored these cities to Solomon 
(2 Chr. 8:2). 

Caesar, the title assumed by the Roman 
emperors after Julius Caesar. In the New 
Testament this title is given to various 
emperors as sovereigns of Judsea without 
their accompanying distinctive proper 
names (John 19:15; Acts 17:7). The 
Jews paid tribute to Caesar (Matt. 22 : 17), 
and all Roman citizens had the right of 
appeal to him (Acts 25 : 11). The Caesars 
referred to in the New Testament are 
Augustus (Luke 2 : 1), Tiberius (3:1; 20 : 
22), Claudius (Acts 11 : 28), and Nero (Acts 
25 : 8 ; Phil. 4 : 22). 

Csesare^a (Palestinae), a city on the shore 
of the Mediterranean, on the great road 



from Tyre to Egypt, about 70 miles north- 
west of Jerusalem, at the northern ex- 
tremity of the plain of Sharon. It was 
built by Herod the Great (b.c. 10), who 
named it after Caesar Augustus, hence called 
Ccesarea Sebaste (Gr. Sebastos — "Augus- 
tus "), on the site of an old town called 
"Strato's Tower." It was the capital of 
the Roman province of Judaea, the seat of 
the governors or procurators, and the head- 
quarters of the Roman troops. It was the 
great Gentile city of Palestine, with a 
spacious artificial harbour. It was adorned 
with many buildings of great spl&ndour, 
after the manner of the Roman cities of 
the West. Here Cornelius the centurion 
was converted through the instrumentality 
of Peter (Acts 10 : 1, 24), and thus for the 
first time the door of faith was opened to 
the Gentiles. Philip the evangelist resided 
here with his four daughters (21 : 8). Prom 
this place Saul sailed for his native Tarsus 
when forced to flee from Jerusalem (9 : 30), 
and here he landed when returning from 
his second missionary journey (18 : 22). He 
remained as a prisoner here for two years 
before his voj^age to Rome (Acts 24 : 27 ] 
25:1, 4, 6, 13). Here on a "set daj^," when 
games were celebrated in the theatre in 
honour of the emperor Claudius, Herod 
Agrippa I. appeared among the people in 
great pomp, and in the midst of the idola- 
trous homage paid to him was suddenly 
smitten by an angel, and carried out a 
dying man. He was "eaten of worms" 
(12:19-23), thus perishing by the same 
loathsome disease as his grandfather, 
Herod the Great. It still retains its an- 
cient name Kaiseriyeh, but is now deso- 
late. "The present inhabitants of the 
ruins are snakes, scorpions, lizards, wild 

8 



CJESAEEA 



114 



CAIAPHAS 




MOLE AND HARBOUR OF C.^SAREA (PALESTINJs). 



boars, and jackals." It is described as the 
most desolate city of all Palestine. 

Caesare^a Philip'pi, a city on the north- 
east of the marshy plain of El-Hideh, 120 
miles north of Jerusalem, and 20 miles 
north of the Sea of Galilee, at the "upper 
source " of the Jordan, and near the base 
of Mount Hermon. It is mentioned in 
Matt. 16 : 13 and Mark 8 : 27 as the nor- 
thern limit of our Lord's public ministry. 
According to some its original name was 
Baal -gad (Josh. 11:17) or Baal -hermon 
( Judg. 3 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 23), when it was a 
Canaanite sanctuary of Baal. It was after- 
wards called Panium or Paneas, from a 
deep cavern full of water near the town. 
This name was given to the cavern by the 
Greeks of the Macedonian kingdom of An- 
tioch because of its likeness to the grottoes 
of Greece, which were always associated 
with the worship of their god Pan. Its 
modern name is Banias. Here Herod 
built a temple which he dedicated to 
Augustus Csesar. This town was after- 
wards enlarged and embellished by Herod 



Philip, the tetrarch of Trachonitis, of 
whose territory it formed a part, and was 
called by him Csesarea Philippi, partly 
after his own name and partly after that 
of the emperor Tiberias Csesar. It is thus 
distinguished from the Csesarea of Pales- 
tine. (See Jordan. ) 

Cage (Heb. Muh', Jer. 5:27, marg. 
"coop," rendered "basket " in Amos 8:1), 
a basket of wicker-work in which birds 
were placed after being caught. In Pev. 
18 : 2 it is the rendering of the Greek 
phulake, properly a prison or place of con- 
finement. 

Cai^aphas, the Jewish high priest (a.d. 
27-36) at the beginning of our Lord's public 
ministry, in the reign of Tiberius (Luke 
3:1), and also at the time of his condemna- 
tion and crucifixion (Matt. 26 : 3, 57 ; John 
11:49; 18:13, 14). He held this office 
during the whole of Pilate's administra- 
tion. His wife was the daughter of Annas, 
who had formerly been high priest, and was 
probably the vicar or deputy (Heb. sagan) of 
Caiaphas, He was of the sect of the Sad- 



CAIN 



115 



CAKE 



ducees (Acts 5 : 17), and was a member of 
the council Avhen he gave his opinion that 
Jesus should be put to death "for the 
people, and that the whole nation perish 
not " (John 11 : 50). In these words he un- 
consciously uttered a prophecy. "Like 
Saul, he was a prophet in spite of himself." 
Caiaphas had no power to inflict the pun- 
ishment of death, and therefore Jesus was 
sent to Pilate, the Roman governor, that he 
might duly pronounce the sentence against 
him (Matt. 25 : 2 ; John 18 : 13, 28). At a 
later period his hostility to the gospel is 
still manifest (Acts 4 : 6). (See Annas. ) 

Cain — a possession; a spear. (1.) The 
first-bom son of Adam and Eve (Gen. 4). 
He became a tiller of the ground, as his 
brother Abel followed the pursuits of 
pastoral life. He was " a sullen, self- 
willed, haughty, vindictive man ; wanting 
the religious element in his character, and 
defiant even in his attitude towards God. " 
It came to pass "in process of time" 
(marg. "at the end of days") — i.e., prob- 
ably 'on the Sabbath — that the two broth- 
ers presented their offerings to the Lord. 
Abel's offering was of the "firstlings of his 
flock and of the fat," while Cain's was " of 
the fruit of the ground." Abel's sacrifice 
was "more excellent" (Heb. 11:4) than 
Cain's, and was accepted by God. On this 
account Cain was "very -wroth," and cher- 
ished feelings of murderous hatred against 
his brother, and was at length guilty of the 
desperate outrage of putting him to death 
(1 John 3 : 12). For this crime he was ex- 
pelled from Eden, and henceforth led the 
life of an exile, bearing upon him some 
mark which God had set upon him in 
answer to his own cry for mercy, so that 
thereby he might be protected from the 
wrath of his fellow -men ; or it may be that 
God only gave him some sign to assure 
him that he would not be slain (Gen. 4 : 15). 
Doomed to be a wanderer and a fugitive in 
the earth, he went forth into the "land of 
Nod" — i.e., the land of "exile ' — which is 
said to have been in the "east of Eden," 
and there he builded a city, the first we 
read of, and called it after his son's name, 
Enoch. His descendants are enumerated 
to the sixth generation. They gradually 



degenerated in their moral and spiritual 
condition till they became wholly corrupt 
before God. This corruption prevailed, 
and at length the Deluge was sent by God 
to prevent the final triumph of evil. (See 
Abel.) 

(2. ) A town of the Kenites, a branch of 
the Midianites (Josh. 15 : 57), on the east 
edge of the mountain above Engedi ; prob- 
ablj' the "nest in a rock" mentioned by 
Balaam (Num. 24:21). It is identified 
with the modern Yekin, 3 miles south-east 
of Hebron. 

Cai'nan — possession; smith. (1.) The 
fourth antediluvian patriarch, the eldest 
son of Enos. He was 70 years old at the 
birth of his eldest son Mahalaleel, after 
which he lived 840 years (Gen. 5 : 9-14), 
an4 was 910 years old when he died. He 
is also called Kenan (1 Chr. 1 : 2). 

(2. ) The son of Arphaxad (Luke 3 : 35, 
36). He is nowhere named in the Old 
Testament. He is usually called the 
"second Cainan." 

Cake. Cakes made of wheat or barlej^ 
were offered in the temple. They were 
salted, but unleavened (Ex. 29 : 2 ; Lev. 
2 : 4). In idolatrous worship thin cakes or 
wafers were offered "to the queen of 
heaven " ( Jer. 7 : 18 ; 44 : 19). 

Pancakes are described in 2 Sam. 13 : 
8, 9. Cakes mingled with oil and baked 
in the oven are mentioned in Lev. 2 : 4, 
and "wafers unleavened anointed with 
oil," in Ex. 29:2; Lev. 8:26; 1 Chr. 23: 
29. "Cracknels," a kind of crisp cakes, 
were among the things Jeroboam directed 
his wife to take with her when she went to 
consult Ahijah the proiDhet at Shiloh (1 
Kings 14 : 3). Such hard cakes were car- 
ried by the Gibeonites when they came to 
Joshua (9 : 5, 12). They described their 
bread as "mouldy;" but the Hebrew word 
nikuddtm, here used, ought rather to be 
rendered " hard as biscuit." It is rendered 
"cracknels" in 1 Kings 14 : 3. The ordi- 
nary bread, when kept for a few days, be- 
came dry and excessively hard. The 
Gibeonites pointed to this hardness of 
their bread as an e\'idence that they had 
come a long journey. 

We read also of honey-cakes (Ex. 16 : 31), 



CALAH 



116 



CALF 



" cakes of figs " (1 Sam. 25 : 18), " cake " as 
denoting a whole piece of bread (1 Kings 
17:12), and "a [round] cake of barley 
bread " ( Judg. 7 : 13). In Lev. 2 is a list 
of the different kinds of bread and cakes 
which were fit for offerings. 

Ca'lah, one of the most ancient cities of 
Assyria. ' ' Out of that land he [i. e. , Nimrod] 
went forth into Assyria, and builded Nin- 
eveh, E,ehoboth-Ir, and Calah, and Resen " 
(Gen. 10 : 11, R. V. ). Its site is now marked 
probably by the Nimrild ruins on the left 
bank of the Tigris. These cover an area 
of about 1,000 acres, and are second only 
in size and importance to the mass of ruins 
opposite Mosul. This city was at one time 
the capital of the empire, and was the resi- 
dence of Sardanapalus and his successors 
down to the time of Sargon, who built a 
new capital, the modern Khorsabad. It 
has been conjectured that these four cities 
mentioned in Gen. 10 : 11 were afterwards 
all united into one and called Nineveh 
[q.v.]. 

Cal^amus — the Latin for cane, Hebrew 
kdneh — mentioned (Ex. 30 : 23) as one of the 
ingredients in the holy anointing oil, one 
of the sweet scents (Cant. 4 : 14), and among 
the articles sold in the markets of Tyre 
(Ezek. 27 : 19). The word designates an 
Oriental plant called the "sweet flag," the 
Acorus calamus of Linnasus. It is else- 
where called "sweet cane" (Isa. 43:24; 
Jer. 6 : 20). It has an aromatic smell, and 
when its knotted stalk is cut and dried and 
reduced to powder, it forms an ingredient 
in the most precious perfumes. It was not 
a native of Palestine, but was imported 
from Arabia Felix or from India. It was 
probably that which is now known in India 
by the name of "lemon grass " or " ginger 
grass," the Andropogon schcenanthus. (See 
Cane. ) 

Cal'^col (1 Chr. 2:6) — sustenance — the 
same probably as Chalcol (1 Kings 4 : 31), 
one of the four sages whom Solomon ex- 
celled in wisdom ; for "he was wiser than 
all men." 

Ca''leb — a dog. (1.) One of the three 
sons of Hezron of the tribe of Judah. He 
is also called Chelubai (1 Chr. 2 : 9). His 
sons are enumerated (18, 19, 50). 



(2.) A "son of Hur, the firstborn of 
Ephratah" (1 Chr. 2:50). Some would 
read the whole passage thus : " These [i.e., 
the list in ver. 42-49] were the sons of Caleb. 
The sons of Hur, the firstborn of Ephratah, 
were Shobal, etc." Thus Hur would be 
the name of the son and not the father of 
Caleb (ver. 19). 

(3.) The son of Jephunneh (Num. 13 : 6 ; 
32 : 12 ; Josh. 14 : 6, 14). He was one of 
those whom Moses sent to search the land 
in the second year after the Exodus. He 
was one of the family chiefs of the tribe of 
Judah. He and Joshua the son of Nun 
were the only two of the whole number 
who encouraged the people to go up and 
possess the land, and they alone were 
spared when a plague broke out in which 
the other ten spies perished (Num. 13 ; 14). 
All the people that had been numbered, 
from twenty years old and upward, perished 
in the wilderness except these two. The last 
notice we have of Caleb is when (being then 
eighty-five years of age) he came to Joshua 
at the camp at Gilgal, after the people had 
gained possession of the land, and re- 
minded him of the promise Moses had 
made to him, by virtue of which he claimed 
a certain portion of the land of Kirjath- 
arba as his inheritance (Josh. 14 : 6-15 ; 
15 : 13-15 ; 21 : 10-12 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3 ; 30 : 
14). He is called a "Kenezite" in Josh. 
14 : 6, 14. This may simply mean "son of 
Kenez " (Num. 32 : 12). Some, however, 
read "Jephunneh, the son of Kenez," who 
was a descendant of Hezron, the son of 
Pharez, a grandson of Judah (1 Chr. 2 : 5). 
This Caleb may possibly be identical with 
(2). 

(4. ) Caleb gave his name apparently to a 
part of the south country (1 Sam. 30 : 14) 
of Judah, the district between Hebron 
and Carmel, which had been assigned to 
him. When he gave up the city of Hebron 
to the priests as a city of refuge, he re- 
tained possession of the surrounding coun- 
try (Josh. 21 : 11, 12 ; comp. 1 Sam. 25 : 3). 

Calf. Calves were commonly made use 
of in sacrifices, and are therefore frequently 
mentioned in Scripture. The "fatted 
calf " was regarded as the choicest of ani- 
mal food : it was frequently also offered as 



CALKERS 



117 



CAMEL 



a special sacrifice (1 Sam. 28 : 24 ; Anios 
6:4; Luke 15 : 23). . The words used in 
Jer. 34:18, 19, "cut the calf in twain," 
allude to the custom of dividing a sacri- 
fice into two parts, between which the 
parties ratifying a covenant passed (Gen. 
15 : 9, 10, 17, 18), The sacrifice of the lips 
— i.e., praise — is called "the calves of our 
Hps" (Hos. 14:2, R.V., "as bullocks the 
offering of our lips." Comp. Heb. 13 : 15 ; 
Ps. 116 : 7 ; Jer. 33 : 11). 

The golden calf which Aaron made (Ex. 
32 : 4) was probably a copy of the god 
Moloch rather than of the god Apis, the 
sacred ox or calf of Egypt. The Jews 
showed all through their history a tendency 
toward the Babylonian and Canaanitish 
idolatry rather than toward that of Egypt. 

Ages after this, Jeroboam, king of Israel, 
set up two idol calves — one at Dan, and 
the other at Bethel — that he might thus 
prevent the ten tribes from resorting to 
Jerusalem for worship (1 Kings 12': 28). 
These calves continued to be a snare to the 
people till the time of their captivity. The 
calf at Dan was carried away in the reign 
of Pekah by Tiglath-pileser, and that at 
Bethel ten years later, in the reign of 
Hoshea, by Shalmaneser (2 Kings 15 : 29 ; 
17 : 33). This sin of Jeroboam is almost 
always mentioned along with his name 
(2 Kings 15 : 28, etc.). 

Calk^ers, workmen skilled in stopping 
the seams of the deck or sides of vessels. 
The inhabitants of Gebel were employed 
in such work on Tyrian vessels (Ezek. 27 : 
9, 27; marg., " strengtheners " or "stoppers 
of chinks ''). 

Call. (1.) To cry for help, hence to 
pray (Gen. 4 : 26). Thus men are said to 
"caU upon the name of the Lord" (Acts 
2 : 21 ; 7 : 59 ; 9 : 14 ; Rom. 10 : 12 ; 1 Cor. 
1:2). 

(2. ) God calls with respect to men when 
he designates them to some special oflBce 
(Ex. 31:2; Isa. 22:20; Acts 13:2), and 
when he invites them to accept his offered 
grace (Matt. 9 : 13 ; 11 : 28 ; 22 : 4). 

In the message of the gospel his call is 
addressed to all men — to Jews and Gen- 
tiles alike (Matt. 28:19; Mark 16:15; 
Rom. 9 : 24, 25). But this universal call is 



not inseparably connected with salvation, 
although it leaves all to whom it comes 
inexcusable if they reject it (John 3 : 14-19 ; 
Matt. 22 : 14). 

An effectual call is something more than 
the outward message of the Word of God 
to men. It is internal, and is the result of 
the enlightening and sanctifying influence 
of the Holy Spirit (John 16 : 14 ; Acts 26 : 
18 ; John 6 : 44), effectually drawing men 
to Christ, and disposing and enabling them 
to receive the truth (John 6 : 45 ; Acts 16 : 
14 ; Eph. 1 : 17). 

Calling, a profession, or as we usually 
say, a vocation (1 Cor. 7 : 20). The "hope 
of your calling " in Eph. 4 : 4 is the hope 
resulting from your being called into the 
kingdom of God. 

Cal'^neh — fort — one of the four cities 
founded by Nimrod (Gen. 10 : 10). It is 
the modern JSfiffer, a lofty mound of earth 
and rubbish sitiaated in the marshes on the 
left — i.e., the east — bank of the Euphrates, 
but 30 miles distant from its present course, 
and about 60 miles south-south-east from 
Babylon. It is mentioned as one of the 
toAvns with which Tyre carried on trade. 
It was finally taken and probably destroyed 
by one of the Assyrian kings (Amos 6 : 2). 
It is called Calno (Isa. 10 : 9) and Canneh 
(Ezek. 27:23). 

Cal'vary, only in Luke 23 : 33, the Latin 
name Calvaria, which was used as a trans- 
lation of the Greek -word Kranion, by 
which the Hebrew word Gulgoleth was in- 
terpreted, "the place of a skuU." It prob- 
ably took this name from its shape, being 
a hillock or low, rounded, bare elevation 
somewhat in the form of a human skull. 
It is nowhere in Scripture called a ' ' hill. " 
The crucifixion of our Lord took place out- 
side the city walls (Heb. 13 : 11-13) and 
near the public thoroughfare — " This thing 
was not done in a corner. " (See Golgotha. ) 

Cam'el, from the Hebrew gCimal, "to 
repay" or "requite," as the camel does 
the care of its master. There are two dis- 
tinct species of camels, having, hoAvever, 
the common characteristics of being "rumi- 
nants \rithout horns, A^dthout muzzle, with 
nostrils forming oblique slits, the upper 
lip divided and separately movable and 



CAMEL 



118 



CAMON 



extensile, the soles of the feet horny, with 
two toes covered by claws, the limbs long, 
the abdomen drawn up, while the neck, 
long and slender, is bent up and down — 
the reverse of that of a horse, which is 
arched. " 

(1.) The Bactrian camel is distinguished 
by two humps. It is a native of the high 
table-lands of Central Asia. 




BACTRIAN CAMEL. 



(2. ) The Arabian camel or dromedary — 
from the Greek dromos, "a runner" (Isa. 
60 : 6 ; Jer. 2 : 23) — has but one hump, and 
is a native of Western Asia or Africa. 




ARABIAN CAMEL. 

The camel was early used both for riding 
and as a beast of burden (Gen. 24 : 64 ; 
37:25), and in war (1 Sam. 30:17; Isa. 
21 : 7). Mention is made of the camel 
among the cattle given by Pharaoh to 
Abraham (Gen. 12 : 16). Its flesh was not 
to be eaten, as it was ranked among un- 



clean animals (Lev. 11 : 4 ; Deut. 14 : 7). 
Abraham's servant rode on a camel when 
he went to fetch a wife for Isaac (Gen. 24 
10, 11). Jacob had camels as a portion of his 
wealth (30 : 43), as Abraham also had (24 : 35). 
He sent a present of thirty milch camels to 
his brother Esau (32 : 15). It appears to 
have been little in use among the Jews after 
the conquest. It is, however, mentioned 
in the history of David (1 Chr. 27 : 30), and 
after the Exile (Ezra 2 : 67 ; Neh. 7 : 69). 
Camels were much in use among other 
nations in the East. The queen of Sheba 
came with a caravan of camels when she 
came to see the wisdom of Solomon (1 
Kings 10 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 9:1). Benhadad of 
Damascus also sent a x^resent to Elisha, 
" forty camels' burden " (2 Kings 8 : 9). 

To show the difficulty in the way of a 
rich man's entering into the kingdom, our 
Lord uses the proverbial expression that it 
was easier for a camel to go through the 
eye 6i a needle (Matt. 19 : 24). 

To strain at (rather, out) a gnat and 
swallow a camel was also a proverbial ex- 
pression (Matt. 23 : 24), used with refer- 
ence to those who were careful to avoid 
small faults, and yet did not hesitate to 
commit the greatest sins. The Jews care- 
fully filtered their wine before drinking it, 
for fear of swallowing along with it some 
insect forbidden in the law as unclean, 
and yet they omitted openly the " weight- 
ier matters " of the law. 

The raiment worn by John the Baptist 
was made of camel's hair (Matt. 3:4; 
Mark 1 : 6), by which he was distinguished 
from those who resided in royal palaces 
and wore soft raiment. This was also the 
case with Elijah (2 Kings 1 : 8), who is 
called "a hairy man," from his wearing 
such raiment. "This is one of the most 
admirable materials for clothing ; it keeps 
out the heat, cold, and rain." The "sack- 
cloth " so often alluded to (2 Kings 1:8; 
Isa. 15:3; Zech. 13:4, etc.) was probably 
made of camel's hair. 

Csi^xaon—full of stalks— a, place (Judg. 
10 : 5) where Jair was buried. It has usually 
been supposed to have been a city of Gilead, 
on the east of Jordan, It is probably, 
however, the modern Tell-el-KaimHn, on 



CAMP 



119 



CAMPHIRE 



the southern slopes of Carmel, the Jokneam 
of Carmel (Josh. 12 : 22 ; 1 Kings 4 : 12), 
since it is not at all unlikely that after he 
became judge, Jair might find it more con- 
venient to live on the west side of Jordan ; 
and that he was buried where he had lived. 
Camp. During their journeys across the 



wilderness, the twelve tribes formed en- 
campments at the different places where 
they halted (Ex. 16 : 13 ; Num. 2 : 3). The dia- 
gram here given shows the position of the 
different tribes and the form of the encamp- 
ment during the wanderings, according to 
Num. 1 : 53 ; 2 : 2-31 ; 3 : 29, 35, 38 ; 10 : 13-28. 





NORTH.— 


FOUETH DIVISION— CAMP OF DAN: 


157,600. 








DAN, 






8 




62,700. 




a 


T-i 








►s- 


CO 




ASHER, NAPHTALI, 






o 
1-1 




41,500. 53,400. 






•£ 




M 


1 


g • 




C71 CO 


j4 




S ■=> 




J^ > 


trf 


<J 


< 2 




>4i- O 


OC 


a 


^ ^^ 




o W 


H 


P-i 




MEKAKITES, g 

3,200. g 






^ 




^ - 




3C 


o 


^ 










O 









PLI 


s 


H 




g 


^ =-l 


12; 


< 






COUET OF THE 


H 


^^ r-l 


c 


o 




a<>f 


TABERNACLE. 


^ 
g 


O 1-' 




O 


H 


M 

B 




^ 




^ 




3 t;= t> 







02 




a t> 




h^ 


> 
l-l 

c 

S 
S 


^00 


• P3 
KOHATHITES, O 

2,750. - 




O 
> 


s 






1—1 


H 




SIMEON, GAD, 




00 


&h' 




59,300. 45,650. 




S 


33 




EEUBEN, 




p 


P= 




46,500. 








SOUTH.— S 


ECOND DIVISION — CAMP OF EEUBE]^ 


i: 151,450. 





The area of the camp would be in all 
about 3 square miles. After the Hebrews 
entered Palestine, the camps then spoken 
of were exclusively warlike (Josh. 11 : 5, 7 ; 
Judg. 5 : 19, 21 ; 7:1; 1 Sam. 29 : 1 ; 30 : 
9, etc.). 

Cam'phire (Heb. copher) — mentioned in 
Cant. 1:14 (R.V., "henna-flowers"); 4: 
13 (P. v., "henna") — is the al-henna of 
the Arabs, a native of Egypt, producing 
clusters of small white and yellow odor- 
iferous flowers^ whence is made the Oleum 



Cyprineum. From its leaves is made the 
peculiar auburn dye ^^^-th which Eastern 
women stain their nails and the palms of 
their hands. It is found only at Engedi, on 
the shore of the Dead Sea. It is knowoi to 
botanists by the name Laicsonia alba or in- 
ermis, a kind of privet, which grows 6 or 8 
feet high. The margin of the Authorized 
Version of the passages above referred to 
has "or cypress," not with reference to the 
conifer so called, but to the circumstance 
that one of the most highly appreciated 



CANA 



120 



CANAANITES 



species of this plant grew in the island of 
Cyprus. 




CAMPHIKE. 

Ca'^na — reedy — a town of Galilee, near 
Capernaum. Here our Lord wrought his 
first miracle, the turning of water into 
wine (John 2 : 1-11 ; 4 : 46). It is also 
mentioned as the birth-place of Nathanael 
(21 : 2). It is not mentioned in the Old 
Testament. It has been identified with 
the modern Kdna el-JelU, also called 
Khurhet Kdna, a place 8 or 9 miles north 
of Nazareth. Others have identified it 
with Kefr Kenna, which lies on the direct 
road to the Sea of G-alilee, about 5 miles 
north - east of Nazareth, and 12 in a 
direct course from Tiberias. It is called 
" Cana of Galilee," to distinguish it from 
Cana of Asher (Josh. 19 : 28). 

Ca^naan. (1.) The fourth son of Ham 
(Gen. 10 : 6). His descendants were under 
a curse in consequence of the transgres- 
sion of his father (9 : 22-27). His eldest 
son, Zidon, was the father of the Sidonians 
and Phoenicians. He had ten sons, who 
were the founders of as many tribes 
(10 : 15-18). 

(2. ) The country which derived its name 
from the preceding. The name as first 
used by the Phoenicians denoted only the 
maritime plain on which Sidon was built. 
But in the time of Moses and Joshua it 
denoted the whole country to the west of 
the Jordan and the Dead Sea (13 : 12 ; 
Deut. 11 : 30). In Josh. 5 : 12 the LXX. 
read, " land of the Phoenicians," instead 
of ■ ' land of Canaan. " 



The name signifies "the lowlands," as 
distinguished from the land of Gilead on 
the east of Jordan, which was a mountain- 
ous district. The extent and boundaries 
of Canaan are fully set forth in different 
parts of Scripture (Gen. 10 : 19 ; 17 : 8 ; 
Num. 13 : 29 ; 34 : 8). (See Canaanites, 
Palestine.) 

Ca^naan, the language of, mentioned 
in Isa. 19 : 18, denotes the language spoken 
by the Jews resident in Palestine. The 
language of the Canaanites and of the He- 
brews was substantially the same. This 
is seen from the fragments of the Phoe- 
nician language which still survive, which 
show the closest analogy to the Hebrew. 
Yet the subject of the language of the 
"Canaanites" is very obscure. Being 
Hamites, their language could not be 
identical with that of the Jews, who 
were descendants of Shem. Yet, on the 
other hand, it is manifest that Abram, 
shortly after he entered into their country, 
could hold intercourse freely with the 
people. 

Ca''naanites, the descendants of Canaan, 
the son of Ham. Migrating from their 
original home, they seem to have reached 
the Persian Gulf, and to have there so- 
journed for some time. They thence 
"spread to the west, across the mountain 
chain of Lebanon to the very edge of the 
Mediterranean Sea, occupying all the land 
which later became Palestine, also to the 
north-west as far as the mountain chain 
of Taurus. This group was very numer- 
ous, and broken up into a great many 
peoples, as we can jiidge from the list of 
nations (Gen. 10), the 'sons of Canaan.'" 
Six different tribes are mentioned in Ex. 
3:8, 17 ; 23 : 23 ; 33 : 2 ; 34 : 11. In Ex. 
13: 5 the "Perizzites" are omitted. The 
" Girgashites " are mentioned in addition 
to the foregoing in Deut. 7:1; Josh. 
3:10. 

The "Canaanites," as distinguished from 
the Amalekites, the Anakim, and the 
Pephaim, were " dwellers in the low- 
lands " (Num. 13 : 29), the great plains and 
valleys, the richest and most important 
parts of Palestine. Tyre and Sidon, their 
famous cities, were the centres of great 




CANAAN IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGES. 



CANAANITE 



121 



CANDLESTICK 



commercial activity ; and hence the name 
" Canaanite " came to signify a " trader " 
or "merchant" (Job 41:6; Prov. 31:24, 
lit. " Canaanites ; " comp. Zeph, 1:11; 
Ezek. 17 : 4). The name " Canaanite " is 
also sometimes used to designate the non- 
Israelite inhabitants of the land in general 
(Gen. 12 : 6 ; Num. 21 : 3 ; Judg. 1 : 10). 

The Israelites, when they were led to 
the Promised Land, were commanded ut- 
terly to destroy the descendants of Canaan 
then possessing it (Ex. 23 : 23 ; Num. 33 : 
52, 53 ; Deut. 20 : 16, 17). This was to be 
done "by little and little," lest the beasts 
of the field should increase (Ex. 23 : 29 ; 
Deut. 7:22, 23). The history of these 
wars of conquest is given in the Book of 
Joshua. The extermination of these tribes, 
however, was never fully carried out. 
Jerusalem was not taken till the time of 
David (2 Sam. 5 : 6, 7). In the days of 
Solomon bond-service was exacted from 
the fragments of the tribes still remaining 
in the land (1 Kings 9 : 20, 21). Even after 
the return from captivity survivors of five 
of the Canaanitish tribes were still found 
in the land. 

Under the name of Kanana they appear 
on Egyptian monuments, wearing a coat 
of mail and helmet, and distinguished by 
the lase of spear and javelin and the battle- 
axe. Yet it would appear that, like the 
Phoenicians, they were much engaged in 
commerce. 

The toar against the Canaanites can be 
vindicated only on the ground that it was 
carried on at the express command of God. 
The Israelites were merely in this matter 
the instruments in executing God's pur- 
pose in exterminating these nations for 
their wickedness. They were clearly com- 
missioned by God to carry out this work 
of judgment (Num. 33 : 52, 53 ; Deut. 7 : 
1, 2). 

Ca^naanite, a name given to the apostle 
Simon (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18). The 
word here does not, however, mean a de- 
scendant of Canaan, but is a translation, 
or rather almost a transliteration, of the 
Syriac word Kanenyeh (P.V. rendered 
" Canansean "), which designates the 
Jewish sect of the Zealots. Hence he is 



called elsewhere (Luke 6:15) "Simon 
Zelotes;" i.e., Simon of the sect of the 
Zealots. (See Simon.) 

Can''dace, the queen of the Ethiopians 
whose " eunuch " or chamberlain Avas con- 
verted to Christianity by the instrumen- 
tality of Philip the evangelist (Acts 8 : 
27). The country which she ruled was 
called by the Greeks Meroe, in Upper 
Nubia. It was long the centre of com- 
mercial intercourse between Africa and the 
south of Asia, and hence became famous 
for its wealth (Isa. 45 : 14). 

It is somewhat singular that female 
sovereignty seems to have prevailed in 
Ethiopia, the name Candace (compare 
"Pharaoh," "Ptolemy," "Ceesar") be- 
ing a title common to several successive 
queens. It is probable that Judaism had 
taken root in Ethiopia at this time, and 
hence the visit of the queen's treasurer to 
Jerusalem to keep the feast. There is a 
tradition that Candace was herself con- 
verted to Christianity by her treasurer on 
his return, and that he became the apostle 
of Christianity in that whole region, carry- 
ing it also into Abyssinia. It is eaid that 
he also preached the gospel in Arabia 
Eelix and in Ceylon, where he sujffered 
martyrdom. (See Philip.) 

Candle— Heb. ner— Job 18:6; 29:3; 
Ps. 18:28; Prov. 24:20, in all which 
places the Revised Version and margin 
of Authorized Version have "lamp," by 
which the word is elsewhere frequently 
rendered. The Hebrew word denotes 
properly any kind of candle or lamp or 
torch. It is used as a figure of conscience 
(Prov. 20 : 27), of a Christian example 
(Matt. 5 : 14, 15), and of prosperity (Job 
21 : 17 ; Prov. 13 : 9). 

Candlestick, the lamp-stand, "candela- 
brum," which Moses was commanded to 
make for the tabernacle, according to the 
pattern shown him. Its form is described 
in Ex. 25 : 31-40 ; 37 : 17-24, and may be 
seen represented on the Arch of Titus at 
Rome. It was among the spoils taken by 
the Romans from the temple of Jerusalem 
(a.d. 70). It was made of fine gold, and 
with the utensils belonging to it was a 
talent in weight. 




CANAAN AS DIVIDED AMONG THE TRIBES. 
(77s^ Six Cities of Refuge are uftderlined.) 



CANDLESTICK 



122 



CANE 



The tabernacle was a tent without win- 
dows, and thus artificial light was needed. 
This was supplied by the candlestick, 
which, however, served also as a symbol 
of the church or people of God, who are 
' ' the light of the world . " The light which 
' ' symbolizes the knowledge of God is not 
the sun or any natural light, but an arti- 
ficial light supplied with a specially pre- 
pared oil ; for the knowledge of God is in 
truth not natural nor common to all men, 
but furnished over and above nature." 



This candlestick was placed on the south 
side of the Holy Place, opposite the table 
of showbread (Ex. 27 : 21 ; 30 : 7, 8 ; Lev. 
24 : 3 ; 1 Sam. 3 : 3). It was lighted every 
evening, and was extinguished in the 
morning. In the morning the priests 
trimmed the seven lamps, borne by the 
seven branches, with golden snuffers, carry- 
ing away the ashes in golden dishes (Ex. 25 : 
38), and supplying the lamps at the same 
time with fresh oil. What ultimately be- 
came of the candlestick is unknown. 




THE GOLDEN CANDLESTICK. 

(Frovt the Arch of Titus.) 



In Solomon's temple there were ten 
separate candlesticks of i)ure gold, five on 
the right and five on the left of the Holy 
Place (1 Kings 7 : 49 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 7). Their 
structure is not mentioned. They were 
carried away to Babylon ( Jer. 52 : 19). 

In the temple erected after the Exile 
there was again but one candlestick, and 
like the first, with seven branches. It was 
this which was afterwards carried away by 
Titus to Pome, where it was deposited in 
the Temple of Peace. When Genseric 



plundered Pome, he is said to have carried 
it to Carthage (a.d. 455). It was recap- 
tured by Belisarius (a.d. 533), and carried 
to Constantinople and thence to Jerusalem, 
where it finally disappeared. 

Cane, a tall sedgy plant with a hollow 
stem, growing in moist places. In Isa. 
43:24; Jer. 0:20, the Hebrew word 
kdneh is thus rendered, giving its name to 
the plant. It is rendered " reed " in 
1 Kings 14 : 15 ; Job 40 : 21 ; Isa. 19 : 6 ; 
35 : 7. In Ps. 68 : 31 the expression " com- 



CANKER 



123 



CAPERNAUM 



pany of si3earmen " is in the margin and 
the Revised Version " beasts of the reeds," 
referring probably to the crocodile or the 
hippopotamus as a symbol of Egypt. In 
2 Kings 18 : 21 ; Isa. 3G : 6 ; Ezek. 29 : 6, 7, 
the reference is to the weak, fragile nature 
of the reed. (See Calamus. ) 

Cank'er, a r/a/z^rewcor mortification which 
gradually spreads over the whole body (2 
Tim. 2:17). In James 5:3 "cankered" 
means "rusted " (R.V.) or tarnished. 

Cank'erworm (Heb. yeleh), "the lick- 
ing locust," which licks up the grass of 
the field ; probably the locust at a certain 
stage of its growth, just as it emerges 
from the caterj^illar state (Joel 1:4; 2 : 25). 
The word is rendered "caterpillar " in Ps. 
105:34; Jer. 51:14, 17 (but R.V. "can- 
ker-worm "). ' ' It spoileth and fleeth away " 
(Nah. 3 : 16), or as some read the passage, 
" The cankerworm putteth off [i.e., the en- 
velope of its wings], and fleeth away. " 

Can'^neh. Mentioned only in Ezek. 
27:23. (SeeCALNEH.) 

Cannon. This word is derived from a 
Hebrew and Greek word denoting a reed 
or cane. Hence it means something 
straight, or something to keep straight ; 
and hence also a rule, or something ruled 
or measured. It came to be applied to the 
Scriptures, to denote that they contained 
the authoritative rule of faith and practice 
— the standard of doctrine and duty. A 
book is said to be of canonical authority 
when it has a right to take a j)lace with 
the other books which contain a revelation 
of the Divine will. Such a right does not 
arise from any ecclesiastical authority, but 
from the evidence of the inspired author- 
ship of the book. The canonical {i.e., the 
inspired) books of the Old and New Testa- 
ments, are a complete rule, and the only rule, 
of faith and practice. They contain the 
whole supernatural revelation of God to 
men. The ]Sfe^o Testament Canon was 
formed gradually under divine guidance. 
The different books as they were written 
came into the possession of the Christian 
associations which began to be formed 
soon after the day of Pentecost ; and thus 
slowly the canon increased till all the books 
were gathered together into one collection 



containing the whole of the twenty-seven 
New Testament inspired books. Historical 
evidence shows that from about the middle 
of the second century this New Testament 
collection was substantially such as we 
now possess. Each book contained in it is 
proved to have, on its own ground, a 
right to its place ; and thus the whole is 
of divine authority. 

The Old Testament Canon is witnessed 
to by the New Testament writers. Their 
evidence is conclusive. The quotations in 
the New from the Old are very numerous, 
and the references are much more numer- 
ous. These quotations and references by 
our Lord and the apostles most clearly 
imply the existence at that time of a well- 
known and publicly acknowledged collec- 
tion of Hebrew writings under the desig- 
nation of "The Scriptures;" "The Law 
and the Prophets and the Psalms ; " "Moses 
and the Prophets, " etc. The appeals to these 
books, moreover, show that they were re- 
garded as of divine authority, finally de- 
ciding all questions of which they treat ; and 
that the whole collection so recognized con- 
sisted only of the thirty-nine books which 
we now possess. Thus they endorse as genu- 
ine and authentic the canon of the Jewish 
Scriptures. The Septuagint Version [q.v.) 
also contained every book we now have in 
the Old Testament Scriptures. As to the 
time at which the Old Testament canon 
was closed, there are many considerations 
which point to that of Ezra and Nehemiah, 
immediately after the return from Baby- 
lonian exile. (See Bible, Ezea.) 

Caper^naum — Nahum's town — a Gali- 
lean city frequently mentioned in the his- 
tory of our Lord. It is not mentioned in 
the Old Testament. After our Lord's ex- 
pulsion from Nazareth (Matt. 4 : 13-16 ; 
Luke 4 : 16-31), Capernaum became his 
"own city." It was the scene of many 
acts and incidents of his life (Matt. 8 : 5, 
14,15; 9:2-6,10-17; 15:1-20; Markl: 
32-34, etc.). The impenitence and unbelief 
of its inhabitants after the many evidences 
our Lord gave among them of the truth of 
his mission, brought down upon them a 
heavy denunciation of judgment (Matt. 
11 : 23). 



CAPHTOR 



124 



CAPTAIN 



It stood on the western shore of the Sea 
of Galilee. The "land of Gennesaret," 
near, if not in, which it was sitiiated, was 
one of the most prosperous and crowded 
districts of Palestine. This city lay on the 
great highway from Damascus to Acco and 
Tyre. It has been identified with Tell 
mtm, about two miles south-west of where 
the Jordan flows into the lake. Here are 
extensive ruins of walls and foundations, 
and also the remains of what must have 
been a beautiful synagogue, which it is 



conjectured may have been the one built 
by the centurion (Matt. 8 : 5), in which our 
Lord frequently taught (John 6 : 59 ; Mark 
1:9; Luke 4 : 33). Others have conjectured 
that the ruins of the city are to be found 
at Khan Minyeh, some three miles further 
to the south on the shore of the lake. " If 
Tell Hum be Capernaum, the remains 
spoken of are without doubt the ruins of 
the synagogue built by the Roman cen- 
turion, and one of the most sacred places 
on earth. It was in this building that our 




TELL HUM. 



Lord gave the well-known discourse in 
John 6 ; and it was not without a certain 
strange feeling that on turning over a large 
block we found the pot of manna engraven 
on its face, and remembered the words : ' I 
am that bread of life : your fathers did eat 
manna in the wilderness, and are dead.' " — 
The Recovery of Jerusalem. 

Caph'tor— a chaplet—the original seat 
of the Philistines (Deut. 2 : 23 ; Jer. 47 : 4 ; 
Amos 9 : 7). Some identify it with Crete, 
but most probably it was a part of Egypt, 
the Caphtur in the north Delta, since the 



Caphtorim were of the same race as the 
Mizraite people (Gen. 10:14 ; 1 Chr. 1:12). 

Cappadc'cia, the easternmost and the 
largest province of Asia Minor. Chris- 
tianity very early penetrated into this 
country (1 Pet. 1:1). On the day of Pen- 
tecost there were Cappadocians at Jeru- 
salem (Acts 2 : 9). 

Cap'tain. (1.) Heb. sar [1 Sam. 22:2; 
2 Sam. 23:19). Rendered "chief," Gen. 
40 : 2 ; 41 : 9 ; rendered also "prince," Dan. 
1:7; "ruler," Judg. 9:30; "governor," 
1 Kings 22 : 26. This same Hebrew word 



CAPTIVE 



125 



CAPTIVITY 



denotes a military captain (Ex. 18 : 21 ; 
2 Kings 1:9; Deut. 1 : 15"; 1 Sam. 18 : 13, 
etc.), the "captain of the body-guard" 
(Gen. 37:36; 39:1; 41:10; Jer. 40:1), 
or, as the word may be rendered, "chief 
of the executioners " (marg. ). The officers 
of the king's body-guard frequently acted 
as executioners. Nebuzar-adan (Jer. 39 : 13) 
and Arioch (Dan. 2 : 14) held this ofHce in 
Babylon. 

The "captain of the guard" mentioned 
in Acts 28 : 16 was the Praetorian prefect, 
the commander of the Praetorian troops. 

(2.) Another word (Heb. katsin) so trans- 
lated denotes sometimes a military (Josh. 
10:24; Judg. 11 : 6, 11 ; Isa. 22:3 "rulers;" 
Dan. 11 : 18) and sometimes a civil com- 
mand, a judge, magistrate — Arab. Mdy — 
(Isa. 1 : 10 ; 3:6; Micah 3 : 1, 9). 

(3. ) It is also the rendering of a Hebrew 
word {shalish) meaning "a third man," or 
"one of three." The LXX. render in 
plural hjtristatai; i.e., "soldiers fighting 
from chariots," so called because each war- 
chariot contained three men, one of whom 
acted as charioteer while the other two 
fought (Ex. 14 : 7 ; 15 : 4 ; 1 Kings 9 : 22 ; 
comp. 2 Kings 9 : 25). This word is used 
also to denote the king's body-guard (2 
Kings 10:25; 1 Chr. 11:11; 12:18) or 
aides-de-camp. 

(4.) The "captain of the temple" men- 
tioned in Acts 4 : 1 and 5 : 24 was not a 
military officer, but superintendent of the 
guard of priests and Levites who kept 
watch in the temple by night. (Comp. 
"the ruler of the house of God," 1 Chr. 
9 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 31 : 13 ; Neh. 11 : 11.) 

(5.) The Captain of our salvation is a 
name given to our Lord (Heb. 2 : 10), be- 
cause he is the author and source of our 
salvation, the head of his people, whom he 
is conducting to glory. The "captain of 
the Lord's host " (Josh. 5 : 14, 15) is the 
name given to that mysterious person who 
manifested himself to Abraham (Gen. 12 : 7), 
and to Moses in the bush (Ex. 3:2, 6, etc.) 
— the Angel of the covenant. (See Angel.) 

Cap^tive, one taken in war. Captives 
were often treated with great cruelty and 
indignity (1 Kings 20:32; Josh. 10:24; 
Judg.l:7; 2Sam.4:12; Judg.8:7; 2Sam. 



12:31; 1 Chr. 20: 3). When a city was taken 
by assault, all the men were slain, and the 
women and children carried away captive 
and sold as slaves (Isa. 20; 47:3; 2 Chr. 
28:9-15; Ps. 44:12; Joel 3:3), and exposed 
to the most cruel treatment (Nah. 3 : 10 ; 
Zech. 14 : 2 ; Esther 3 : 13 ; 2 Kings 8 : 12 ; 
Isa. 13 : 16, 18). Captives were sometimes 
carried away into foreign countries, as was 
the case with the Jews (Jer. 20 : 5 ; 39 : 9, 
10; 40:7). 

Captivity. {1.) Of Israel. The kingdom 
of the ten tribes was successively invaded 
by several Assyrian kings. Pul {q.v.) im- 
posed a tribute on Menahem of a thousand 
talents of silver (2 Kings 15 : 19, 20 ; 1 Chr. 
5 : 26) (B.C. 762), and Tiglath-pileser, in the 
days of Pekah (b.c. 738), carried away the 
trans -Jordanic tribes and the inhabitants 
of Galilee into Assyria (1 Kings 15 : 29 ; 
Isa. 9 : 1). Subsequently Shalmaneser in- 
vaded Israel and laid siege to Samaria, the 
capital of the kingdom. During the siege 
he died, and was succeeded by Sargon, who 
took the city, and transported the great 
mass of the people into Assyria (B.C. 721), 
l^lacing them in Halah and in Habor, and 
in the cities of the Medes (2 Kings 17 : 3, 5). 
Samaria was never again inhabited by the 
Israelites. The families thus removed 
were carried to distant cities, many of 
them not far from the Caspian Sea, and 
their place was supplied by colonists from 
Babylon and Cuthah, etc. (2 Kings 17 : 24). 
Thus terminated the kingdom of the ten 
tribes, after a separate duration of two 
hundred and fifty -five years (B.C. 975-721). 

Many speculations have been indulged 
in with reference to these ten tribes. But 
we believe that all, except the number that 
probably allied themselves with Judah and 
shared in their restoration under Cyrus, 
are finally lost. 

" Like the dew on the mountain, 
Like the foam on the river, 
Like the bubble on the fountain, 
They are gone, and for ever." 

(2.) Of Judah. In the third year of 
Jehoiachim, the eighteenth king of Judah 
(B.C. 605), Nebuchadnezzar having over- 
come the Egyptians at Carchemish, ad- 



CAPTIVITY 



126 



CARCASE 



vanced to Jerusalem with a great army. 
After a brief siege he took that city, and 
carried away the vessels of the sanctuary 
to Babylon, and dedicated them in the 
Temple of Belus (2 Kings 24:1; 2 Chr. 36: 
6, 7 ; Dan. 1 : 1, 2), He also carried away 
the treasures of the king, whom he made his 
vassal. At this time, from which is dated 
the "seventy years" of captivity (Jer. 25; 
Dan. 9:1, 2), Daniel and his companions 
were carried to Babylon, there to be brought 
up at the court and trained in all the learn- 
ing of the Chaldeans. After this, in the 
fifth year of Jehoiachim, a great national 
fast w^as appointed (Jer. 36 : 9), during 
which the king, to show his defiance, cut 
up the leaves of the book of Jeremiah's 
prophecies as they were read to him in his 
winter palace, and threw them into the 
fire. In the same spirit he rebelled against 
Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24 : 1), who again 
a second time (b.c. 598) marched against 
Jerusalem, and put Jehoiachim to death, 
placing his son Jehoiachin on the throne 
in his stead. But Jehoiachin's counsellors 
displeasing Nebuchadnezzar, he again a 
third time turned his army against Jeru- 
salem, and carried away to Babylon a second 
detachment of Jews as captives, to the 
number of 10,000 (2 Kings 24:13; Jer. 
24 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 10), among whom were 
the king, with his mother and all his 
princes and officers, also Ezekiel, who 
with many of his companions were settled 
on the banks of the river Chebar {q.v.). 
He also carried away all the remaining 
treasures of the temple and the palace, and 
the golden vessels of the sanctuary. 

Mattaniah, the uncle of Jehoiachin, was 
now made king over what remained of the 
kingdom of Judah, under the name of 
Zedekiah (2 Kings 24 : 17 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 10). 
After a troubled reign of eleven years his 
kingdom came to an end (2 Chr. 36 : 11). 
Nebuchadnezzar, with a powerful army, 
besieged Jerusalem, and Zedekiah became 
a prisoner in Babylon. His eyes were put 
out, and he was kept in close confinement 
till his death (2 Kings 25 : 7). The city was 
spoiled of all that was of value, and then 
given up to the flames. The temple and 
palaces were consumed, and the walls of the 



city were levelled with the ground (b.c. 586), 
and all that remained of the people, except 
a number of the poorest class who were left 
to till the ground and dress the vineyards, 
were carried away captives to Babylon. 
This was the third and last deportation of 
Jewish captives. The land was now utterly 
desolate, and was abandoned to anarchy. 

In the first year of his reign as king of 
Babylon (b.c. 536), Cyrus issued a decree 
liberating the Jewish captives, and permit- 
ting them to return to Jerusalem and re- 
build the city and the temple (2 Chr. 
36 : 22, 23 ; Ezra 1 ; 2). The number of 
the people forming the first caravan, under 
Zerubbabel, amounted in all to 42,360 
(Ezra 2:64, 65), besides 7,367 men-servants 
and maid-servants. A considerable num- 
ber, 12,000 probably, from the ten tribes 
who had been carried away into Assyria 
no doubt combined with this band of liber- 
ated captives. 

At a later period other bands of the Jews 
returned (1) under Ezra (7:7) (B.C. 458), 
and (2) Nehemiah (7 : 66) (b.c 445). But 
the great mass of the people remained still 
in the land to which they had been carried, 
and became a portion of the Jews of the 
' ' dispersion " (John 7 : 35 ; 1 Pet. 1:1). The 
whole number of the exiles that chose to 
remain was probably about six times the 
number of those who returned. 

Car^buncle (Ex. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10 ; Ezek. 
28 : 13). Heb. bdrkath ; LXX. smaragdos ; 
Vulgate, smaragdus ; Revised Version, 
marg., "emerald." The Hebrew word is 
from a root meaning "toglitter," "lighten," 
' ' flash. " When held up to the sun, this gem 
shines like a burning coal, a dark-red glow- 
ing coal, and hence is called " carbunculus " 
— I. e. , a little coal. It was one of the jewels 
in the first row of the high priest's breast- 
plate. It has been conjectured by some 
that the garnet is meant. In Isa. 54 : 12 
the Hebrew word is 'ehddh, used in the pro- 
phetic description of the glory and beauty 
of the mansions above. Next to the dia- 
mond it is the hardest and most costly of 
all precious stones. 

Car^case, contact with a, made an Is- 
raelite ceremonially unclean, and made 
whatever he touched also unclean, accord- 



CARCHEMISH 



127 



CARMEL 



ing to the Mosaic law (Hag. 2 : 14 ; comp. 
Num. 19 : 16, 22 ; Lev. 11 : 39). 

Car'^chemish — fortress of Chemosh — a 
city on the west bank of the Euphrates 
( Jer. 46 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 35 : 20), not, as was once 
supposed, the Circesium at the confluence 
of the Chebar and the Euphrates, but a 
city considerably higher up the river, and 
commanding the ordinary passage of the 
Euphrates ; probably identical with Hier- 
apolis. It was the capital of the kingdom 
of the northern Hittites. The Babylonian 



army, under Nebuchadnezzar, the son of 
Nabopolassar, here met and conquered the 
army of Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt 
(B.C. 607). By this victory the Babylonians 
became masters of the whole of Western 
Asia. 

Caramel — a park; generally with the 
article, "^Ae park." (1.) A prominent 
headland of Central Palestine, consisting 
of several connected hills extending from 
the plain of Esdraelon to the sea, a distance 
of some 12 miles or more. At the east 




3IOUNT CARMEL FKOM HAIFA. 



end, in its highest part, it is 1,728 feet high, 
and at the west end it forms a promontory 
to the bay of Acre about 600 feet above 
the sea. It lay within the tribe of Asher. 
It was here, at the east end of the ridge, at 
a place called el-Mukhrakah [i.e., the place 
of burning), that Elijah brought back the 
people to their allegiance to God, and slew 
the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18). Here 
were consumed the "fifties" of the royal 
guard ; and here also Elisha received the 
visit of the bereaved mother whose son 
was restored by him to life (2 Kings 



4 : 25-37). " No mountain in or around 
Palestine retains its a,ncient beauty so much 
as Carmel. Two or three villages and 
some scattered cottages are found on it ; 
its groves are few but luxuriant ; it is no 
f)lace for crags and precipices or rocks of 
wild goats ; but its surface is covered with 
a rich and constant verdure." " The whole 
mountain-side is dressed with blossom, and 
flowering shrubs, and fragrant herbs. "" The 
western extremity of the ridge is, however, 
more rocky and bleak than the eastern. 
The head of the bride in Cant. 7:5 is 

9 



CARMI 



128 



CARVE 



compared to Carmel. It is ranked with 
Bashan on account of its rich pastures (Isa. 
33 : 9 ; Jer. 50 : 19 ; Amos 1 : 2). The whole 
ridge is deeply furrowed with rocky ravines 
filled with dense jungle. There are many 
caves in its sides, which at orue time were 
inhabited by swarms of monks. These 
caves are referred to in Amos 9:3. To 
them Elijah and Elisha often resorted (1 
Kings 18 : 19, 42 ; 2 Kings 2 : 25). On its 
north-west summit there is an ancient 
establishment of Carmelite monks. Vine- 
yards have recently been planted on the 
mount by the German colonists of Haifa. 
The modern Arabic name of the mount is 
Kurmul, but more commonly Jehel Mar 
Ely as — i.e., Moimt St. Elias, from the Con- 
vent of Elias. 

(2. ) A town in the hill country of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 55), the residence of Nabal (1 
Sam. 25 : 2, 5, 7, 40), and the native place 
of Abigail, who became David's wife (1 Sam. 
27 : 3). Here king Uzziah had his vine- 
yards (2 Chr. 26:10). The ruins of this 
town still remain under the name of Kur- 
mul, about 10 miles south-south-east of 
Hebron, close to those of Maon. 

Csir'vcii—vine-dresscr. (1. ) The last named 
of the four sons of Reuben (Gen. 46 : 9). 

(2.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 4:2). 
He is elsewhere (2 : 18) called Caleb [q.v.). 

(3. ) The son of Zimri, and the father of 
Achan (Josh. 7 : 1), "the troubler of Israel. " 

Car''nal. Unconverted men are so called 
(1 Cor. 3 : 3). They are represented as of 
a "carnal mind, which is enmity against 
God" (Rom. 8:6, 7). Enjoyments that 
minister to the wants and desires of man's 
animal nature are so called (Rom. 15 : 27 ; 
1 Cor. 9 : 11). The ceremonial of the Mosaic 
law is spoken of as "carnal," because it 
related to things outward, the bodies of 
men and of animals, and the i^urification 
of the flesh (Heb. 7:16; 9:10). The 
weapons of Christian warfare are "not 
carnal " — ^that is, they are not of man's 
device, nor are wielded by human power 
(2 Cor. 10 : 4). 

Car'penter, an artificer in stone, iron, 
and copper, as well as in wood (2 Sam. 
5:11; 1 Chr. 14:1; Mark 6:3). The 
tools used by carpenters are mentioned in 



1 Sam. 13 : 19, 20 ; Judg. 4 : 21 ; Isa. 10 : 
15; 44:13. It was said of our Lord, "Is 

not this the carpenter's son?" (Matt. 13: 
55); also, "Is not this the carpenter?'' 
(Mark 6 : 3). Every Jew, even the rabbis, 
learned some handicraft : Paul was a tent- 
maker. "In the cities the carpenters 
would be Greeks, and skilled workmen ; 
the carpenter of a provincial village could 
only have held a very humble position, and 
secured a very moderate competence. " 

Car^riage. In the Authorized Version 
this word is found as the rendering of many 
different words. In Judg. 18 : 21 it means 
valuables, wealth, or booty. In Isa. 46 : 1 
(R.V., "the things that ye carried about") 
the word means a load for a beast of bur- 
den. In 1 Sam. 17 : 22 and Isa. 10 : 28 it is 
the rendering of a word ("stuff " in 1 Sam. 
10 : 22) meaning implements, equipments, 
baggage. The phrase in Acts 21 : 15, " We 
took up our carriages," means properly, 
"We packed up our baggage," as in the 
Revised Version. 

Cart, a vehicle moving on wheels, and 
usually dravm by oxen (2 Sam. 6 : 3). The 
Hebrew word thus rendered, 'agdldh (1 
Sam. 6:7, 8), is also rendered "waggon" 
(Gen. 45 : 19). It is used also to denote a 
war-chariot (Ps. 46 : 9). Carts were used 
for the removal of the ark and its sacred 
utensils (Num. 7:3, 6). After retaining 
the ark amongst them for seven months, 
the Philistines sent it back to the Israel- 
ites. On this occasion they set it in a 
new cart — probably a riide construction, 
with solid wooden wheels like that still 
used in Western Asia — which was drawn 
by two milch cows, which conveyed it 
straight to Beth-shemesh. 

A "cart rope," for the purpose of fasten- 
ing loads on carts, is used (Isa. 5 : 18) as a 
symbol of the power of sinful pleasures or 
habits over him who indulges them. (See 
CoKD.) In Syria and Palestine wheel- 
carriages for any other purpose than the 
conveyance of agricultural produce are 
almost unknoMTi. 

Carve. The arts of engraving and carv- 
ing were much practised among the Jews. 
They were practised in connection with 
the construction of the tabernacle and the 



CASEMENT 



129 



CATHOLIC 




ORIENTAL OX-CABT. 



temple (Ex. 31:2, 5; 35:33; 1 Kings 6 : 18, 
35 ; Ps. 74 : 6), as well as in the ornamenta- 
tion of the priestly dresses (Ex. 28 : 9-36 ; 
Zech. 3:9; 2 Chr. 2:7, 14). Isaiah (44: 
13-17) gives a minute description of the 
process of carving idols of wood. 

Casc'raent, a barrier of open-work placed 
before windows (Prov. 7 : 6). In Judg. 5 : 
28 the Hebrew word is rendered "lattice," 
in the LXX. "network," an opening 
through which cool air is admitted. 

Casiph^ia — silver — a place between Baby- 
lon and Jerusalem, where Iddo resided 
(Ezra 8 : 17) ; otherwise unknown. 

Cas^luhim —fortified — a people de- 
scended from Mizraim (Gen. 10 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 12). Their original seat was probably 
somewhere in Lower Egypt, along the sea- 
coast to the south border of Palestine. 

Cas^sia. (1.) Hebrew kiddah' — i.e., 
"split." One of the principal spices of 
the holy anointing oil (Ex. 30 : 24), and an 
article of commerce (Ezek. 27 : 19). It is 
the inner bark of a tree resembling the 
cinnamon (q.v.) — the Cinnamomuvi cassia 
of botanists — and was probably imported 
from India. 

(2.) Hebrew pi. ketzi'oth (Ps. 45:8). 
Mentioned in connection with myrrh and 
aloes as being used to scent garments. It 
Avas j)robably prepared from the peeled 
bark, as the Hebrew word suggests, of 
some kind of cinnamon. 

Cast'away— Gr. adokimos—{lCor. 9 :27), 
one regarded as unworthy (R.V., "re- 
jected"); elsewhere rendered "reprobate" 
(2 Tim. 3 : 8, etc. ) ; " rejected " (Heb. 6 : 8, 
etc. ). 



Castle, a military fortress (1 Chr. 11 : 7), 
also probably a kind of tower used by the 
priests for making knowm anything discov- 
ered at a distance (1 Chr. 6 : 54). Castles 
are also mentioned (Gen. 25 : 16) as a kind 
of watch-tower, from which shepherds 
kept watch over their flocks by night. The 
"castle" into which the chief captain com- 
manded Paul to be brought was the quar- 
ters of the Roman soldiers in the fortress 
of Antonia (so called by Herod after his 
patron Mark Antony), which was close to 
the north-west corner of the temple (Acts 
21 : 34), which it commanded. 

Cas^tor and Pol'lux — the ' ' Dioscuri " — 
two heroes of Greek and Roman mythology. 
Their figures were probably painted or 
sculptured on the prow of the ship which 
Luke refers to (Acts 28 : 11). They were 
regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. 
They appeared in the heavens as the con- 
stellation Gemini. 

Cat^erpillar — the consumer. Used in the 
Old Testament (1 Kings 8 : 37 ; 2 Chr. 6 : 28 ; 
Ps. 78 : 46 ; Isa. 33 : 4) as the translation of a 
word {liasil) the root of which means " to de- 
vour" or "consume," and which is used also 
with reference to the locust in Deut. 28 : 38. 
It may have been a species of locust, or the 
name of one of the transformations through 
which the locust passes — locust-grub. 

It is also found (Ps. 105:34 ; Jer. 51 : 14, 
27 ; R. V. , " cankerworm ") as the rendering 
of a different Hebrew word, yelek — a word 
elsewhere rendered "cankerworm" {q.v.) — 
Joel 1:4; 2 : 25. (See Locust. ) 

Ca^tholic epistles, the epistles of James, 
Peter, John, and Jude ; so called because 



CATTLE 



130 



CAVE 



they are addressed to Christians in general, 
and not to any church or person in par- 
ticular. 

Cat'tle abounded in the Holy Land. 
To the rearing and management of them 
the inhabitants chiefly devoted themselves 
(Deut. 8:13; 12:21; 1 Sam. 11:5; 12:3; 
Ps. 144:14; Jer. 3:24). They may be 
classified as — 

(1. ) JSTeat cattle. Many hundreds of these 
were yearly consumed in sacrifices or used 
for food. The finest herds were found in 
Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num. 32 : 4). 
Large herds also pastured on the vdde 
fertile plains of Sharon. They were yoked 
to the plough (1 Kings 19 : 19), and were 
employed for carrying burdens (1 Chr. 12 : 
40). They were driven with a pointed rod 
(Jiidg. 3 : 31) or goad [q.v.). 

According to the Mosaic law, the mouths 
of cattle employed for the threshing-floor 
were not to be muzzled, so as to prevent 
them from eating of the provender over 
which they trampled (Deut. 25 : 4). Who- 
soever stole and sold or slaughtered an ox 
must give five in satisfaction (Ex. 22 : 1) ; 
but if it was found alive in the possession 
of him who stole it, he was required to 
make double restitution only (22 : 4). If 
an ox went astray, whoever found it was 
required to bring it back to its owner (23 : 
4 ; Deut. 22 : 1, 4). An ox and an ass 
could not be yoked together in the plough 
(Deut. 22 : 10). 

(2, ) Small cattle. Next to herds of neat 
cattle, sheep formed the most important 
of the possessions of the inhabitants of 
Palestine (Gen. 12 : 16 ; 13 : 5 ; 26 : 14 ; 21 : 
27; 29:2, 3). They are frequently men- 
tioned among the booty taken in war 
(Num. 31 : 32 ; Josh. 6 r 21 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 32 ; 
15 : 3). There were many who were owners 
of large flocks (1 Sam. 25:2; 2 Sa^. 12:2, 
comp. Job 1 : 3). Kings also had shepherds 
"over their flocks" (1 Chr. 27:31), from 
which they derived a large portion of their 
revenue (2 Sam. 17:29; 1 Chr. 12:40). 
The districts most famous for their flocks 
of sheep were the plain of Sharon (Isa. 65 : 
10), Mount Carmel (Micah 7 : 14), Bashan 
and Gilead (Micah 7 : 14). In patriarchal 
times the flocks of sheep were sometimes 



tended by the daughters of the ovniers. 
Thus Hachel, the daughter of Laban, kept 
her father's sheep (Gen. 29 : 9) ; as also 
Zipporah and her six sisters had charge of 
their father Jethro's flocks (Ex. 2 : 16). 
Sometimes they were kept by hired shep- 
herds (John 10 : 12), and sometimes by the 
sons of the family (1 Sam. 16 : 11 ; 17 : 15). 
The keepers so familiarized their sheep with 
their voices that they knew them, and fol- 
lowed them at their call. Sheep, but more 
especially rams and lambs, were frequently 
offered in sacrifice. The shearing of sheep 
was a great festive occasion (1 Sam. 25 : 4 ; 
2 Sam. 13 : 23). They were folded at night, 
and guarded by their keepers against the 
attacks of the lion (Micah 5:8), the bear 
(1 Sam. 17:34), and the wolf (Matt. 10: 
16; John 10:12). They were liable to 
wander over the wide pastures and go 
astray (Ps. 119:176; Isa. 53:6; Hos. 4: 
16 ; Matt. 18 : 12). 

Goats also formed a part of the pastoral 
wealth of Palestine (Gen. 15:9; 32:14; 
37 : 31). They were used both for sacrifice 
and for food (Deut. 14 : 4), especially the 
young males (Gen. 27 : 9, 14, 17 ; Judg. 6 : 
19; 13:15; 1 Sam. 16:20). Goat's hair 
was used for making tent cloth (Ex. 26 : 7 ; 
36 : 14), and for mattresses and bedding (1 
Sam. 19 : 13, 16). (See Goat. ) 

Caul (Heb. yothe'reth ; i.e., "something 
redundant "), the membrane which covers 
the upper part of the liver (Ex. 29 : 13, 22 ; 
Lev. 3 : 4, 10, 15 ; 4:9; 7:4; marg., "mid- 
riff"). In Hos. 13:8 (Heb. seghor ; i.e., 
"an enclosure") t\ie i^ericardium, or parts 
about the heart, is meant. 

Cauls. In Isa. 3 : 18 this word (Heb. 
shebtstm), in the marg. "networks," denotes 
network caps to contain the hair, worn by 
females. Others explain it as meaning 
"wreaths worn round the forehead, reach- 
ing from one ear to the other." 

Causc'way, a raised way, an ascent by 
steps, or a raised slope between Zion and 
the temple (1 Chr. 26 : 16, 18). In 2 Chr. 9 : 
11 the same word is translated "terrace." 

Cave. There are numerous natviral 
caves among the limestone rocks of Syria, 
many of which have been artificially en- 
larged for various purposes. 



CAVE 



131 



CEDAR 



The first notice of a cave occurs in the 
history of Lot (Gen. 19 : 30). 

The next we read of is the cave of Mach- 
pelah iq.v.), which Abraham purchased 
from the sons of Heth (Gen. 25 : 9, 10). 
It was the burying-place of Sarah and of 
Abraham himself, also of Isaac, Rebekah, 
Leah, and Jacob (Gen. 49 : 31 ; 50 : 13). 

The cave of Makkedah, into which the 
five Amorite kings retired after their de- 
feat by Joshua (10 : 16, 27). 

The cave of Adullam {q.v.), an immense 



natural cavern, where David hid himself 
from Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 1, 2). 

The cave of Engedi {q.v.), now called 
^Ain Jidy — i.e., the "Fountain of the 
Kid" — where David cut off the skirt of 
Saul's robe (24 : 4). Here he also found a 
shelter for himself and his followers to the 
number of 600 (23:29; 24:1). "On all 
sides the country is full of caverns which 
might serve as hirking-places for David 
and his men, as they do for outlaws at the 
present day." 




CEDARS OF LEBANON. 



The cave in which Obadiah hid the pro- 
phets (1 Kings 18 : 4) was probably in the 
north, but it cannot be identified. 

The cave of Elijah (1 Kings 19 : 9), and 
the "cleft" of Moses on Horeb (Ex. 33: 
22), cannot be determined. 

In the time of Gideon the Israelites took 
refuge from the Midianites in dens and 
caves, such as abounded in the mountain 
regions of Manasseh ( Judg. 6 : 2). 

Caves were frequently used as dwelling- 
places (Num. 24 : 21 ; Cant. 2 : 14 ; Jer. 49 : 
16; Obad. 3). "The excavations at Deir 



Dubbin, on the south side of the M'^ady lead- 
ing to Santa Hanneh, are probably the 
dwellings of the Horites, " the ancient in- 
habitants of Idumea Proper. The pits or 
cavities in rocks were also sometimes used 
as prisons (Isa. 24:22; 51:14; Zech. 9:11). 
Those which had niches in their sides were 
occupied as burying-places (Ezek. 32 : 23 ; 
John 11 : 38). 

Ce'dar (Heb. (!rez, Gr. kedros, Lat, 
cedrus), a tree very frequently mentioned 
in Scripture. It was stately (Ezek. 31 : 3- 
5), long-branched (Ps. 80:10; 92:12; Ezek. 



CEDRON 



132 



CENSER 



31 : 6-9), odoriferous (Cant. 4 : 15, 16 ; Hos. 

14 : 6), durable, and therefore much used 
for boards, pillars, and ceilings (1 Kings 

6 : 9, 10 ; 7 : 2 ; Jer. 22 : 14), for masts (Ezek. 
27 : 5), and for carved images (Isa. 44 : 14). 

It grew very abundantly in Palestine, 
and particularly on Lebanon, of which it 
was "the glory" (Isa. 35:2; 60:18). 
Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar trees 
from Lebanon for various purposes con- 
nected with the construction of the temple 
and the king's palace (2 Sam. 5 : 11 ; 7:2, 

7 ; 1 Kings 5 : 6, 8, 10 ; 6 : 9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 
20 ; 7 : 2, 3, 7, 11, 12 ; 9 : 11, etc.). Cedars 
were used also in the building of the second 
temple under Zerubbabel (Ezra 3 : 7). 

Of the ancient cedars of Lebanon there 
remain now only some seven or eight. 
They are not standing together. But be- 
side them there are found between three 
hundred and four hundred of younger 
growth. They stand in an amphitheatre 
fronting the west, about 6,400 feet above- 
the level of the sea. 

The cedar is often figuratively alluded 
to in the sacred Scriptures. " The mighty 
conquerors of olden days, the despots of 
Assyria and the Pharaohs of Egypt, the 
proud and idolatrous monarchs of Jiidah, 
the Hebrew commonwealth itself, the war- 
like Ammonites of patriarchal times, and 
the moral majesty of the Messianic age, 
are all compared to the towering cedar, in 
its royal loftiness and supremacy (Isa. 2 : 
13; Ezek. 17:3, 22, 23; 31:3-9; Amos 
2:9; Zech. 11:1, 2; Job 40:17; Ps. 29: 
5; 80:10; 92:12, etc.)."— Groser's Scrip. 
Nat. Hist. (See Box-teee.) 

Cc'dron — the Uack torrent — the brook 
flowing through the ravine below the 
eastern wall of Jerusalem (John 18 : 1). 
(See KiDRON.) 

Ceil^ing, the covering (1 Kings 7:3, 7) 
of the inside roof and walls of a house with 
planks of wood (2 Chr. 3:5; Jer. 22:14). 
Ceilings were sometimes adorned with 
various ornaments in stucco, gold, silver, 
gems, and ivory. The ceilings of the tem- 
ple and of Solomon's j)alace are described 
1 Kings 6 : 9, 15; 7 : 3; 2 Chr. 3 : 5, 9. 

Cellar, a subterranean vault (1 Chr. 
27 : 28), a storehouse. The word is also 



used to denote the treasury of the temple 
(1 Kings 7 : 51) and of the king (14 : 26). 
The Hebrew word is rendered "garner" 
in Joel 1 : 17, and "armoury " in Jer. 50 : 25. 

Cen''chrea — millet — the eastern harbour 
of Corinth, from which it was distant 
about 9 miles east, and the outlet for its 
trade with the Asiatic shores of the Medi- 
terranean. When Paul returned from his 
second missionary journey to Syria, he 
sailed from this port (Acts 18 : 18). In 
Pom. 16 : 1 he speaks as if there were at 
the time of his writing that epistle an or- 
ganized church there. The western harbour 
of Corinth M^as Lechseum, about a mile and 
a half from the city. It was the channel of 
its trade with Italy and the west. 

Cen'ser, the vessel in which incense was 
presented on "the golden altar" before 
the Lord in the temple (Ex. 30 : 1-9). The 
priest filled the censer with live coal from 
the sacred fire on the altar of burnt-offering, 
and having carried it into the sanctuary, 
there threw upon the burning coals the 
sweet incense (Lev. 16 : 12, 13), which sent 
up a cloud of smoke, filling the apartment 
with fragrance. The censers in daily use 
were of brass (Num. 16 : 39), and were de- 
signated by a different Hebrew name — 
miktereth (2 Chr. 26:19; Ezek. 8:11); 
while those used on the day of Atonement 
were of gold, and were denoted by a word 
{mahtdh) meaning "something to take fire 
with;" LXX. pureion—a, fire-pan. Solo- 
mon prepared for the temple censers of 
pure gold (1 Kings 7:50; 2 Chr. 4:22). 
The angel in the Apocalypse is represented 
with a golden censer (Pev. 8 : 3, 5). Paul 
speaks of the golden censer as belonging 
to the tabernacle (Heb. 9:4). The Greek 
word thumiaterion, here rendered "censer," 
may more appropriately denote, as in the 
margin of Revised Version, "the altar of 
incense." Paul does not here say that the 
thumiaterion was in the holiest, for it was 
in the holy place, but that the holiest had 
it — i.e., that it belonged to the holiest (1 
Kings 6 : 22). It was intimately connected 
with the high priest's service in the holiest. 

The manner in which the censer is to be 
used is described in Num. 4 : 14 ; Lev. 16 : 
12. 



CENSUS 



133 



CHALDEA 



Cen'sus. There are five instances of 
a census of the Jewish peojDle having been 
taken. (1. ) In the fourth month after the 
Exodus, when the people were encamped 
at Sinai. The number of men from twenty 
years old and upward was then 603,550 
(Ex. 38:26). (2.) Another census was 
made just before the entrance into Canaan, 
when the number was found to be 601,730, 
showing thus a small decrease (Num. 26 : 
51). (3.) The next census was in the time 
of David, when the number, exclusive of 
the tribes of Levi and Benjamin, was found 
to be 1,300,000 (2 Sam. 24 : 9 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 5). 
(4.) Solomon made a census of the foreign- 
ers in the land, and found 153,600 able- 
bodied workmen (2 Chr. 2:17, 18). (5.) 
After the return from Exile the whole con- 
gregation of Israel was numbered, and 
found to amount to 42,360 (Ezra 2 : 64). A 
census was made by the Roman govern- 
ment in the time of our Lord (Lvike 2 : 1). 
(See Taxing.) 

Centu'rion, a Roman officer in command 
of a hundred men (Mark 15 : 39, 44, 45). 
Cornelius, the first Gentile convert, was a 
centurion (Acts 10 : 1, 22). Other centu- 
rions are mentioned in Matt. 8:5, 8, 13 ; 
Luke 7: 2, 6; Acts 21:32; 22:25, 26; 23: 
17, 23 ; 24 : 23 ; 27 : 1, 6, 11, 31, 43 ; 28 : 16. 
A centurion watched the crucifixion of our 
Lord (Matt. 27: 54; Luke 23:47), and 
when he saw the Avonders attending it, 
exclaimed, "Truly this man was the Son 
of God." "The centurions mentioned in 
the New Testament are uniformly spoken 
of in terms of praise, Avhether in the Gos- 
pels or in the Acts. It is interesting to 
compare this with the statement of Poly- 
bins (vi. 24), that the centvirions were 
chosen by merit, and so were men remark- 
able not so much for their daring courage 
as for their deliberation, constancy, and 
strength of mind." — Dr. Maclear's N. T. 
Hist. 

Ce''phas, a Syriac surname given by 
Christ to Simon (John 1 : 42), meaning 
"rock." The Greeks translated it by 
Petros, and the Latins by Petrus. 

Cesarea. See C^saeea. 

Chaff, the refuse of winnowed corn. It 
was usually burned (Ps. 83 : 13; Isa. 5 : 24; 



Matt. 3 : 12). This word sometimes, how- 
ever, means dried grass or hay (Isa. 5 : 24 ; 
33 : 11). Chaff is used as a figure of abor- 
tive wickedness (Ps. 1:4; Matt. 3:12). 
False doctrines are also called chaff ( Jer. 23 : 
28), or more correctly rendered "chopped 
straw." The destruction of the wicked, 
and their powerlessness, are likened to the 
carrying away of chaff by the Avind (Isa. 
17:13; Hos. 13:3; Zeph. 2:2). 

Chain. (1.) A part of the insignia of 
office. A chain of gold was placed about 
JoseiDh's neck (Gen. 41 : 42) ; and one was 
promised to Daniel (5 : 7). It is used as a 
symbol of sovereignty (Ezek. 16 : 11). The 
breast-plate of the high-priest w^as fastened 
to the ephod by golden chains (Ex. 39 : 17, 
21). 

(2.) It was used as an ornament (Prov. 
1:9; Cant. 1 : 10). The Midianites adorned 
the necks of their camels with chains 
( Judg. 8 : 21, 26). 

(3.) Chains were also used as fetters 
whereA\-ith prisoners were bound (Judg. 16 : 
21; 2 Sam. 3:34; 2 Kings 25:7; Jer. 39: 
7). Paul was in this manner bound to a 
Roman soldier (Acts 28 : 20 ; Eph. 6 : 20 ; 
2 Tim. 1 : 16). Sometimes, for the sake of 
greater security, the prisoner was attached 
by two chains to two soldiers, as in the 
case of Peter (Acts 12 : 6). 

Chalced'ony. Mentioned only in Rev. 
21 : 19, as one of the precious stones in the 
foundation of the New Jerusalem. The 
name of this stone is derived from Chal- 
cedon, where it is said to have been first 
discovered. In modern mineralogy this is 
the name of an agate-like quartz of a bluish 
colour. Pliny so names the Indian ruby. 
The mineral intended in Revelation is 
probably the Hebrew nophekh, translated 
"emerald " (Ex. 28 : 18 ; 39 : 11 ; Ezek. 27 : 
16; 28:13). It is rendered "anthrax" 
in the LXX., and " carbunculus " in the 
Vulgate. (See Cakbuncle.) 

Chalde^a. The southern portion of 
Babylonia — Lower Mesopotamia — lying 
chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates, 
but commonly used of the whole of the 
Mesopotamian plain. The Hebrew name 
is Kasdim, which is usvially rendered 
"Chaldeans" (Jer. 50:10; 51:24, 35; 



CHALDEA 



134 



CHALDEA 



Ezek. 16 : 29). It has been suggested that 
Kasdim may be derived from the Assyrian 
word kasidi, meaning "conquerors," a 
name applicable to the Semitic conquerors 
of Accad — i. e. , of Northern Babylonia — and 
Shumir or Shinar, the southern half of the 
pre-Semitic Babylonia. The name "Chal- 
deans " is of Greek origin, and is derived 
from Kaldai, the name of a tribe inhabiting 
the shores of the Persian Gulf. Under 
Merodach-baladan, the Kaldai conquered 
Babylonia, and gave their name to the 
country (2 Chr. 36 : 17 ; Dan. 9 : 1). 

The country so named is a vast plain 
formed by the deposits of the Euphrates 
and the Tigris, extending to about 400 



miles along the course of these rivers, and 
about 100 miles in average breadth. "In 
former days the vast plains of Babylon were 
nourished by a complicated system of canals 
and water -courses, which spread over the 
surface of the country like a network. The 
wants of a teeming population were sup- 
plied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than 
that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. 
Like islands rising from a golden sea of 
waving corn stood frequent groves of palm- 
trees and pleasant gardens, affording to 
the idler or traveller their grateful and 
highly- valued shade. Crowds of passengers 
hurried along the dusty roads to and from 
the busy city. The land was rich in corn 




CHALDEAN ACCOUNT OF BABEL. 



and wine. How changed is the aspect of 
that region at the j)resent day ! Long 
lines of mounds, it is true, mark the courses 
of those main arteries which formerly dif- 
fused life and vegetation along their banks, 
but their channels are now bereft of moist- 
ure and choked with drifted sand ; the 
smaller offshoots are wholly effaced. ' A 
drought is upon her waters,' says the pro- 
phet ( Jer. 50 : 38) ; ' and they shall be 
dried up.' All that remains of that an- 
cient civilization, that 'glory of kingdoms,' 
'the praise of the whole earth,' is recog- 
nizable in the numerous mouldering heaps 
of bricks and • rubbish which overspread 
the plain. Instead of the luxuriant fields, 



the groves and gardens, nothing now meets 
the eye but an arid waste ; the dense popu- 
lation of former times is vanished, and no 
man dwells there." — Loftus's Chaldea. 

The first towns mentioned in Scripture — 
Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the 
land of Shinar (Gen. 10 : 10)— are Chaldean 
cities. They were populous and prosperous 
cities, the centres of great activity. Ur 
was one of the principal ports, from which 
ships traded to many distant regions. 
Abraham grew up in the midst of all this 
busy life, surroimded by the idolatry and 
superstition which, through the gradual 
blending of the old Accadian religious 
system Avith that of the Cushite invaders, 



CHALDEE 



135 



CHAMELEON 



had growTi up to a system of great and 
complicated power in the land. About 
this very time (b.c. 2000) Sargon, the 
founder of a new dynasty, effected a great 
religious revolution by perfecting and 
establishing the whole system, which re- 
mained -with little change to the close of 
the kingdom. "Strange to say, some of 
the very hymns which marked the growing 
development of Chaldean idolatry remain 
to our day; hymns which Abraham may 
often have heard rising in measured chant 
and antiphony from priestly choirs at Ur. " 
Amid all this idolatry there still lingered 
indeed traditions of the creation, the fall 
of man, the deluge, the tower of Babel 
and the confusion of tongues, and of the 
Sabbath as " the day of rest for the heart ; " 
but this was uo place for Abraham, who 
remained true to the better faith he had 
brought from his native mountains, and 
God "called" him to leave Ur of the 
Chaldees. (See Babylon ; Abraham.) 

Chal^dee language, employed by the 
sacred writers in certain portions of the 
Old Testament — m.2., Dan. 2:4-7, 28; 
Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Gen. 31:46; 
Jer. 10 : 11. It is the Aramaic dialect, as 
it is sometimes called, as distinguished 
from the Hebrew dialect. It was the lan- 
guage of commerce and of social intercourse 
in Western Asia, and after the Exile grad- 
ually came to be the popular language of 
Palestine. It is called "Syrian" in 2 
Kings 18 : 26. Some isolated words in this 
language are preserved in the New Testa- 
ment (Matt. 5:22; 6: 24; .16: 17; 27:46, 
etc.). 

Chal^dees, or Chalde^ans, the inhabit- 
ants of the country of which Babylon was 
the capital. They were so called till the 
time of the Captivity (2 Kings 25 ; Isa. 13 : 
19 ; 23 : 13), when, particularly in the Book 
of Daniel (5 : 30 ; 9 : 1), the name began to 
be used with special reference to a class of 
learned men ranked w^th the magicians 
and astronomers. These men cultivated 
the ancient Cushite language of the original 
inhabitants of the land, for they had a 
" learning " and a " tongue " (1 : 4) of their 
o^vn. The common language of the coun- 
try, at that time had become assimilated 



to the Semitic dialect, especially through 
the influence of the Assyrians, and was the 
language that was used for all civil pur- 
poses. The Chaldeans were the learned 
class, interesting themselves in science and 
religion, which consisted, like that of the 
ancient Arabians and Syrians, in the wor- 
ship of the heavenly bodies. There are re- 
presentations of this iDriestly class, of magi 
and diviners, on the walls of the Assyrian 
palaces. 

Cham'ber "on the wall," which the 
Shunammite pre^Dared for the prophet Elisha 
(2 Kings 4 : 10), was an upper chamber 
over the porch through the hall toward the 
street. This was the "guest chamber" 
where entertainments were prepared (Mark 
14 : 14). There were also "chambers with- 
in chambers " (1 Kings 22 : 25 ; 2 Kings 9 : 
2), To enter into a chamber is used meta- 
phorically of prayer and communion ^vith 
God (Isa. 26:20). The "chambers of the 
south " (Job 9 : 9) are probably the constel- 
lations of the southern hemisphere. The 
"chambers of imagery" — i.e., chambers 
painted with images — as used by Ezekiel 
(8 : 12), is an expression denoting the vis- 
ion the iDrophet had of the abominations 
practised by the Jews in Jerusalem. 

Cham^bering (Rom. 13 : 13), wantonness, 
impurity. 

Cham'berlain, a confidential servant of 
the king (Gen. 37:36; 39:1). In Rom. 
16:23 mention is made of "Erastus the 
chamberlain." Here the word denotes the 
treasurer of the city, or the qucestor, as 
the Romans styled him. He is almost the 
only convert from the higher ranks of 
whom mention is made (comp. Acts 17 : 
34). Blastus, Herod's "chamberlain" 
(Acts 12 : 20), was his personal attendant 
or valet-de-chamhre. The Hebrew word 
saris, thus translated in Esther 1 : 10, 15 ; 
2 : 3, 14, 21, etc., properly means an eunuch 
(as in the marg.), as it is rendered in Isa. 
39 : 7 ; 56 : 3. 

Chanie''leon, a species of lizard which 
has the faculty of changing the colour of 
its skin. It is ranked among the unclean 
animals in Lev. 11 : 30, where the Hebrew 
word so translated is coali (R.V., "land 
crocodile "). In the same verse the Hebrew 



CHAMOIS 



136 



CHAPTER 



tanshemeth, rendered in Authorized Version 
"mole," is in Revised Version "chame- 
leon, " which is the correct rendering. This 



1 -^s, , >^r~c- 







CHAMELEON. 

animal is very common in Egypt and in 
the Holy Land, especially in the Jordan 
valley. 

Cham^ois — only in Deut. 14:5 (Heb. 
zemer) — an animal of the deer or gazelle 
species. It bears this Hebrew name from 
its leaping or springing. The animal in- 
tended is probably the wild sheep [Ovis 
trcujelephus), which is still found in Sinai 
and in the broken ridges of Stony Arabia. 
The LXX. and Vulgate render the word 
by camelopardus — i.e., the giraffe; but this 
is an animal of Central Africa, and is not 
at all known in Syria. 

Cham^pion (1 Sam. 17 : 4, 23), properly 
"the man between the two," denoting 
the position of Goliath between the two 
camps. Single combats of this kind at 
the head of armies were common in ancient 
times. In ver. 51 this word is the render- 
ing of a different Hebrew word, and pro- 
perly denotes "a mighty man." 

Chance (Luke 10 : 31). "It was not by 
chance that the priest came down by that 
road at that time, but by a specific ar- 
rangement and in exact fulfilment of a 
plan; not the plan of the priest, nor the 
plan of the wounded traveller, but the 
plan of God. By coincidence (Gr. siing- 
Jcuria) the priest came down — that is, by 
the conjunction of two things, in fact, 
which were previously constituted a pair 
in the providence of God. In the result 



they fell together according to the om- 
niscient Designer's plan. This is the true 
theory of the divine government." Com- 
pare the meeting of Philip with the Ethio- 
pian (Acts 8 : 26, 27). There is no "chance" 
in God's empire. "Chance" is only an- 
other word for our want of knowledge as 
to the way in which one event falls in 
with another (1 Sam. 6:9; Eccl. 9 : 11). 

Chan''cellor,one who has judicial author- 
ity — literally, a "lord of judgraent; " a title 
given to the Persian governor of Samaria 
(Ezra 4 : 8, 9, 17). 

Chan^ges of rai^ment were reckoned 
among the treasures of rich men (Gen. 45 : 
22; Judg. 14 : 12, 13; 2 Kings 5 : 22, 23). 

Chan^nel. (1. ) The bed of the sea or of 
a river (Ps. 18:15; Isa. 8:7). 

(2.) The "chanelbone" (Job 31:22 
marg.), properly "tube" or "shaft," an 
old term for the collar-bone. 

Chap''el, a holy place or sanctuary, oc- 
curs only in Amos 7 : 13, where one of the 
idol priests calls Bethel "the king's 
chapel. " 

Chap''iter, the ornamental head or cajji- 
tal of a pillar. Three Hebrew words are 
so rendered. (1. ) Cothereth (1 Kings 7 : 
19 ; 2 Kings 25 : 17 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 12), meaning 
a "diadem" or "crown." (2.) Tzcpheth (2 
Chr. 3 : 15). (3. ) Rosh (Ex. 36 : 38 ; 38 : 17, 
19, 28), properly a "head" or "top." 

Chap'ter. The several books of the Old 
and New Testaments were from an early 
time divided into chapters. The Penta- 
teuch was divided by the ancient Hebrews 
into 54 'parshioth or sections, one of which 
was read in the synagogue every Sabbath 
day (Acts 13 : 15). These sections were 
afterwards divided into 669 sidrim or orders 
of unequal length. The Prophets were 
divided in somewhat the same manner into 
haphtaroth or passages. 

In the early Latin and Greek versions 
of the Bible, similar divisions of the several 
books were made. The New Testament 
books were also divided into portions of 
various lengths under different names, such 
as titles and heads or chapters. 

In modern times this ancient example 
was imitated, and many attempts of the 
kind were made before the existing divi- 



CHARASHIM 



137 



CHARIOT 



sion into chapters was fixed. The Latin 
Bible published by Cardinal Hugo of St. 
Cher in a.d. 1240 is generally regarded as 
the first Bible that was divided into our 
present chapters, although it appears that 
some of the chapters were fixed as early as 
A.D. 1059. This division into chapters came 
gradually to be adopted in the jxiblished 
editions of the Hebrew, %^T.th some few vari- 
ations, and of the Greek Scriptures, and 
hence of other versions. 

Char ''ashim — craftsmen — a valley named 
in 1 Chr. 4 : 14. In Neh. 11 : 35 the He- 
breAv word is rendered "valley of crafts- 
men" (R.V. marg., Gehaharashim). Noth- 
ing is known of it. 

Char^ger, a bowl or deep dish. The 
silver vessels given by the heads of the 
tribes for the services of the tabernacle are 
so named (Num. 7 : 13, etc. ). The "charger " 
in which the Baptist's head was presented 
was a platter or flat wooden trencher 
(Matt. 14:8, 11; Mark 6:25, 28). The 
chargers of gold and silver of Ezra 1 : 9 
were i^robably basins for receiving the 
blood of sacrifices. 

Char^iot, a vehicle generally used for 
warlike purposes. Sometimes, though but 
rarely, it is spoken of as used for peaceful 
purposes. 

The first mention of the chariot is when 
Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was 



^^"^•^Ih,, 




WAR CHARIOTS. 
(From Assyrian Sacljittires.] 



placed in Pharaoh's second state chariot 
(Gen. 41 : 43) ; and the next, when he went 



out in his own chariot to meet his father 
Jacob (46 : 29). Chariots formed part of 
the funeral procession of Jacob (50 : 9). 
When Pharaoh iDursued the Israelites he 
took 600 war-chariots with him (Ex. 14 : 7). 
The Canaanites in the valleys of Palestine 
had chariots of iron (Josh. 17 : 18 ; Judg. 
1 : 19). Jabin, the king of Canaan, had 900 
chariots (Judg. 4:3); and in Saul's time 
the Philistines had 30,000. In his wars 
Avith the king of Zobah and with the 
Syrians, David took many chariots among 
the spoils (2 Sam. 8:4; 10:18). Solomon 
maintained as part of his army 1,400 char- 
iots (1 Kings 10 : 26), which were chiefly 
imported from Egypt (29). From this time 
forward they formed part of the armies 
of Israel (1 Kings 22:34; 2 Kings 9:16, 
21; 13:7, 14; 18:24; 23:30). 

In the New Testament we have only one 
historical reference to the use of chariots, in 
the case of the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8 : 
28, 29, 38). 

This word is sometimes used figuratively 
for hosts (Ps. 68 : 17; 2 Kings 6 : 17). Eli- 
jah, by his prayers and his counsel, was 
' ' the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen 
thereof. " The rapid agency of God in the 
jDhenomena of nature is also spoken of under 
the similitude of a chariot (Ps. 104 : 3 ; 
Isa. 66 : 15 ; Hab. 3 : 8). 

Chariot of the cherubim (1 Chr. 28 : 18), 
the chariot formed by 
the two cherubs on 
the mercy - seat on 
which the Lord rides. 
Chariot cities were 
set apart for storing 
the war - chariots in 
time of peace (2 Chr. 
1 : 14). 

Chariot horses were 
such as were peculi- 
arly fitted for service 
in chariots (2 Kings 
7 : 14). 

Chariots of war are 

described in Ex. 14 : 

7;lSam.l3:5;2Sam. 

8:4; 1 Chr. 18:4; 

Josh. 11 : 4 ; Judg. 4 : 3, 13. They were not 

used by the Israelites till the time of David. 



CHARITY 



138 



CHEESE 



Elijah was translated in a "chariot 
of fire" (2 Kings 2:11). Comp. 2 Kings 
6 : 17. This vision would be to Elisha a 
source of strength and encouragement, for 
now he could say, "They that be with us 
are more than they which be with them." 

Char^ity (1 Cor. 13), the rendering in 
the Authorized Version of the word which 
properly denotes love, and is frequently so 
rendered (always so in the Revised Version). 
It is spoken of as the greatest of the three 
Christian graces (1 Cor. 12 : 31-13 : 13). 

Charin''er, one who practises serpent- 
charming (Ps. 58 : 5 ; Jer. 8 : 17 ; Eccl. 
10 : 11). It was an early and universal 
opinion that the most venomous reptiles 
could be made harmless by certain charms 
or by sweet sounds. It is well known that 
there are jugglers in India and in other 
Eastern lands who practise this art at the 
present day. 

In Isa. 19:3 the word "charmers" is 
the rendering of the Hebrew Httim, mean- 
ing, properly, necromancers (R.V. marg., 
"whisperers "). In Deut. 18 : 11 the word 
" charmer " means a dealer in spells, 
especially one who, by binding certain 
knots, was supposed thereby to bind a 
curse or a blessing on its object. In Isa. 
3 : 3 the words ' ' eloquent orator " should 
be, as in the Revised Version, "skilful 
enchanter. " 

Char'ran, another form (iVcts 7 : 2, 4) of 
Haran {q.v.). 

Che'bar — length — a river in the "land of 
the Chaldeans " (Ezek. 1 : 3), on the banks 
of which were located some of the Jews of 
the Captivity (Ezek. 1:1; 3 : 15, 23 ; 10 : 
15, 20, 22). It has been supposed to be 
identical with the river Habor, the Cha- 
boras, or modern Khabour, which falls 
into the Euphrates at Circesium. To the 
banks of this river some of the Israelites 
were removed by the Assyrians (2 Kings 
17 : 6). An opinion that has much to sup- 
port it is that the " Chebar " was the royal 
canal of Nebuchadnezzar, the JSfahr Mal- 
cha, the greatest in Mesopotamia, which 
connected the Tigris with the Euphrates, 
in the excavation of which the Jewish 
captives were probably employed, 

Chedorla'omer {= Khudur-Lagamar of 



the inscriiDtions), king of Elam. That ambi- 
tious and warlike monarch for some reason 
proclaimed war against the five great cities 
of the Jordan valley, Sodom and four 
others, which were governed by as many 
kings. In this warlike expedition he as- 
sociated with him the kings of Shinar 
(— Shumir or Southern Chaldea), and Lar- 
sam (EUassar), and the "king of nations," 
as in the Authorized Version ; but the 
Hebrew word goim, rendered "nations," 
probably denotes certain nomadic tribes 
who roamed about Chaldea— the " Guti," 
part of whom afterwards became the As- 
syrian nation. With the combined army he 
marched 1,200 miles across the desert, and 
subdued these cities, which he held in 
subjection for twelve years, Abraham 
was probably still in Haran when this 
expedition took place. In the thirteenth 
year they rebelled ; and the next year the 
king fell upon them with his allies, and 
encountered and routed them in the vale 
of Siddim. " Thej'- took all the goods of 
Sodom and Gomorrah, and all their vic- 
tuals, and went their way." 

Lot, the nephew of Abraham, was taken 
captive with his family, and was being 
taken back among the prisoners to Elam, 
when Abraham, summoning his armed 
men together, pursued after the retreating 
army and routed them. Lot and his family 
were rescued ; and Abraham brought back 
the spoil Chedorlaomer had carried away 
(Gen. 14 : 17). We hear no more of this 
king. Probably he perished in the battle, 
(See Abraham.) 

Cheek. Smiting on the cheek was ac- 
counted a grievous injury and insult (Job 
16 : 10 ; Lam. 3 : 30 ; Micah 5 : 1). The ad- 
monition (Luke 6:29), "Unto him that 
smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also 
the other," means simply, "Resist not evil " 
(Matt. 5 : 39 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 19-23). 

Cheese, made of coagulated milk slightly 
pressed in baskets. This word occurs 
three times in the Authorized Version as 
the translation of three different Hebrew 
words : — (1.) 1 Sam. 17:18, "ten cheeses ;" 
i.e., ten sections of curd. (2.) 2 Sam. 17: 
29, "cheese of kine "= perhaps curdled 
milk of kine. The Vulgate version reads 



CHEMARIM 



139 



CHERUB 



"fat calves." (3.) Job 10:10, curdled 
milk is meant by the word. 

Chem^arim — black — (Zeph. 1:4; ren- 
dered " idolatrous priests " in 2 Kings 23 : 
5, and "priests" in Hos. 10:5). Some 
derive this word from the Assyrian kamarH, 
meaning "to throw down," and interpret 
it as describing the idolatrous priests who 
prostrate themselves before the idols. 
Others regard it as meaning "those who 
go about in black," or " ascetics." 

Che'mosh— the destroyer, suhduer, or fish- 
god — the god of the Moabites (Num. 21 : 
29; Jer. 48:7, 13, 46). The worship of 
this god, " the abomination of Moab," was 
introduced at Jerusalem by Solomon (1 
Kings 11 : 7), but was abolished by Josiah 
(2 Kings 23:13). On the "Moabite 
Stone" {q.v.), Mesha (2 Kings 3:5) as- 
cribes his victories over the king of Israel 
to this god — "And Chemosh drove him 
before my sight." 

Chena^anah — merchant. (1.) A Ben- 
jamite (1 Chr. 7:10). (2.) The father of 
Zedekiah (1 Kings 22 : 11, 24). 

Chenani^ah — whom Jehovah hath made — 
"chief of the Levites," probably a Ko- 
hathite (1 Chr. 15 : 22), and therefore not 
the same as mentioned in 26 : 29. 

Chephi'rali — village — one of the four 
cities of the Gibeonitish Hivites with 
whom Joshua made a league (9 : 17). It 
belonged to Benjamin. It has been identi- 
fied with the modern Kefireh, on the west 
confines of Benjamin, about 2 miles west 
of Ajalon and 11 from Jerusalem. 

Cher^ethim (Ezek. 25 : 16), more fre- 
quently Cherethites, the inhabitants of 
Southern Philistia, the Philistines (Zeph. 
2:5). The Cherethites and the Pele- 
thites were David's life-guards (1 Sam. 
30 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 18 ; 20 : 7, 23 ; 23 : 23). 
This name is by some interpreted as mean- 
ing "Cretans," and by others "execu- 
tioners," who were ready to execute the 
king's sentence of death (Gen. 37 : 36, 
marg. ; 1 Kings 2 : 25). 

Cher''ith — a cutting ; separation ; a gorge 
— a torrent - bed or winter - stream, a 
"brook," in whose banks the prophet 
EUjah hid himself during the earlj^ part 
of the three years' drought (1 Kings 17 : 



3, 5). It has by some been identified as 
the Wddy el-Kelt behind Jericho, which is 
formed by the junction of many streams 
flowing from the mountains west of Jericho. 
It is dry in summer. Travellers have de- 
scribed it as one of the wildest ravines 
of this wild region, and peculiarly fitted 
to afford a secure asylum to the persecuted. 
But if the prophet's interview with Ahab 
was in Samaria, and he thence joumej'^ed 
toward the east, it is probable that he 
crossed Jordan and found refuge in some 
of the ravines of Gilead. The "brook" 
is said to have been "before Jordan," 
which probably means that it opened to- 
ward that river, into which it flowed. 
This description would apply to the east 
as well as to the west of Jordan. Thus 
Elijah's hiding-place may have been the 
JermHk, in the territory of the half-tribe 
of Manasseh. 

Cher'ub, plural cherubim, the name of 
certain symbolical figures frequently men- 
tioned in Scripture. They are first men- 
tioned in connection with the expulsion of 
our first parents from Eden (Gen. 3 : 24). 
There is no intimation given of their shape 
or form. They are next mentioned when 
Moses was commanded to provide furni- 
ture for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:17-20; 
26 : 1, 31). God promised to commune 
with Moses " from between the cheru- 
bim " (25 : 22). This expression was after- 
wards used to denote the Divine abode 
and presence (Num. 7 : 89 ; 1 Sam. 4:4; 
Isa. 37:16; Ps. 80:1; 99:1). In Eze- 
kiel's vision (10 : 1-20) they appear as liv- 
ing creatures supporting the throne of 
God. From Ezekiel's description of them 
(1 ; 10 ; 41 : 18, 19), they appear to have been 
compound figures, unlike any real object 
in nature ; artificial images possessing the 
features and properties of several animals. 
Two cherubim were placed on the mercy- 
seat of the ark ; two of colossal size over- 
shadowed it in Solomon's temple. Eze- 
kiel (1 : 4-14) speaks of four ; and this 
number of " living creatures " is mentioned 
in Rev. 4 : 6. Those on the ark are called 
the " cherubim of glory " (Heb. 9 : 5) — i.e., 
of the Shechinah, or cloud of glory — for 
on them the visible glory of God rested. 



CHESALON 



140 



CHIEFS 



They were placed one at each end of the 
mercy-seat, with wings stretched upward, 
and their faces " toward each other and 
toward the mercy - seat." They were 
anointed with holy oil, like the ark itself 
and the other sacred furniture. 

The cherubim were symbolical. They 
were intended to represent spiritual exist- 
ences in immediate contact with Jehovah. 
Some have regarded them as symbolical of 
the chief ruling power by which God 
carries on his operations in providence 
(Ps. 18:10; Deut. 33:26; Ps. 68:4). 
Others interpret them as having reference 
to the redemption of men, and as symbol- 
izing the great rulers or ministers of the 
church. Many other opinions have been 
held regarding them which need not be 
referred to. On the whole, it seems to be 
most satisfactory to regard the interpreta- 
tion of the symbol to be variable, as is 
the symbol itself. 

Their office was — (1) on the expulsion of 
our first parents from Eden, to prevent all 
access to the tree of life ; and (2) to form 
the throne and chariot of Jehovah in his 
manifestation of himself on earth. He 
dwelleth between and sitteth on the cheru- 
bim (1 Sam. 4:4; Ps. 80:1; Ezek. 1: 
26, 28). 

Ches'^alon — strength; confidence — a place 
on the border of Judah, on the side of 
Mount Jearim (Josh. 15 : 10) ; probably 
identified with the modern village of 
Kesla, on the western mountains of Judah. 

Che''sed — gctin — the son of Nahor (Gen. 
22 : 22). 

Che^sil — ungodly — a town in the south 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 30) ; probably the same 
as Bethul (19 : 4) and Bethuel (1 Chr. 4 : 
30) ; now Khelasa. 

Chest (Heb. Yiron, generally rendered 
"ark"), the coffer into which the contri- 
butions for the repair of the temple were 
put (2 Kings 12 : 9, 10 ; 2 Chr. 24 : 8, 10, 
11). In Gen. 50 : 26 it is rendered "coffin. " 
In Ezek. 27 : 24 a different Hebrew word, 
genazim (plur.), is used. It there means 
" treasure-chests." 

Chest^nut tree (Heb. "arman ; i.e., 
"naked"), mentioned in connection with 
Jacob's artifice regarding the cattle (Gen. 



30 : 37). It is one of the trees to which, 
because of its strength and beauty, the 
Assyrian empire is likened (Ezek. 31 : 8 ; 
R.V., "plane trees"). It is probably the 
Oriental plane tree [Platanus orientalis) 




BRANCH OF OBIENTAL PLANE TJREE. 

that is intended. It is a characteristic of 
this tree that it annually sheds its outer 
bark — becomes "naked." The chestnut 
tree proper is not a native of Palestine. 

ChesMVlotli^ertile places ; the loins — a 
town of Issachar, on the slopes of some 
mountain between Jezreel and Shunem 
(Josh. 19 : 18). It has been identified with 
Chisloth-tahor, 2^ miles to the west of 
Mount Tabor, and north of Jezreel ; now 
Iksdl. 

Ghe^zib — deceitful — a town where She- 
lah, the son of Judah, was born (Gen. 38 : 
5). Probably the same as Achzib [q.v.). 

Chi^don — dart — the name of the thresh- 
ing-floor at which the death of Uzzah took 
place (1 Chr. 13 : 9). In the parallel pas- 
sage in Samuel (2 Sam. 6:6) it is called 
"Nachon's threshing-floor." It was a 
place not far north-west from Jerusalem. 

Chiefs of A'sia, " Asiarchs," the title 
given to certain wealthy persons annually 
appointed to preside over the religious 
festivals and games in the various cities 
of proconsular Asia (Acts 19 : 31). Some 
of these officials appear to have been Paul's 
friends. 



CHIEF 



141 



CHITTIM 



Chief of the three, a title given to 
Adino the Eznite, one of David's greatest 
heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 8) ; also called Jasho- 
beam (1 Chr. 11 : 11). 

Chief priest. See Pkiest. 

Child. This word has considerable 
latitude of meaning in Scripture. Thus 
Joseph is called a child at the time when 
he was probably about sixteen years of 
age (Gen. 37 : 3) ; and Benjamin is so 
called when he was above thirty years 
(44 : 20). Solomon called himself a little 
child when he came to the kingdom 
(1 Kings 3 : 7). 

The descendants of a man, however 
remote, are called his children; as, "the 
children of Edom," "the cliildren of 
Moab," "the children of Israel." 

In the earliest times mothers did not 
wean their children till they were from 
thirty months to three years old ; and the 
day on which they were weaned was kept 
as a festival day (Gen. 21 : 8 ; Ex, 2 : 7, 9 ; 
1 Sam. 1 : 22-24 ; Matt. 21 : 16). At the 
age of five, children began to learn the 
arts and duties of life under the care of 
theii' fathers (Deut. 6 : 20-25 ; 11 : 19). 

To have a numerous family was regarded 
as a mark of divine favour (Gen. 11 : 30 ; 
30:1; 1 Sam. 2:5; 2 Sam. 6:23; Ps. 
127:3; 128:3). 

Figuratively the name is used for those 
who are ignorant or narrow - minded 
(Matt. 11:16; Luke 7:32; 1 Cor. 13: 
11). "When I was a child, I spake as a 
child." "Brethren, be not children in 
understanding" (1 Cor. 14:20). "That 
we henceforth be no more children, tossed 
to and fro " (Eph. 4 : 14). 

Children are also spoken of as represent- 
ing simplicity and humility (Matt. 19 : 1^- 
15; Mark 10 : 13-16 ; Liike 18 : 15-17). Be- 
lievers are "children of light" (Luke 16: 
8; 1 Thess. 5:5) and "children of obedi- 
ence " (1 Pet. 1 : 14). 

Chil-'eab — protected hy the father — 
David's second son by Abigail (2 Sam. 
3:3); called also Daniel (1 Chr. 3 : 1). He 
seems to have died when young. 

Chil'ion — the pining one — the younger 
son of Elimelech and Naomi, and hiisband 
of Orpah, Ruth's sister (Ruth 1:2; 4:9). 



Chil''inad, a place or country unkno^^Tl 
which, along with Sheba and Asshur, 
traded with Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 23). 

Chim^ham — pining — probably the 
youngest son of Barzillai the Gileadite 
(2 Sam. 19:37-40). The "habitation of 
Chimham " ( Jer. 41 : 17) was probably an 
inn or khan — which is the proper meaning 
of the Hebrew geruth, rendered "habita- 
tion "—established in later times in his pos- 
session at Bethlehem, which David gave 
to him as a reward for his loyalty in ac- 
companying him to Jerusalem after the 
defeat of Absalom (1 Kings 2 : 7). It has 
been supposed that, considering the sta- 
tionarj^ character of Eastern institutions, 
it was in the stable of this inn or caravan- 
serai that our Saviour was born (Luke 
2:7). 

Chin''nereth — lyre — the singular form 
of the word (Deut. 3:17; Josh. 19: 
35), which is also used in the plural 
form, Chinneroth, the name of a fenced 
city which stood near the shore of the 
lake of Galilee, a little to the south of 
Tiberias. The toA\Ti seems to have given 
its name to a district, as appears from 
1 Kings 15 : 20, where the plural form of 
the word is used. 

The Sea of Chinnereth (Num. 34 : 11 ; 
Josh. 13 : 27), or of Chinneroth (Josh. 12 : 
3), was the "lake of Gennesaret " or 
"sea of Tiberias" (Deut. 3:17; Josh. 
11 : 2). Chinnereth was probably an an- 
cient Canaanitish name adopted by the 
Israelites into their language. 

Chinos — mentioned in Acts 20 : 15 — an 
island in the ^gean Sea, about 5 miles 
distant from the mainland, having a road- 
stead, in the shelter of which Paul and 
his companions anchored for a night when 
on his third missionary return journey. 
It is now called Scio. 

Chis'leu, the name adopted from the 
Babylonians by the Jews after the Cap- 
tivity for the third civil, or ninth ecclesi- 
astical, month (Neh. 1:1; Zech. 7 : 1). It 
corresponds nearly with the moon in No- 
vember. 

CMt'tim or Kittim, a plural form (Gen, 
10 : 4), the name of a branch of the de- 
scendants of Javan, the " son " of Japheth. 



CHIUN 



142 



CHRIST 



Balaam foretold (Num. 24:24) "that 
ships should come from, the coast of Chit- 
tim, and afflict Eber." Daniel prophesied 
(11 : 13) that the ships of Chittim would 
come against the king of the north. It 
probably denotes Cyprus, whose ancient 
capital was called Kition by the Greeks. 

The references elsewhere made to Chit- 
tim (Isa. 23 : 1, 12 ; Jer. 2 : 10 ; Ezek. 27 : 
6) are to be explained on the ground that 
while the name originally designated the 
Phoenicians only, it came latterly to be 
used of all the islands and various settle- 
ments on the sea-coasts which they had 
occupied, and then of the people who suc- 
ceeded them when the Phoenician power 
decayed. Hence it designates generally 
the islands and coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean and the races that inhabit them. 

Chi^un occurs only in Amos 5 : 26 (E,. V. 
marg., "shrine"). The LXX. translated 
the word by Rhephan, which became cor- 
rupted into Remphan, as used by Stephen 
(Acts 7 : 43; but R.V., "Rephan"). Prob- 
ably the planet Saturn is intended by 
the name. Astrologers represented this 
planet as baleful in its influences, and 
hence the Phoenicians offered to it human 
sacrifices, especially children. 

CMo'e — verdure — a female Christian (1 
Cor. 1 : 11), some of whose household had 
informed Paul of the divided state of the 
Corinthian church. Nothing is known 
of her. 

Chor-a''shan — smoking furnace — one of 
the places where " David and his men 
were wont to hunt " (1 Sam. 30 : 30). It 
is probably identical with Asha,n (Josh. 
15 : 42 ; 19 : 7), a Simeonite city in the Negeb 
— i.e., the south — belonging to Judah. The 
word ought, according to another reading, 
to be ^' Bor-ashan." 

Chora''zin, named along with Bethsaida 
and Capernaum as one of the cities in 
which our Lord's " mighty works " were 
done, and which was doomed to woe be- 
cause of signal privileges neglected (Matt. 
11 : 21 ; Luke 10 : 13). It has been identi- 
fied by general consent with the modern 
Kerdzeh, about 2| miles up the W3,dy 
KerS,zeh from Capernaum; i.e.. Tell HUm. 

Chosen, spoken of warriors (Ex. 15 : 4 ; 



Judg. 20 : 16), of the Hebrew nation (Ps. 
105 : 43 ; Deut. 7 : 7), of Jerusalem as the 
seat of the temple (1 Kings 11 : 13), Christ 
is the "chosen" of God (Isa. 42:1); and 
the ajjostles are "chosen" for their work 
(Acts 10 : 41). It is said with regard to 
those who do not profit by their oppor- 
tunities that ' ' many are called, but few 
are chosen" (Matt. 20:16). (See Elec- 
tion. ) 

Choze^ba (1 Chr. 4:22), the same as 
Chezib and Achzib, a place in the low- 
lands of Judah (Gen. 38 : 5 ; Josh. 15 : 44). 

Christ — anointed — the Greek translation 
of the Hebrew word rendered "Messiah" 
{q.v. ), the official title of our Lord, occurring 
five hundred and fourteen times in the 
New Testament. It denotes that he was 
anointed or consecrated to his great re- 
demptive work as Prophet, Priest, and 
King of his people. He is Jesus the 
Christ (Acts 17 : 3 ; 18 : 5 ; Matt. 22 : 42), 
the Anointed One. He is thus spoken 
of by Isaiah (61 : 1), and by Daniel (9 : 24- 
26), who styles him " Messiah the Prince." 

The Messiah is the same person as " the 
seed of the woman" (Gen. 3:15), "the 
seed of Abraham " (Gen. 22 : 18), the 
"Prophet like unto Moses" (Deut. 18 : 15), 
"the priest after the order of Melchize- 
dek" (Ps. 110:4), "the root out of the 
stem of Jesse " (Isa. 11:1, 10), the " Im- 
manuel," the virgin's son (Isa. 7:14), 
" the branch of Jehovah " (Isa. 4 : 2), and 
"the angel of the covenant" (Mai. 3:1). 
This is he "of whom Moses in the law and 
the prophets did write. " The Old Testa- 
ment Scripture is full of prophetic declara- 
tions regarding the Great Deliverer and 
the work he was to accomplish. Jesus the 
Christ is Jesus the Great Deliverer, the 
Anointed One, the Saviour of men. 

This name denotes that Jesus was 
divinely appointed, commissioned, and 
accredited as the Saviour of men (Heb. 
5:4; Isa. 11:2-4; 49:6; John 5:37; 
Acts 2 : 22). 

To believe that "Jesus is the Christ" 
is to believe that he is the Anointed, the 
Messiah of the prophets, the Saviour sent 
of God— that he was, in a word, what he 
claimed to be. This is to believe the 



CHRISTS 



143 



CHRONICLES 



gospel, by the faith of which alone men 
can be brought unto God. That Jesus is 
the Christ is the testimony of God, and 
the faith of this constitutes a Christian 
(1 Cor. 12 : 3 ; 1 John 5 : 1). 

Christs, False. Our Lord warned his 
disciples that they would arise (Matt. 24 : 
24). It is said that no fewer than twenty- 
four persons have at different times ap- 
peared (the last in 1682) pretending to be 
the Messiah of the prophets. 

Christian, the name given by the 
Greeks or Romans, probably in reproach, 
to the followers of Jesus. It was first used 
at Antioch. The names by which the 
disciples were known among themselves 
were "brethren," "the faithful," "elect," 
"saints," "believers." But as distinguish- 
ing them from the multitude without, the 
name "Christian" came into use, and 
was universally accepted. This name oc- 
curs but three times in the New Testa- 
ment (Acts 11 : 26 ; 26 : 28 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 16). 

Chron'icles — the words of the days — 
(1 Kings 14 : 19 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 24), the daily 
or yearly records of the transactions of the 
kingdom ; events recorded in the order of 
time. 

Chron''icles, Books of. The two books 
were originally one. They bore the title 
in the Massoretic Hebrew Dihre hayyamtm 
— i.e., "Acts of the Days. ^ This title was 
rendered by Jerome in his Latin version 
' ' Chronicon, " and hence ' ' Chronicles. " In 
the Septuagint version the book is divided 
into two, and bears the title Paraleipomena 
— i.e., "things omitted," or "supplements " 
— because containing many things omitted 
in the Books of Kings. 

The contents of these books are compre- 
hended under four heads. (1.) The first 
nine chapters of Book I. contain little 
more than a list of genealogies in the line 
of Israel down to the time of David. (2. ) 
The remainder of the first book contains a 
history of the reign of David. (3.) The first 
nine chapters of Book II. contain the his- 
tory of the reign of Solomon. (4. ) The re- 
maining chapters of the second book con- 
tain the history of the separate kingdom 
of Judah to the time of the return from 
Babylonian Exile. 



The time of the composition of the Chron- 
icles was, there is every ground to con- 
clude, subsequent to the Babylonian Exile, 
probably between 450 and 435 B.C. The 
contents of this twofold book, both as to 
matter and form, correspond closely with 
this idea. The close of the book records the 
proclamation of Cyrus permitting the Jews 
to return to their own land, and this forms 
the opening passage of the Book of Ezra, 
which must be viewed as a continuation of 
the Chronicles. The peculiar form of the 
language — being Aramaean in its general 
character — harmonizes also with that of 
the books which were written after the 
Exile. The author was certainly contem- 
porary with Zerubbabel, details of whose 
family history are given (1 Chr. 3 : 19). 

The time of the comiaosition being deter- 
mined, the question of the authorship may 
be more easily decided. According to 
Jewish tradition, which was universally 
received down to the middle of the seven- 
teenth century, Ezra was regarded as the 
author of the Chronicles. There are many 
points of resemblance and of contact be- 
tween the Chronicles and the Book of Ezra 
which seem to confirm this opinion. The 
conclusion of the one and the beginning of 
the other are almost identical in expression. 
In their spirit and characteristics they are 
the same, showing thus also an identity of 
authorship. 

In their general scope and design these 
books are not so much historical as didactic. 
The principal aim of the writer appears to 
be to present moral and religious truth. He 
does not give prominence to political occur- 
rences, as is done in Samuel and Kings, but 
to ecclesiastical institutions. "The gene- 
alogies, so uninteresting to most modern 
readers, were really an important part of 
the public records of the Hebrew state. 
They were the basis on which not only the 
land was distributed and held, but the 
public services of the temple were arranged 
and conducted, the Levites and their de- 
scendants alone, as is well known, being 
entitled to the necessary allowances of 
tithes and first fruits set apart for that pur- 
pose." The " Chronicles " are an epitome 
of the sacred history from the days of 

10 



CHEONICLES 



144 



CHRONOLOGY 



Adam down to the return from Babylonian 
Exile^a ijeriod of about 3,500 years. The 
writer gathers up "the threads of the old 
national life broken by the Captivity." 

The sources whence the chronicler com- 
piled his work were public records, regis- 
ters, and genealogical tables belonging to 
the Jews. These are referred to in the 
course of the book (1 Chr. 27 : 24 ; 29 : 29 
2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 20:34 
24 : 27 ; 26 : 22 ; 32 : 32 ; 33 : 18, 19 ; 27 : 7 
35 : 25). There are in Chronicles, and the 
books of Samuel and Kings, forty parallels, 
often verbal, proving that the writer both 
knew and used these records (1 Chr. 17 : 18 ; 
comp. 2 Sam. 7 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 19 ; comp. 2 
Sam. 10, etc.). 

As compared with Samuel and Kings, 
the Book of Chronicles omits many par- 
ticulars there recorded (2 Sam. 6 : 20-23 ; 
9 ; 11 ; 14-19, etc. ), and includes many 
things peculiar to itseK (1 Chr. 12; 22; 
23-26; 27; 28; 29, etc.). Twenty whole 
chapters, and twenty-four parts of chapters, 
are occupied with matter not found else- 
where. It also records many things in 
fuller detail, as {e.g.) the list of David's 
heroes (1 Chr. 12 : 1-37), the removal of 
the ark froin Kirjath-jearim to Mount Zion 
(1 Chr. 13 ; 15 : 2-24 ; 16 : 4-43 ; comp. 2 
Sam. 6), Uzziah's leprosy and its cause (2 
Chr. 26 : 16-21 ; comp. 2 Kings 15 : 5), etc. 

It has also been observed that another 
peculiarity of the book is that it substitutes 
modern and more common expressions for 
those that had then become unusual or 
obsolete. This is seen particularly in the 
substitution of modern names of places, 
such as were in use in the writer's day, for 
the old names ; thus Gezer (1 Chr. 20 : 4) is 
used instead of Gob (2 Sam. 21 : 18), etc. 

The Books of Chronicles are ranked 
among the Tchethubini or hagiographa. 
They are alluded to, though not directly 
quoted, in the New Testament (Heb. 5:4; 
Matt. 12 : 42 ; 23 : 35 ; Luke 1:5; 11 : 31, 
51). 

Chron^icles of king David (1 Chr. 
27 : 24) were statistical state records ; one 
of the public sources from which the com- 
piler of the Books of Chronicles derived in- 
formation on various public matters. 



Chronol^ogy is the arrangement of facts 
and events in the order of time. The 
writers of the Bible themselves do not 
adopt any standard era according to which 
they date events. Sometimes the years 
are reckoned, e.g., from the time of the 
Exodus (Num. 1:1; 33 : 38 ; 1 Kings 6 : 1), 
and sometimes from the accession of kings 
(1 Kings 15 : 1, 9, 25, 33, etc. ), and some- 
times again from the return from Exile 
(Ezra 3 : 8). 

Hence in constructing a system of Bibli- 
cal chronology, the plan has been adopted 
of reckoning the years from the ages of the 
patriarchs before the birth of their first- 
born sons for the period from the Creation 
to Abraham. After this period other data 
are to be taken into account in determin- 
ing the relative sequence of events. 

As to the patriarchal period, there are 
three principal systems of chronology : (1) 
that of the Hebrew text, (2) that of the 
Septuagint version, and (3) that of the 
Samaritan Pentateuch, as seen in the 
scheme on the opposite page. 

The Samaritan and the Septuagint have 
considerably modified the Hebrew chron- 
ology. This modification is regarded 
as having been vdKuUy made, and is to 
be rejected. The same system of varia- 
tions is observed in the chronology of the 
period between the Flood and Abraham. 
Thus :— 





He- 


Septu- 


Sama- 




brew. 


agint. 


ritan. 


From the birth of 








Arphaxad, 2 years 








after the Flood, to 








the birth of Terah. 


220 


1000 


870 


From the birth of 








Terah to the birth 








of Abraham 


130 


70 


72 



The Septuagint fixes on seventy years 
as the age of Terah at the birth of Abra- 
ham, from Gen. 11 : 26 ; but a comparison 
of Gen. 11:32 and Acts 7:4 with Gen. 
12 : 4 shows that when Terah died, at the 
age of two hundred and five years, Abra- 
ham was seventy - five years, and hence 
Terah must have been one hundred and 
thirty years when Abraham was born. 



CHRONOLOGY 



145 



CHUB 



Thus, including the two years from the 
Flood to the birth of Arphaxad, the period 
from the Flood to the birth of Abraham 
was three hundred and fiftj^-two years. 

The next period is from the birth of 
Abraham to the Exodus. This, according 
to the Hebrew, extends to five hundred 



and five j^'ears. The difficulty here is as to 
the four hundred and thirty years men- 
tioned Ex. 12 : 40, 41 ; Gal. 3 : 17. These 
years are regarded by some as dating from 
the covenant mth Abraham (Gen. 15), 
which was entered into soon after his so- 
journ in Egyjjt ; others, mth more proba- 





Hebrew Text. 


Septuagixt Version. 


Samaritan Pentateuch 


03 


^ 




s^ 


^ 




2^ 


J3 


, 












































^« 


t° 


s> 


^^ 


^ C 


.fl^ 


-Q-tf. 


•^g 


,® 






it 




l« 


J- 


•i-H 




£ 90 


!i 




>>o 


^<c 


o 


>.o 


^•-c 


o 


>,o 


^q=; 


o 




•si 


|o 


H 




go 


H 


S'S 


g® 


&H 
























3-^ 


^^ 




3-^ 


1^ 




p- 


i-^ 




Adam 


130 


800 


930 


230 


700 


930 


130 


800 


930 


Seth 


105 


807 


912 


205 


707 


912 


105 


807 


912 


Enos 


90 


815 


905 


190 


715 


905 


90 


815 


905 


Cainan 


70 


840 


910 


170 


740 


910 


70 


840 


910 


Mahalaleel 


65 


830 


895 


165 


730 


895 


65 


830 


895 


Jared 


162 


800 


962 


162 


800 


962 


62 


785 


947 


Enoch 


65 


300 


365 


165 


200 


365 


65 


300 


365 


Methuselah 


187 


782 


969 


187 


782 


969 


67 


653 


720 


Lamech 


182 


595 


777 


188 


565 


753 


53 


600 


653 


Thus from Adam to the ) 




















birth of Noah j 


1056 






1662 






707 






From birth of Noah to ) 




















the Flood j 


600 






600 






600 






From Adam to the Flood. . 


1656 






2262 






1307 







bility, reckon these years from Jacob's go- 
ing dowTi into Egypt. (See Exodus. ) 

In modem times the systems of Biblical 
chronology that have been adopted are 
chiefly those of Ussher and Hales, The 
former follows the Hebrew, and the lat- 
ter the Septuagint mainly. Archbishop 
Ussher 's (died 1656) system is called the 
short chronology. It is that given on the 
margin of the Authorized Version. 

Ussher. Hales. 

B.C. B.C. 

Creation 4004 5411 

Flood 2.348 3155 

Abram leaves Haran . . 1921 2078 

Exodus 1491 1648 

Foundation of the ) 

Temple of Solomon f 
Destruction of the 

Temple 

(For Chronological Tables see Appendix.) 



1012. 



588. 



.1027 



586 



Chrys'olite — golden stone — the stone 
which garnished the seventh foundation 
of the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20). This 
was the name given by the ancients to all 
gems of a yellow or golden colour. It is 
probably the yellow "topaz " in Ezek. 28 : 
13 A.V. marg., instead of "beryl " of the 
text. 

Chrysop'rasus — golden leek — a precious 
stone of the colour of leek's juice, a green- 
ish-golden colour. It formed the tenth 
stone in the foundation of the New Jeru- 
salem (Rev. 21 : 20). It is supposed to be 
identical with, the stone now so called, 
which is a variety of agate or uncrystal- 
lized quartz. 

Chul), the name of a people in alliance 
with Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzar. 
The word is found only in Ezek. 30:5, 



CHUN 



146 



CHUPvCH 



They were probably a people of Northern 
Africa, or of the lands near Egypt in the 
south. 

Chun, one of the cities of Hadarezer, 
king of Syria. David j)rocured brass {i.e., 
bronze or copper) from it for the temple 
(1 Chr. 18 : 8). It is called Berothai in 2 
Sam. 8:8; probably the same as Berothah 
in Ezek. 47 : 16. 

Church. Derived probably from the 
Greek kuriakon {i.e., "the Lord's house"), 
which was used by ancient authors for the 
place of worship. 

In the New Testament it is the transla- 
tion of the Greek word ecdesia, which is 
synonymous vidth the Hebrew kdhcd of the 
Old Testament, both words meaning simply 
an assembly, the character of which can 
only be known from the connection in 
which the word is found. There is no 
clear instance of its being used for a place 
of meeting or of worship, although in post- 
apostolic times it early received this mean- 
ing. Nor is this word ever used to denote 
the inhabitants of a country united in the 
same profession, as when we say the 
"Church of England," the "Church of 
Scotland," etc. 

We find the word ecdesia used in the fol- 
lowing senses in the New Testament : — 
(1.) It is translated "assembly" in the 
ordinary classical sense (Acts 19:32, 39, 41). 

(2.) It denotes the whole body of the 
redeemed — all those whom the Father has 
given to Christ — the invisible catholic 
church (Eph. 5 : 23, 25, 27, 30 ; Heb. 12 : 
23). 

(3. ) A few Christians associated together 
in observing the ordinances of the gospel 
are an ecdesia (Rom. 16 : 5 ; Col. 4 : 15). 

(4.) All the Christians in a particular 
city, whether they assembled together in 
one place or in several places for religious 
worship, were an ecdesia. Thus all the dis- 
ciples in Antioch, forming several congre- 
gations, were one church (Acts 13 : 1) ; so 
also we read of the "church of God at 
Corinth" (1 Cor. 1:2), "the church at 
Jerusalem" (Acts 8:1), "the church of 
Ephesus " (Rev. 2 : 1), etc. 

(5. ) The whole body of professing Chris- 
tians throughout the world (1 Cor. 15 : 9 ; 



Gal. 1 : 13 ; Matt. 16 : 18) are the church of 
Christ. 

The church visible ' ' consists of all 
those throughout the world that profess 
the true religion, together vvdth their chil- 
dren." It is called "visible" because its 
members are known and its assemblies are 
public. Here there is a mixture of "wheat 
and chaff," of saints and sinners. "God 
has commanded his people to organize 
themselves into distinct visible ecclesiasti- 
cal communities, with constitutions, laws, 
and officers, badges, ordinances, and disci- 
pline, for the great purpose of giving visi- 
bility to his kingdom, of making known 
the gospel of that kingdom, and of gather- 
ing in all its elect subjects. Each one of 
these distinct organized communities which 
is faithful to the great King is an integral 
part of the visible church, and all together 
constitute the catholic or universal visible 
church." A credible profession of the true 
religion constitutes a person a member of 
this church. This is "the kingdom of 
heaven," whose character and progress are 
set forth in the iDarables recorded in Matt. 13. 

The children of all who thus profess the 
true religion are members of the visible 
church along with their i^arents. Children 
are included in every covenant God ever 
made with man. They go along with their 
parents (Gen. 9 : 9-17 ; 12 : 1-3 ; 17 : 7 ; Ex. 
20 : 5 ; Deut. 29 : 10-13). Peter, on the day 
of Pentecost, at the beginning of the New 
Testament dispensation, announces the 
same great principle. "The promise [just 
as to Abraham and his seed the promises 
were made] is unto you, and to your chil- 
dren" (Acts 2:38, 39). The children of 
believing parents are "holy" — i.e.. are 
"saints" — a title which designates the 
members of the Christian church (1 Cor. 
7:14). (See Baptism.) 

The church invisible "consists of the 
whole number of the elect that have been, 
are, or shall be gathered into one under 
Christ, the head thereof. " This is a pure 
society, the church in which Christ dwells. 
It is the body of Christ. It is called "in- 
visible " because the greater part of those 
who constitute it are already in heaven or 
are yet unborn, and also because its mem- 



CHURL 



147 



CINNAMON 



bers still on earth cannot certainly be dis- 
tinguished by us. The qualifications of 
membership in it are internal and are 
hidden. It is unseen except by Him who 
"searches the heart." "The Lord know- 
eth them that are his " (2 Tim. 2 : 19). No 
human eye can accurately draw the line 
which separates this church from the world. 

The church to which the attributes, 
prerogatives, and promises appertaining to 
Christ's kingdom belong, is not a visible 
organized conmiunity, but a spiritual body 
consisting of all true believers — i.e., the 
church invisible. Viewed thus, the pro- 
perties of the church are : — 

(1.) Its unity. God has ever had only 
one church on earth. We sometimes speak 
of the Old Testament church and of the 
New Testament church, but they are one 
and the same. The Old Testament church 
was not to be changed but enlarged (Isa. 49 : 
13-23 ; 60 : 1-14). When the Jews are at 
length restored, they do not enter a new 
church, but are grafted again into "their 
own olive tree " (Rom. 11 : 18-24 ; comp. 
Eph. 2:11-22). The church is the same 
under both dispensations — having the same 
foundation, the same conditions of member- 
ship ; the sacraments in both symbolize and 
seal the same grace. The apostles did not 
set up a new organization. Under their 
ministry disciples were "added" to the 
" church " already existing (Acts 2 : 47). 

(2.) Its universality. It is the "catholic" 
church ; not confined to any i^articular coun- 
try or outward organization, but compre- 
hending all believers throughout the whole 
world. 

(3.) Its perpetuity. It will continue 
through aU ages to the end of the world. 
It can never be destroyed. It is an "ever- 
lasting kingdom." 

Churl, in Isa. 32 : 5, means a deceiver. 
In 1 Sam. 25 : 3, the word churlish denotes 
a man that is coarse and ill-natured, or, as 
the word literally means, "hard." The 
same Greek word as used by the LXX. 
here is found in Matt. 25 : 24, and there is 
rendered "hard." 

Chu^shan-rishatha'^iin — Cush of double 
wickedness, or governor of two presiden- 
cies — the king of Mesopotamia who op- 



pressed Israel in the generation immedi- 
ately following Joshua ( Judg. 3 : 8). After 
eight years the yoke of his oppression was 
broken by Othniel, Caleb's nephew (3 : 10). 
Rawlinson {Ancient Mon.) has conjectured 
that this king is identical with the Asshur- 
ris-ilim of the Assyrian inscriptions. This 
conjecture, however, has not been estab- 
lished. (SeeCusHAN.) 

Chu'^za — a seer — the steward of Herod 
Antipas, whose wife, Joanna, was one of 
those women who accompanied our Lord 
in his journeyings (Luke 8 : 3). She was 
probably also one of the women who came 
early to his sepulchre (24 : 10). 

Cili'cia, a maritime province in the 
south-east of Asia Minor. Tarsus, the 
birth-place of Paul, was one of its chief 
towns, and the seat of a celebrated school 
of philosophy. Its luxurious climate at- 
tracted to it many Greek residents after 
its incorporation with the Macedonian em- 
pire. It was formed into a Rom.an pro- 
vince, B.C. 67. The Jews of Cilicia had a 
synagogue at Jerusalem (Acts 6 : 9). Paul 
visited it soon after his conversion (Gal. 1 : 
21 ; Acts 9 : 30), and again, on his second mis- 
sionary journey (15:41), "he went through 
Syria and Cilicia, confirming the churches. " 
It was famous for its goat's-hair cloth, 
called cilicium. Paul learned in his youth 
the trade of making tents of this cloth. 

Cin^namon — Heb. kinamon, the Cinna- 
momum zeylanicum of botanists — a tree of 




CINNAMOX, 



the Laurel familj', which grows only in 
India on the Malabar coast, in Cevlon, and 



OINNERETH 



148 



CIRCUMCISION 



China. There is no trace of it in Egypt, 
and it was unknown in Syria, The inner 
rind when dried and rolled into cylinders 
forms the cinnamon of commerce. The 
fruit and coarser pieces of bark when 
boiled yield a fragrant oil. It was one of 
the principal ingredients in the holy anoint- 
ing oil (Ex. 30 : 23). It is mentioned else- 
where only in Prov. 7 : 17 ; Cant. 4 : 14 ; Rev. 
18 : 13. The mention of it indicates a very 
early and extensive commerce carried on 
between Palestine and the East. 

Cin^nereth — a harp — one of the "fenced 
cities " of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 35 ; comxD, 
Deut. 3 : 17). It also denotes, apparently, 
a district which may have taken its name 
from the adjacent city or lake of Gennes- 
aret, anciently called "the sea of Chin- 
nereth" {q.v.), and was probably that en- 
closed district north of Tiberias afterwards 
called "the plain of Gennesaret." Called 
Chinneroth (R.V., Chinnereth) Josh. 11 : 2. 
The phrase "all Cinneroth, with all the 
land of Naphtah " in 1 Kings 15 : 20 is 
parallel to "the store cities of Naphtali" in 
2 Chr. 16 : 4. 

Cir'^cuit, the apparent diurnal revolution 
of the sun round the earth (Ps. 19 : 6), and 
the changes of the wind (Eccl. 1 : 6). In Job 
22:14, "in the circuit of heaven" (R.V. 
marg., "on the vault of heaven") means 
the "arch of heaven," which seems to be 
bent over our heads. 

Circumcis'ion — cutting around. The 
Jews received this rite from Jehovah 
through Abraham. It was established as 
a national ordinance. Males only were 
subjected to it, and it was to be performed 
on the eighth day after the child's birth 
(Gen. 17 : 10, 11). In compliance with the 
divine command, Abraham, though ninety- 
nine years of age, was circumcised on the 
same day with Ishmael, who was thirteen 
years old (17 : 24-27). Slaves, whether home- 
born or purchased, were circumcised (17: 
12, 13) ; and all foreigners must have their 
males circumcised before they could en- 
joy the privileges of Jewish citizenship 
(Ex. 12 : 48). During the journey through 
the wilderness, the practice of circumcision 
fell into disuse, but was resumed by the 
command of Joshua before they entered 



the Promised Land (Josh. 5 : 2-9). It was 
observed always afterwards among the 
tribes of Israel, although it is not expresslj' 
mentioned from the time of the settlement 
in Canaan till the time of Christ, about 
1,450 years. The Jews prided themselves 
in the possession of this covenant distinc- 
tion (Judg. 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sam. 14:6; 
17 : 26 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 20 ; Ezek. 31 : 18). 

As a rite of the church it ceased when 
the New Testament times began (Gal. 
6:15; Col. 3:11). Some Jewish Chris- 
tians sought to impose it, however, on the 
Gentile converts ; but this the apostles 
resolutely resisted (Acts 15 : 1 ; Gal. 6 : 12). 
Our Lord was circumcised, for it "became 
him to fulfil all righteousness," as of the 
seed of Abraham, according to the flesh ; 
and Paul "took and circumcised" Timothy 
(Acts 16 : 3), to avoid giving offence to the 
Jews. It would render Timothy's labours 
more acceptable to the Jews. But Paul 
would by no means consent to the demand 
that Titus shoiild be circumcised (Gal. 
2:3-5). The great point for which he con- 
tended was the free admission of uncir- 
cumcised Gentiles into the church. He 
contended successfully in behalf of Titus, 
even in Jerusalem. 

In the Old Testament a spiritual idea 
is attached to circumcision. It was the 
symbol of purity (Isa. 52 : 1). We read 
of uncircumcised lips (Ex. 6 : 12, 30), ears 
(Jer. 6:10), hearts (Lev. 26:41). The 
fruit of a tree that is unclean is spoken of 
as uncircumcised (Lev. 19 : 23). 

It was a sign and seal of the covenant of 
grace as well as of the national covenant 
between God and the Hebrews. (1.) It 
sealed the promises made to Abraham, 
which related to the commonwealth of 
Israel — national promises. (2. ) But 
the promises made to Abraham included 
the promise of redemption (Gal. 3 : 14), a 
promise which has come upon us. The 
covenant with Abraham was a dispensa- 
tion or a specific form of the covenant of 
grace, and circumcision was a sign and seal 
of that covenant. It had a spiritual mean- 
ing. It signified purification of the heart, 
inward circumcision effected by the Spirit 
(Deut. 10:16; 30:6; Ezek. 44:7; Acts 



CISTERN 



149 



CITY 



7:51; Rom. 2:28; Col. 2:11). Circum- 
cision as a symbol shadowing forth sancti- 
fication by the Holy Spirit has now given 
way to the symbol of baptism {g.v.). But 
the truth embodied in both ordinances is 
ever the same — the removal of sin — the 
sanctifying effects of grace in the heart. 

Under the Je"\vish dispensation, church 
and state were identical. No one could be 
a member of the one without also being a 
member of the other. Circumcision was 
a sign and seal of membershij) in both. 
Every circumcised person bore thereby evi- 
dence that he was one of the chosen people, 
a member of the church of God as it then 
existed, and consequently also a member 
of the Jewish commonwealth. 

Cis'tern, the rendering of a Hebrew 
word bor, which means a receptacle for 
water conveyed to it; distinguished from 
beer, which denotes a place where water 
rises on the spot ( Jer. 2 : 13 ; Prov. 5 : 15 ; 
Isa. 36 : 16) — a fountain. Cisterns are fre- 
quently mentioned in Scripture. The 
scarcity of springs in Palestine made it 
necessary to collect rain-water in reservoirs 
and cisterns (Num. 21 : 22). (See Well.) 

Empty cisterns were sometimes used as 
prisons (Jer. 38 : 6 ; Lam. 3 : 53 ; Ps. 40 : 2 ; 
69:15). The "pit" into which Joseph Avas 
cast (Gen. 37 : 24) was a beer or dry well. 
There are numerous remains of ancient cis- 
terns in all parts of Palestine. 

Citizenship, the rights and privileges 
of a citizen in distinction from a foreigner 
(Luke 15 : 15 ; 19 : 14 ; Acts 21 : 39). Under 
the Mosaic law non-Israelites, with the 
exception of the Moabites and the Am- 
monites and others mentioned in Deut. 
23 : 1-3, were admitted to the general privi- 
leges of citizenship among the Jews (Ex. 
12 : 19 ; Lev. 24 : 22 ; Num. 15 : 15 ; 35 : 15 ; 
Deut. 10 : 18 ; 14 : 29 ; 16 : 10, 14). 

The right of citizenship under the Roman 
government was granted by the emperor to 
individuals, and sometimes to provinces, as 
a favour or as a recompense for services 
rendered to the state, or for a sum of 
money (Acts 22:28). This "freedom" 
secured privileges equal to those enjoyed 
by natives of Rome. Among the most 
notable of these was the provision that a 



man could not be bound or imprisoned 
without a formal trial (Acts 22:25, 26), 
or scourged (16:37). All Roman citizens 
had the right of appeal to Caesar (25 : 11). 

City. The earliest mention of city-build- 
ing is that of Enoch, which was built by 
Cain (Gen. 4 : 17). After the confusion of 
tongues, the descendants of Nimrod founded 
several cities (10 : 10-12). Next, we have 
a record of the cities of the Canaanites — 
Sidon, Gaza, Sodom, etc. (10 : 12, 19 ; 11 : 
3, 9 ; 36:31-39). The earliest description of 
a city is that of Sodom (19 : 1-22). Damas- 
cus is said to be the oldest existing city 
in the world. Before the time of Abra- 
ham there were cities in Egypt (Num. 
13 : 22). The Israelites in Egypt were em- 
ployed in building the " treasure cities" of 
Pithom and Raamses (Ex. 1 : 11) ; but it 
does not seem that they had any cities of 
their own in Goshen (Gen. 46 : 34 ; 47 : 
1-11). In the kingdom of Og in Bashan 
there were sixty "great cities with walls," 
and twenty-three cities in Gilead partly 
rebuilt by the tribes on the east of Jordan 
(Num. 21 : 21, 32, 33, 35 ; 32 : 1-3, 34-42 ; 
Deut. 3 : 4, 5, 14 ; 1 Kings 4 : 13). On the 
west of Jordan were thirty -one "royal 
cities" (Josh. 12), besides many others 
sj)oken of in the history of Israel. 

A fenced city was a city surrounded by 
fortifications and high walls, with watch- 
towers upon them (2 Chr. 11 : 11 ; Deut. 
3 : 5). There was also within the city gen- 
erally a tower to which the citizens might 
flee when danger threatened them (Judg. 
9 : 46-52). 

A city with suburbs was a city sur- 
rounded with open pasture-grounds, such 
as the forty-eight cities which were given 
to the Levites (Num. 35 : 2-7). 

There were six cities of refuge, three on 
each side of Jordan — namely, Kadesh, 
Shechem, Hebron, on the west of Jordan ; 
and on the east, Bezer, Ramoth-gilead, 
and Golan. The cities on each side of the 
river were nearly opposite each other. The 
regiilations concerning these cities are given 
in Nimi. 35 : 9-34; Deut. 19 : 1-13; Ex. 21: 
12-14. 

When David rediiced the fortress of the 
Jebusites which stood on Mount Zion, he 



CLAUDA 



150 



CLEMENT 



built on the site of it a palace and a city, 
which he called by his own name (1 Chr. 
11:5), the city of David. Bethlehem is 
also so called as being David's native town 
(Luke 2 : 11). 

Jerusalem is called the Holy City — the 
holiness of the temple being regarded as 
extending in some measure over the whole 
city (Neh. 11 : 1). 

Pithom and Raamses, built by the Israel- 
ites as "treasure cities," were not places 
where royal treasures were kept, but were 
fortified towns where merchants might 
store their goods and transact their busi- 
ness in safety, or cities in which munitions 
of war were stored. (See Pithom. ) 

Clau'^da, a small island off the south- 
west coast of Crete, passed by Paul on his 
voyage to Rome (Acts 27 : 16). It is about 
7 miles long and 3 broad. It is now called 
Gozzo. 

Clau^dia, a female Christian mentioned 
in 2 Tim. 4 : 21. It is a conjecture having 
some probability that she was a British 
maiden, the daughter of king Cogidunus, 
who was an ally of Rome, and assumed 
the name of the emperor, his patron, Tibe- 
rius Claudius, and that she was the wife of 
Pudens. 

Glau^dius — lame. (1.) The fourth Ro- 
man emperor. He succeeded Caligula 
(a.d. 41). Though in general he treated 
the Jews, especially those in Asia and 
Egypt, with great indulgence, yet about 
the middle of his reign (a.d. 49) he ban- 
ished them all from Rome (Acts 18 : 2). In 
this edict the Christians were included, as 
being, as was supposed, a sect of Jews. 
The Jews, however, soon again returned 
to Rome. 

During the reign of this emperor, several 
persecutions of the Christians by the Jews 
took place in the dominions of Herod 
Agrippa, in one of which the apostle 
James was "killed" (12:2). He died 
A.D. 54. 

(2. ) Clau'dius Ly^sias, a Greek who, hav- 
ing obtained by purchase the privilege of 
Roman citizenship, took the name of Clau- 
dius (Acts 21 : 31-40 ; 22 : 28 ; 23 : 26). 

Clay. This word is used of sediment 
found in pits or in streets (Isa. 57 : 20 ; 



Jer. 38 : 6), of dust mixed with spittle 
(John 9 : 6), and of potter's clay (Isa. 41 : 
25 ; Nah. 3 : 14 ; Jer. 18 ; 1-6; Rom. 9:21). 
Clay was used for sealing (Job 38 : 14 ; 
Jer. 32 : 14). Our Lord's tomb may have 
been thus sealed (Matt. 27:66). The prac- 
tice of sealing doors with clay is still com- 
mon in the East. Clay was also in primi- 
tive times used for mortar (Gen. 11 : 3). 
The "clay ground" in which the large 
vessels of the temple were cast (1 Kings 7 : 
46; 2 Chr. 4:17) was a compact loam fitted 
for the purpose. The expression literally 
rendered is, "in the thickness of the 
ground," — meaning, "in stiff ground" or 
in clay. 

Clean. The various forms of unclean- 
ness according to the Mosaic law are enu- 
merated in Lev. 11-15 ; Num. 19. The 
division of animals into clean and unclean 
was probably founded on the practice of 
sacrifice. It existed before the Flood (Gen. 
7 : 2). The regulations regarding such 
animals are recorded in Lev. 11 and Deut. 
14. ■ 

The Hebrews were prohibited from using 
as food certain animal substances, such as 
(1) blood ; (2) the fat covering the intes- 
tines, termed the ca^^l ; (3) the fat on the 
intestines, called the mesentery ; (4) the fat 
of the kidneys ; and (5) the fat tail of cer- 
tain sheep (Ex. 29:13, 22; Lev. 3:4-9; 
9 : 19 ; 17 : 10 ; 19 : 26). 

The chief design of these regulations 
seems to have been to establish a system 
of regimen which would distinguish the 
Jews from all other nations. Regarding 
the design and the abolition of these regu- 
lations the reader will find all the details 
in Lev. 20 : 24-26 ; Acts 10 : 9-16 ; 11 : 1-10 ; 
Heb. 9 : 9-14. 

Clem^ent — mild — a Christian of Phil- 
ippi, Paul's "fellow-helper," whose name 
he mentions as "in the book of life " (Phil. 
4 : 3). It was an oi^inion of ancient writers 
that he was the Clement of Rome whose 
name is well known in church history, and 
that he was the author of an Epistle to the 
Corinthians, the only known manuscript 
of which is appended to the Alexandrian 
Codex, now in the British Museum. It is 
of some historical interest, and has given 



CLEOPAS 



151 



COAL 



rise to much discussion among critics. It 
makes distinct reference to Paul's Pirst 
Epistle to the Corinthians. 

Cle^opas (abbreviation of Cleopatros), 
one of the two disciples with whom Jesus 
conversed on the way to Emmaus on the day 
of the resurrection (Luke 24 : 18). We know 
nothing definitely regarding him. It is 
not certain that he was the Clopas of John 
19 : 25, or the Alphseus of Matt. 10 : 3, al- 
though he may have been so. 

Cle^ophas (in the spelling of this word 
h is inserted by mistake from Latin MSS. ), 
rather Cleopas, which is the Greek form of 
the word, while Clopas is the Aramaic 
form. In John 19 : 25 the Authorized Ver- 
sion reads, "Mary, the wife of Clopas." 
The word "wife" is conjecturally inserted 
here. If "wife" is rightly inserted, then 
Mary was the mother of James the Less, 
and Clopas is the same as Alphaeus (Matt. 
10 : 3 ; 27 : 56). 

Cloak, an upper garment, "an exterior 
tunic, wide and long, reaching to the 
ankles, but without sleeves " (Isa. 59 : 17). 
The word so rendered is elsewhere rendered 
"robe " or "mantle." It was worn by the 
high priest under the ephod (Ex. 28 : 31), 
by kings and others of rank (1 Sam. 15 : 27 ; 
Job 1 : 20 ; 2 : 12), and by women (2 Sam. 
13 : 18). 

The word translated "cloke " — i.e., oiiter 
garment — in Matt. 5 : 40 is in its plural 
form used of garments in general (Matt. 
17 : 2 ; 26 : 65). The cloak mentioned here 
and in Luke 6 : 29 was the Greek hiviation, 
Latin pallium, and consisted of a large 
square piece of woollen cloth fastened 
round the shoulders, hke the abha of the 
Arabs. This could be taken by a creditor 
(Ex. 22 : 26, 27), but the coat or tunic (Gr. 
chiton) mentioned in Matt. 5 : 40 could not. 

The cloak which Paul "left at Troas " 
(2 Tim. 4 : 13) was the Roman pcBnula, a 
thick upper garment used chiefly in travel- 
ling as a protection from the weather. 
Some, however, have supposed that what 
Paul meant was a travelling-bag. In the 
Syriac version the word used means a book- 
case. (See Dkess.) 

Clos''et, as used in the New Testament, 
signifies properly a storehouse (Luke 12 : 



24), and hence a place of privacy and re- 
tirement (Matt. 6:6; Luke 12 : 3). 

Cloud. The Hebrew so rendered means 
"a covering," because clouds cover the 
sky. The word is used as a symbol of the 
Divine presence, as indicating the splen- 
dour of that glory which it conceals (Ex. 
16:10; 33:9; Num. 11:25; 12:5; Job 
22:14; Ps. 18:11). A "cloud without 
rain" is a proverbial saying, denoting a 
man who does not keep his promise (Prov. 
16 : 15 ; Isa. 18 : 4 ; 25 : 5 ; Jude 12). A cloud 
is the figure of that which is transitory 
(Job 30 : 15 ; Hos. 6:4). A bright cloud is 
the symbolical seat of the Divine presence 
(Ex. 29 : 42, 43 ; 1 Kings 8 : 14 ; 2 Chr. 5 : 
14 ; Ezek. 43 : 4), and was called the She- 
chinah {q.v.). Jehovah came down upon 
Sinai in a cloud (Ex. 19 : 9) ; and the cloud 
filled the court around the tabernacle in the 
wilderness so that Moses could not enter 
it (Ex. 40 : 34, 35). At the dedication of 
the temjDle also the cloud "filled the house 
of the Lord " (1 Kings 8 : 10). Thus in like 
manner when Christ comes the second time 
he is described as coming "in the clouds " 
(Matt. 17 : 5 ; 24 : 30 ; Acts 1 : 9, 11). Ealse 
teachers are likened unto clouds carried 
about with a tempest (2 Pet. 2 : 17). The 
infirmities of old age, which come one after 
another, are compared by Solomon to 
"clouds returning after the rain" (Eccl. 
12 : 2). The blotting out of sins is like the 
sudden disappearance of threatening clouds 
from the sky (Isa. 44 : 22). 

Cloud, the 2^illcir of, was the glory-cloud 
which indicated God's presence leading the 
ransomed people through the wilderness 
(Ex. 13 : 22 ; 33 : 9, 10). This pillar pre- 
ceded the people as they marched, resting 
on the ark (Ex. 13 : 21 ; 40 : 36). By night 
it became a pillar of fire (Num. 9 : 17-23). 

Cni^'dus, a town and harbour on the ex- 
treme south-west of the peninsula of Doris 
in Asia Minor. Paul sailed past it on his 
voyage to Rome after leaving Myra (Acts 
27 : 7). 

Coal. It is by no means certain that 
the Hebrews were acquainted wdth mineral 
coal, although it is found in Syria. Their 
common fuel was dried dung of animals 
and wood charcoal. Two different words 



COAT 



152 



COGITATION 



are found in Hebrew to denote coal, both 
occurring in Prov, 26 : 21 — "As coal [Heb, 
peham ; i.e., "black coal"] is to burning 
coal [Heb. gehalim\." The latter of these 
words is used in Job 41 : 21 ; Prov. 6 : 28 ; 
Isa. 44 : 19. The words " live coal " in Isa. 
6:6 are more correctly "glowing stone." 
In Lam. 4 : 8 the expression "blacker than 
coal " is literally rendered in the margin of 
the Revised Version "darker than black- 
ness." " Coals of fire " (2 Sam. 22 : 9, 13 ; 
Ps. 18 : 8, 12, 13, etc.) is an expression used 
metaphorically for lightnings j)roceeding 
from God. A false tongue is compared to 
" coals of juniper " (Ps. 120 : 4 ; James 3 : 6). 
" Heaping coals of fire on the head " sym- 
bolizes overcoming evil with good. The 
words of Paul (Rom. 12 : 20) are equivalent 
to saying, "By charity and kindness thou 
shalt soften down his enmity as surely as 
heaping coals on the fire fuses the metal in 
the crucible." 

Coat, the tunic worn like the shirt next 
the skin (Lev. 16 : 4 ; Cant. 5 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 
15 : 32 ; Ex. 28 : 4 ; 29 : 5). The "coats of 
skin " prepared by God for Adam and Eve 
were probably nothing more than aprons 
(Gen. 3 : 21). This tunic was sometimes 
woven entire without a seam (John 19 : 23) ; 
it was also sometimes of " many colours " 
(Gen. 37 : 3 ; R.V. marg., "a long garment 
with sleeves "). The ' ' fisher's coat " of John 
21 : 7 was obviously an outer garment or cloak, 
as was also the "coat" made by Hannah 
for Samuel (1 Sam. 2 : 19). (See Dress.) 

Coat of mail, the rendering of a Hebrew 
word meaning "glittering" (1 Sam. 17:5, 
38). The same word in the plural form is 
translated "habergeons" in 2 Chr. 26:14 
and Neh. 4 : 16. The "harness " (1 Kings 
22:34), "breastplate" (Isa. 59:17), and 
' ' brigandine " ( Jer. 46 : 4), were probably also 
corselets or coats of mail. (See Armour.) 

Cock^-crowing. In our Lord's time the 
Jews had adopted the Greek and Roman 
division of the night into four watches, 
each consisting of three hours, the first 
beginning at six o'clock in the evening 
(Luke 12 : 38 ; Matt. 14 : 25 ; Mark 6 : 48). 
But the ancient division, known as the 
first and second cock-crowing, was still 
retained. The cock usually crows several 



times soon after midnight (this is the 
first crowing), and again at the dawn of 
day (and this is the second crowing). 
Mark mentions (14 : 30) the two cock-crow- 
ings. Matthew (26 : 34) alludes to that only 
which was emphatically the cock-crowing — 
viz., the second. 

Cock^atrice, the mediaeval name (a cor- 
ruption of "crocodile") of a fabulous serpent 
supposed to be produced from a cock's egg. 
It is generally supposed to denote the 
cerastes, or "horned viper," a very poison- 
ous serpent about a foot long. Others 
think it to be the yellow viper {Dahoia 
xanthina), one of the most dangerous vipers, 
from its size and its nocturnal habits (Isa. 
11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jer. 8:17; in all 
which the Revised Version renders the 
Hebrew tziph'oni by " basilisk "). In Prov. 
23 : 32 the Hebrew tzepJi'a is rendered both 
in the Authorized Version and the Revised 
Version by ' ' adder ; " margin of Revised 
Version "basilisk," and of Authorized Ver- 
sion "cockatrice." 

Cock'le, occurs only in Job 31 : 40 (marg., 
"noisome weeds"), where it is the render- 
ing of a Hebrew word (b'oshah) which 
means "offensive," "having a bad smell," 
referring to some weed perhaps which has 
an unpleasant odour. Or it may be re- 
garded as simply any noisome weed, such 
as the "tares" or darnel of Matt, 13:30. 
In Isa. 5 : 2, 4 the plural form is rendered 
"wild grapes." 

Coele-Syrla — hollow Si/i^ia— the name 
(not found in Scripture) given by the 
Greeks to the extensive valley, about 100 
miles long, between the Lebanon and the 
Anti-Lebanon range of mountains. 

Cof'fer, the receptacle or small box 
placed beside the ark by the Philistines, in 
which they deposited the golden mice and 
the emerods as their trespass-offering (1 
Sam. 6:8, 11, 15). 

Coffin, used in Gen. 50 : 26 Avith refer- 
ence to the burial of Joseph. Here, it 
means a mummy - chest. The same He- 
brew word is rendered " monej'^-chest " in 
2 Kings 12 : 10, 11. 

Cogita'tion (or "thought, "as the Chal- 
dee word in Dan. 7 : 28 literally means), 
earnest meditation. 



COIN 



153 



COLOUR 



Coin. Before the Exile the Jews had no 
regularly stamped money. They made use 
of uncoined shekels or talents of silver, 
which they weighed out (Gen, 23 : 16 ; Ex. 
38 : 24 ; 2 Sam. 18 : 12). Probably the sil- 
ver ingots used in the time of Abraham 
may have been of a fixed weight, w^hich 
was in some way indicated on them. The 
"pieces of silver" paid by Abimelech to 
Abraham (Gen. 20 : 16), and those also for 
which Joseph was sold (37 : 28), were prob- 
ably in the form of rings. The shekel was 
the common standard of weight and value 
among the Hebrews down to the time of 
the Captivity. Only once is a shekel of 
gold mentioned (1 Chr. 21 : 25). The "six 
thousand of gold " mentioned in the trans- 
action between Naaman and Gehazi (2 
Kings 5:5) were probably so many shekels 
of gold. The "piece of money " mentioned 
in Job 42 : 11 ; Gen. 33 : 19 (marg. , ' ' lambs ") 
was the Hebrew kesitah, probably an un- 
coined piece of silver of a certain weight 
in the form of a sheep or lamb, or perhaps 
having on it such an impression. The 
same Hebrew word is used in Josh. 24 : 32, 
which is rendered by Wickliffe "an hun- 
dred yonge scheep." 

Collar (Heb. peh), means in Job 30 : 18 
the mouth or opening of the garment that 
closes round the neck in the same way as a 
tunic (Ex. 39:23). The "collars" (Heb. 
netiphoth) among the spoils of the Midian- 
ites (Judg. 8:26; R. v., "pendants") were 
ear-drops. The same Hebrew word is ren- 
dered " chains " in Isa. 3 : 19. 

Collection. The Christians in Pales- 
tine, from various causes, suffered from 
poverty. Paul awakened an interest in 
them among the Gentile churches, and 
made pecuniary collections in their behalf 
(Acts 24 : 17 ; Rom. 15 : 25, 26 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 
1-3 ; 2 Cor. 8 ; 9 ; Gal. 2 : 10). 

College— Heb. mishneh (2 Kings 22: 14; 
2 Chr. 34 : 22), rendered in Revised Version 
"second quarter" — the residence of the 
prophetess Huldah. The Authorized Ver- 
sion followed the Jewish commentators, 
who, following the Targum, gave the He- 
brew word its post-Biblical sense, as if it 
meant a place of instruction. It properly 
means the "second," and may therefore 



denote the lower city (Acra), which was 
built after the portion of the city on Mount 
Zion, and was enclosed by a second wall. 

Col^ony. The city of Philippi was a 
Roman colony (Acts 16:12) — i.e., a mili- 
tary settlement of Roman soldiers and citi- 
zens, planted there to keep in subjection a 
newly-conquered district. A colony was 
Rome in miniature, under Roman muni- 
cij)al law, but governed by military officers 
(praetors and lictors), not by i^roconsuls. It 
had an indej)endent internal government — 
the jus Italic um; i.e., the privileges of 
Italian citizens. 

Col'our. The subject of colours holds 
an important place in the Scriptures. 

White occurs as the translation of vari- 
ous Hebrew words. It is applied to milk 
(Gen. 49 : 12), manna (Ex. 16 : 31), snow (Isa. 
1 : 18), horses (Zech. 1 : 8), raiment (Eccl. 
9:8). Another Hebrew word so rendered 
is apj)lied to marble (Esther 1 : 6), and a 
cognate word to the lily (Cant. 2 : 16). A 
different term, meaning "dazzling," is ap- 
plied to the countenance (Cant. 5 : 10). 

This colour was an emblem of purity and 
innocence (Mark 16 : 5 ; John 20 : 12 ; Rev. 
19 : 8, 14), of joy (Eccl. 9 : 8), and also of 
victory (Zech. 6:3; Rev. 6 : 2). The hang- 
ings of the tabernacle court (Ex. 27 : 9 ; 
38 : 9), the coats, mitres, bonnets, and 
breeches of the priests (Ex. 39 : 27, 28), and 
the dress of the high priest on the day of 
Atonement (Lev. 16 : 4, 32), were white. 

Black, applied to the hair (Lev. 13 : 31 ; 
Cant. 5 : 11), the comjjlexion (Cant. 1 : 5), 
and to horses (Zech. 6 : 2, 6). The word 
rendered "brown" in Gen. 30:32 (R.V., 
"black") means properly "scorched" — i.e., 
the colour produced by the influence of the 
sun's rays. "Black " in Job 30 : 30 means 
dirty, blackened by sorrow and disease. 
The word is applied to a mourner's robes 
( Jer. 8 : 21 ; 14 : 2), to a clouded sky (1 
Kings 18 : 45), to night (Micah 3:6; Jer. 
4 : 28), and to a brook rendered turbid by 
melted snow (Job 6 : 16). It is used as 
symbolical of evil in Zech. 6 : 2, 6 and Rev. 
6:5. It was the emblem of mourning, 
affliction, calamity (Jer. 14 : 2 ; Lam. 4:8; 
5 : 10). 
Hed, applied to blood (2 Kings 3 : 22), a 



COLOUR 



154 



COLOSSI 



heifer (Num. 19 : 2), pottage of lentils (Gen. 
25 : 30), a horse (Zech. 1 : 8), wine (Prov. 
23 : 31), the complexion (Gen. 25 : 25 ; Cant. 
5 : 10). 

This colour is symbolical of bloodshed 
(Zech. 6:2; Rev. 6 : 4 ; 12 : 3). 

Purple, a colour obtained from the secre- 
tion of a species of shell-fish (the Murex 
trunculus) which was found in the Medi- 




MUREX TRUNCULUS. 



terranean, and particularly on the coasts of 
Phoenicia and Asia Minor. The colouring 
matter in each separate shell-fish amounted 
to only a single drop, and hence the great 
value of this dye. Robes of this colour 
were worn by kings ( Judg. 8 : 26) and high 
officers (Esther 8 : 15). They were also 
worn by the wealthy and luxurious ( Jer. 
10 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 7 ; Luke 16 : 19 ; Rev. 17 : 
4). With this colour was associated the 
idea of royalty and majesty (Judg. 8 : 26 ; 
Cant. 3 : 10 ; 7:5; Dan. 5 : 7, 16, 29). 

Blue. This colour was also procured 
from a species of shell-fish — the chelzon of 
the Hebrews, and the Helix ianthina of 
modern naturalists. The tint was emble- 
matic of the sky — the deep dark hue of the 
Eastern sky. This colour was used in the 
same way as purple. The ribbon and 
fringe of the Hebrew dress were of this 
colour (Num. 15 : 38). The loops of the 
curtains (Ex. 26:4), the 'lace of the high 
priest's breastplate, the robe of the ephod, 
and the lace on his mitre, were blue (Ex. 
28 : 28, 31, 37). 



Scarlet, or Crimson. In Isa. 1 : 18 a He- 
brew word is lased which denotes the worm 
or grub whence this dye was procured. In 
Gen. 38 : 28-30 the word so rendered means 
" to shine," and expresses the brilliancy of 
the colour. The small parasitic insects 
from which this dye was obtained some- 
what resembled the cochineal which is 
found in Eastern countries. It is called 
by naturalists Coccus ilicis. The dye was 
procured from the female grub alone. The 
only natural object to which this colour is 
applied in Scripture is the lips, which are 
likened to a scarlet thread (Cant. 4 : 3). 
Scarlet robes were worn by the rich and 
luxurious (2 Sam. 1 : 24 ; Prov. 31 : 21 ; Jer. 
4 : 30 : Rev. 17 : 4). It was also the hue of 
the warrior's dress (Nah. 2:3; Isa. 9 : 5). 
The Phoenicians excelled in the art of dye- 
ing this colour (2 Chr. 2 : 7). 

These four colours — white, purple, blue, 
and scarlet — were used in the textures of 
the tabernacle curtains (Ex. 26 : 1, 31, 36), 
and also in the high priest's ephod, girdle, 
and breastplate (Ex. 28 : 5, 6, 8, 15). Scar- 
let thread is mentioned in connection with 
the rites of cleansing the leper (Lev. 14 : 4, 
6, 51) and of burning the red heifer (Num. 
19 : 6). It was a crimson thread that Rahab 
was to bind on her window as a sign that 
she was to be saved alive (Josh. 2 : 18 ; 6 : 
25) when the city of Jericho was taken. 

Vermilion, the red sulj)huret of mercury, 
or cinnabar ; a colour used for drawing the 
figures of idols on the walls of temples 
(Ezek. 23 : 14), or for decorating the walls 
and beams of houses (Jer. 22 : 14). 

Colos^sse, or Colos^se, a city of Phrygia, 
on the Lycus, which is a tributary of the 
Maeander. It was about 12 miles above 
Laodicea, and near the great road from 
Ephesus to the Euphrates, and was con- 
sequently of some mercantile importance. 
It does not appear that Paul had visited 
this city when he wrote his letter to the 
church there (Col. 1 : 2). He expresses in 
his letter to Philemon (ver. 22) his hope to 
visit it on being delivered from his im- 
prisonment. From Col. 1:7; 4 : 12 it has 
been concluded that Epaphras was the 
founder of the Colossian church. This 
town afterwards fell into decay, and the 



COLOSSIANS 



155 



COMMANDMENTS 



modern town of Chonas or Chonum occupies 
a site near its ruins. 

Colos'^sians, Epistle to the, was written 
by Paul at Rome during his first imprison- 
ment there (Acts 28 : 16, 30), j)robably in 
the spring of A. D. 57, or, as some think, 62, 
and soon after he had written his Epistle 
to the Ephesians. Like some of his other 
epistles {e.g., those to Corinth), this seems to 
have been written in consequence of infor- 
mation which had somehow been conveyed 
to him of the internal state of the church 
there (Col. 1 : 6-8). Its object was to 
counteract false teaching. A large part of 
it is directed against certain speculatists 
who attempted to combine the doctrines 
of Oriental mysticism and asceticism with 
Christianity, thereby promising the dis- 
ciples the enjoyment of a higher spiritual 
life and a deeper insight into the world of 
spirits. Paul argues against such teaching, 
showing that in Christ Jesus they had all 
things. He sets forth the majesty of 
Christ's person and the completeness of 
his redemption. The mention of the ' ' new 
moon " and "sabbath days " (2 : 16) shows 
also that there were here Judaizing teach- 
ers who sought to draw away the disciples 
from the simplicity of the gospel. 

Like most of Paul's epistles, this consists 
of two parts — a doctrinal and a practical. 

(1. ) The doctrinal part comprises the first 
two chapters. His main theme is developed 
in chapter 2. He warns them against being 
drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all 
the fulness of the Godhead, and who was 
the head of all spiritual powers. Christ 
was the head of the body of which they 
were members ; and if they Avere truly 
united to him, what needed they more ? 

(2. ) The practical part of the epistle (3-4) 
enforces various duties natiirally flowing 
from the doctrines expounded. They are 
exhorted to mind things that are above 
(3 : 1-4), to mortify every evil jDrinciple of 
their nature, and to put on the new man 
(3 : 5-12). Many special duties of the Chris- 
tian life are also insisted upon as the fitting 
evidence of the Christian character. Ty- 
chicus was the bearer of the letter, as he 
was also of that to the Ephesians and to 
Philemon, and he would tell them of the 



state of the apostle (4 : 7-9). After friendly 
greetings (10-14), he bids them interchange 
this letter with that he had sent to the 
neighbouring church of Laodicea. He then 
closes this brief but striking epistle with 
his usual autograph salutation. There is a 
remarkable resemblance between this epistle 
and that to the Ephesians {q.v.). The gen- 
uineness of this epistle has not been called 
in question. 

Com'forter, the designation of the Holy 
Ghost (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7; 
R.V. marg., "or Advocate, or Helper; 
Gr. paradetos "). The same Greek word 
thus rendered is translated " Advocate " in 
1 John 2 : 1 as applicable to Christ. It 
means properly "one who is summoned to 
the side of another " to help him in a court 
of justice by defending him— "one who is 
summoned to plead a cause." "Advo- 
cate " is the proper rendering of the word 
in every case where it occurs. 

It is worthy of notice that although Paul 
nowhere uses the word paradetos, he yet 
presents the idea it embodies when he speaks 
of the "intercession" both of Christ and 
the Spirit (Rom. 8 : 27, 34). 

Coining of Christ — (1) with reference 
to his first advent "in the fulness of the 
time " (1 John 5 : 20 ; 2 John 7), or (2) with 
reference to his coming again the second 
time at the last day (Acts 1 : 11 ; 3 : 20, 21 ; 
1 Thess. 4 : 15 ; 2 Tim. 4:1; Heb. 9 : 28). 

The expression is used metaphorically of 
the introduction of the gospel into any 
place (John 15 : 22 ; Eph. 2 : 17), the visible 
establishment of his kingdom in the world 
(Matt. 16 : 28), the conferring on his people 
of the peculiar tokens of his love (John 14 : 
18, 23, 28), and his executing judgment on 
the wicked (2 Thess. 2 : 8). 

Coniniand''nients, the Ten (Ex. 34 : 28 ; 
Deut. 10 : 4, marg. "ten words ") — i.e., the 
Decalogue [q.v.) — is a summary of the im- 
mutable moral law. These commandments 
were first given in their written form to 
the people of Israel when they were en- 
camped at Sinai, about fifty days after 
they came out of Egypt (Ex. 19:10-25). 
They were written by the finger of God on 
two tables of stone. The first tables were 
broken by Moses when he brought them 



COMMUNION 



156 



CONDUIT 



down from the mount (32 : 19), being thrown 
by him on the ground. At the command 
of God he took up into the mount two 
other tables, and God wrote on them "the 
words that were on the first tables " (34 : 1). 
These tables were afterwards placed in the 
ark of the covenant (Deut. 10 : 5 ; 1 Kings 
8 : 9). Their subsequent history is un- 
known. They are as a whole called ' ' the 
covenant " (Deut. 4 : 13), and " the tables of 
the covenant " (9 : 9, 11 ; Heb. 9 : 4), and 
"the testimony." 

They are obviously "ten" in number, 
but their division is not fixed, hence dif- 
ferent methods of numbering them have 
been adopted. The Jews make the ' ' Pre- 
face " one of the commandments, and then 
combine the first and second. The Roman 
Catholics and Lutherans combine the first 
and second and divide the tenth into two. 
The Greek and the Reformed Churches 
divide them according to the method now 
common amongst us. The Lutherans and 
Roman Catholics and Jews refer three 
commandments to the first table and seven 
to the second. The Reformed Church re- 
fers four to the first and six to the second 
table. (See Law.) 

Commu^nion, fellowship with God (Gen. 
18:17-33; Ex. 33:9-11; Num. 12:7, 8), 
between Christ and his people (John 14 : 23), 
by the Spirit '(2 Cor. 13 : 14 ; Phil. 2 : 1), of 
believers with one another (Eph. 4 : 1-6). 
The Lord's Supper is so called (1 Cor. 10 : 16, 
17), because in it there is fellowship be- 
tween Christ and his disciples, and of the 
disciples with one another. 

Conani^ah — whom Jehovah hath set — a 
Levite placed over the tithes brought into 
the temple (2 Chr. 35 : 9). 

Goncis^ion (Gr. katatome; i.e., "mutila- 
tion"), a term used by Paul contemptu- 
ously of those who were zealots for circum- 
cision (Phil. 3 : 2). Instead of the warning, 
"Beware of the circumcision" {peritome) — 
i.e., of the party who pressed on Gentile 
converts the necessity of still observing 
that ordinance — he says, "Beware of the 
concision ; " as much as to say, "This cir- 
cumcision which they vaunt of is in Christ 
only as the gashings and mutilations of 
idolatrous heathen." 



Con''cubine in the Bible denotes a female 
conjugally united to a man, but in a rela- 
tion inferior to that of a wife. Among the 
early Jews, from various causes, the differ- 
ence between a wife and a concubine was 
less marked than it would be amongst us. 
The concubine was a wife of secondary 
rank. There are various laws recorded 
providing for their protection (Ex. 21 : 7 ; 
Deut. 21 : 10-14), and setting limits to the 
relation they sustained to the household to 
which they belonged (Gen. 21 : 14 ; 25 : 6). 
They had no authority in the family, nor 
could they share in the household govern- 
ment. 

The immediate cause of concubinage 
might be gathered from the conjugal his- 
tories of Abraham and Jacob (Gen. 16 ; 30). 
But in process of time the custom of con- 
cubinage degenerated, and laws were made 
to restrain and regulate it (Ex. 21 : 7-9). 

Christianity has restored the sacred in- 
stitution of marriage to its original char- 
acter, and concubinage is ranked with the 
sins of fornication and adultery (Matt. 
19 : 5-9 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 2). 

Concu'^piscence — desire — Rom. 7:8 
(R.V., "coveting"); Col. 3: 5 (R.V., "de- 
sire"). The " lust of concupiscence" 
(1 Thess. 4:5; R.V., "passion of lust") 
denotes evil desire, indwelling sin. 

Con''d.uit, a water-course or channel (Job 
38 : 25). The " conduit of the upper pool " 
(Isa. 7 : 3) was formed by Hezekiah for the 
purpose of conveying the waters from the 
ui^per pool in the valley of Gihon to the 
west side of the city of David (2 Kings 
18 : 17 ; 20 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 30). In carry- 
ing out this work he "stopped the waters 
of the fountain which were without the 
city" — i.e., "the upper water-course of 
Gihon" — and conveyed it down from the 
west through a canal into the city, so that 
in case of a siege the inhabitants of the city 
might have a supply of water, which would 
thus be withdrawn from the enemy. (See 
Silo AM.) 

There are also the remains of a conduit 
which conducted water from the so-called 
"Pools of Solomon," beyond Bethlehem, 
into the city. Water is still conveyed into 
the city from the fountains which supplied 



CONEY 



157 



CONGREGATION 



these pools by a channel which crosses the 
valley of Hinnom. 

Co'ney(Heb. shdphanji.e., "thehider"), 
an animal which inhabits the mountain 
gorges and the rocky districts of Arabia 
Petraea and the Holy Land. " The conies 
are a feeble folk, yet make they their house-s 




in the rocks " (Prov. 30 : 26 ; Ps. 104 : 18). 
They are gregarious and "exceeding wise," 
and are described as chewing the cud (Lev. 
11 : 5 ; Deut. 14 : 7). 

The animal intended by this name is 
known among naturalists as the Hyrax 
Syriacus. It is neither a ruminant nor a 
rodent, but is regarded as akin to the rhin- 
oceros. When it is said to "chew the cud," 
the Hebrew word so used does not neces- 
sarily imply the possession of a ruminant 
stomach, "The lawgiver speaks according 
to appearances ; and no one can watch the 
constant motion of the little creature's jaws, 
as it sits continually working its teeth, 
without recognizing the naturalness of the 
expression " (Tristram, Natural History of 
the Bible). It is about the size and colour 
of a rabbit, though clumsier in structure, 
and without a tail. Its feet are not formed 
for digging, and therefore it has its home 
not in burrows but in the clefts of the rocks. 
"Coney" is an obsolete English word for 
"rabbit." 

Confec^tion (Ex. 30 : 35, " ointment " in 
ver. 25 ; R. V., "perfume "). The Hebrew 
word so rendered is derived from a root 
meaning to compound oil and perfume. 

Confec^tionaries, only in 1 Sam. 8 : 13, 
those who make confections — i.e., per- 
fumers, who compound spices and per- 
fumes. 

Confes'^sion. (1.) An open profession of 



faith (Luke 12:8). (2.) An acknowledg- 
ment of sins to God (Lev. 16 : 21 ; Ezra 
9 : 5-15 ; Dan. 9 : 3-12), and to a neighbour 
whom we have wronged (James 5 : 16 ; 
Matt. 18 : 15). 

Congrega'tion (Heb. Mhal), the Hebrew 
peoj)le collectively as a holy community 
(Num. 15 : 15). Every circumcised Hebrew 
from twenty years old and upward was a 
member of the congregation. Strangers 
resident in the land, if circumcised, were, 
with certain exceptions (Ex. 12 : 19 ; Num. 
9 : 14 ; Deut. 23 : 1-3), admitted to the privi- 
leges of citizenship, and spoken of as mem- 
bers of the congregation (Ex. 12 : 19 ; Num. 
9 : 14 ; 15 : 15). The congregation were sum- 
moned together by the sound of two silver 
trumpets, and they met at the door of the 
tabernacle (Num. 10 : 3). These assemblies 
were convened for the purpose of engaging 
in solemn religious services (Ex. 12 : 47 ; 
Num. 25 : 6 ; Joel 2 : 15), or of receiving new 
commandments (Ex. 19 : 7, 8). The elders, 
who were summoned by the sound of one 
trumpet (Num. 10 : 4), represented on vari- 
ous occasions the whole congregation (Ex. 
3 : 16 ; 12 : 21 ; 17 : 5 ; 24 : 1). 

After the conquest of Canaan, the people 
were assembled only on occasions of the 
highest national importance ( Judg. 20 ; 
2 Chr. 30 : 5; 34 :29 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 17 ; 2 Sam. 
5:1-5; 1 Kings 12 : 20 ; 2 Kings 11 : 19 ; 
21 : 24 ; 23 : 30). In subsequent times the 
congregation was represented by the San- 
hedrim ; and the name synagogue, applied 
in the Septuagint version exclusively to 
the congregation, came to be used to de- 
note the places of worship established by 
the Jews. (See Chukch.) 

In Acts 13 : 43, where alone it occurs in 
the New Testament, it is the same word as 
that rendered "synagogue" {q.v.) in ver. 
42. 

Congrega^tion, mount of the (Isa. 
14 : 13), has been supposed to refer to the 
place where God promised to meet with his 
people (Ex. 25:22; 29:42, 43)— i.e., the 
mount of the Divine presence, Mount Zion. 
But here the king of Babylon must be 
taken as expressing himself according to 
his own heathen notions, and not accord- 
ing to those of the Jews. The "mount of 



CONSCIENCE 



158 



CONVOCATION 



the congregation " will therefore in this 
case mean the northern mountain, sup- 
posed by the Babylonians to be the meet- 
ing-place of their gods. In the Babylonian 
inscriptions mention is made of a mountain 
which is described as "the mighty moun- 
tain of Bel, whose head rivals heaven, 
whose root is the holy deep." This 
mountain was regarded in their myth- 
ology as the place where the gods had their 
seat. 

Con^science, that faculty of the mind, 
or inborn sense of right and wrong, by 
which we judge of the mofal character of 
human conduct. It is common to all men. 
Like all our other faculties, it has been 
perverted by the Eall (John 16 : 2 ; Acts 

26 : 9 ; Rom. 2 : 15). It is spoken of as 
"defiled" (Titus 1:15), and "seared" 
(1 Tim. 4:2). A "conscience void of of- 
fence" is to be sought and cultivated (Acts 
24 : 16 ; Eom. 9:1; 2 Cor. 1 : 12 ; 1 Tim. 
1 : 5, 19 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 21). 

Consecra''tion, the devoting or setting 
apart of anything to the worship or service 
of God. The race of Abraham and the 
tribe of Levi were thus consecrated (Ex. 
13 : 2 ; 12 : 15 ; Num. 3 : 12). The Hebrews 
devoted their fields and cattle, and some- 
times the spoils of war, to the Lord (Lev. 

27 : 28, 29). According to the Mosaic law 
the first-born both of man and beast were 
consecrated to God. 

In the New Testament, Christians are 
regarded as consecrated to the Lord (1 Pet. 
2:9). 

Consola'tion of Israel, a name for the 
Messiah in common use among the Jews, 
probably suggested by Isa. 11 : 1 ; 49 : 13. 
The Greek word thus rendered (Luke 2 : 25, 
paraJclesis) is kindred to that translated 
"Comforter" in John 14:16, etc. — para- 
kletos. 

Constella^'tion, a cluster of stars, or stars 
which appear to be near each other in the 
heavens, and which astronomers have re- 
duced to certain figures (as the "Great 
Bear," the "Bull," etc.) for the sake of 
classification and of memory. In Isa. 13 : 10, 
where this word only occurs, it is the ren- 
dering of the Hebrew kesU — i.e., "fool." 
This was the Hebrew name of the constel- 



lation Orion (Job 9:9; 38 : 31), a constel- 
lation which represented Nimrod, the sym- 
bol of folly and impiety. The word some 
interpret by "the giant" in this place — 
"some heaven-daring rebel who was chained 
to the sky for his impiety." 

Content^ment, a state of mind in which 
one's desires are confined to his lot what- 
ever it may be (1 Tim. 6:6; 2 Cor. 9 : 8). 
It is opposed to envy (James 3 : 16), avarice 
(Heb. 13 : 5), ambition (Prov. 13 : 10), anx- 
iety (Matt. 6 : 25, 34), and repining (1 Cor. 
10 : 10). It arises from the inward disposi- 
tion, and is the offspring of humility, and 
of an intelligent consideration of the recti- 
tude and benignity of divine providence 
(Ps. 96 : 1, 2 ; 145), the greatness of the 
divine promises (2 Pet. 1 : 4), and our own 
unworthiness (Gen. 32 : 10) ; as well as from 
the view the gospel opens up to us of rest 
and peace hereafter (Rom. 5 : 2). 

Conversa'tion, generally the goings out 
and in of social intercourse (Eph. 2:3; 4 : 22 ; 
R. v., "manner of life ") ; one's deportment 
or course of life. This word is never used 
in Scripture in the sense of verbal com- 
munication from one to another (Ps. 50 :23 ; 
Heb. 13 : 5). 

In Phil. 1 :27 and 3 :20, a different Greek 
word is used. It there means one's rela- 
tions to a community as a citizen^i.e., citi- 
zenship. 

Conver''sion, the turning of a sinner to 
God (Acts 15 : 3). 

In a general sense the heathen are said 
to be "converted" when they abandon 
heathenism and embrace the Christian 
faith ; and in a more special sense men are 
converted when, by the influence of divine 
grace in their souls, their whole life is 
changed — old things pass away, and all 
things become new (Acts 26 : 18). Thus 
we speak of the conversions at Pentecost 
(Acts 2), the conversion of the Philippian 
jailer (16:19-34), of Paul (9:1-22), of the 
Ethiopian treasurer (8 : 26-40), of Cornelius 
(10), of Lydia (16 : 13-15), and others. (See 
Regeneration. ) 

Convoca''tion, a meeting of a relir/ious 
character as distinguished from congrega- 
tion, which was more general, dealing with 
political and legal matters. Hence it is 



COOK 



159 



CORBAN 



called an "holy convocation." Such con- 
vocations were the Sabbaths (Lev. 23 : 2, 3), 
the Passover (Ex. 12 : 16 ; Lev. 23 : 7, 8 ; 
Num. 28 : 25), Pentecost (Lev. 23 : 21), the 
feast of Trumpets (Lev. 23 : 24 ; Num. 
29 : 1), the feast of Weeks (Num. 28 : 26), 
and the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23 : 35, 
36). The great fast, the annual day of 
atonement, was "the holy convocation" 
(Lev. 23 : 27 ; Num. 29 : 7). 

Cook, a person employed to perform 
culinary service. In early times among 
the Hebrews cooking was performed by the 
mistress of the household (Gen. 18 : 2-6 ; 
Judg. 6 : 19), and the process was very ex- 
peditiously performed (Gen. 27 : 3, 4, 9, 10). 
Professional cooks were afterwards em- 
ployed (1 Sam. 8 : 13 ; 9 : 23). Pew animals, 
as a rule, were slaughtered (other than 
sacrifices), except for purposes of hospitality 
(Gen. 18:7; Luke 15:23). The paschal 
lamb was roasted over a fire (Ex. 12 : 8, 9 ; 
2 Chr. 35 : 13). Cooking by boiling was the 
usual method adopted (Lev. 8 : 31 ; Ex. 16 : 
23). No cooking took place on the Sabbath 
day (Ex. 35 : 3). 

Co^os (should be wT^itten Cos), a small 
island, one of the Sporades in the ^gean 
Sea, in the north-west of Rhodes, off the 
coast of Caria. Paul, on his return from 
his third missionary journey, passed the 
night here after sailing from Miletus (Acts 
21 : 1). It is now called Stanchio. 

Cop''per, derived from the Greek kupros 
(the island of Cyprus), called "Cyprian 
brass, " occurs only in the Authorized Ver- 
sion in Ezra 8 : 27. Elsewhere the Hebrew 
word [nehosheth] is improperly rendered 
"brass," and sometimes "steel" (2 Sam. 
22 : 35 ; Jer. 15 : 12). The " bow of steel " 
(Job 20:24; Ps. 18:34) should have been 
"bow of copper" (or "brass," as in the 
R.V.). The vessels of "fine copper" of 
Ezra 8 : 27 were probably similar to those 
of "bright brass" mentioned in 1 Kings 
7 : 45 ; Dan. 10 : 6. 

Tubal-cain was the first artificer in brass 
and iron (Gen. 4 : 22). Hiram was noted 
as a worker in brass (1 Kings 7 : 14). Cop- 
per abounded in Palestine (Deut. 8:9; Isa. 
60 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 22 : 3-14). AU sorts of vessels 
in the tabernacle and the temple were 



made of it (Lev. 6:28; Num. 16:39; 
2 Chr. 4 : 16 ; Ezra 8 : 27) ; also weapons of 
war (1 Sam. 17 : 5, 6, 38 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 16). 
Iron is mentioned only four times (Gen. 
4:22; Lev. 26:19; Num. 31:22; 35:16) 
in the first four books of Moses, while cop- 
per (rendered "brass") is mentioned forty 
times. (See Beass.) 

We find mention of Alexander {q.v.), a 
"coppersmith " of Ephesus (2 Tim. 4 : 14). 

Cor. This Hebrew word, untranslated, 
denotes a round vessel used as a measure 
both for liquids and solids. It was equal 
to one homer, and contained ten ephahs in 
dry and ten baths in liquid measure (Ezek. 
45 : 14). The Rabbins estimated the cor at 
forty -five gallons, while Josephiis estimated 
it at about eighty-seven. In 1 Kings 4 : 22 ; 
5 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 2 : io ; 27 : 5, the original word 
is rendered "measure." 

Cor'al— Heb. rdmoth, meaning "heights; " 
i.e., " high-priced " or valuable things, or, 
as some suppose, "that which grows high," 
like a tree (Job 28 : 18 ; Ezek. 27 : 16)— ac- 
cording to the Rabbins, red coral, which 
was in use for ornaments. 

The coral is a cretaceous marine product, 
the deposit by minute polypous animals of 
calcareous matter in cells in which the ani- 
mal lives. It is of numberless shapes as it 
grows, but usually is branched like a tree. 
Great coral reefs and coral islands abound 
in the Red Sea, whence probably the He- 
brews derived their knowledge of it. It is 
found of different colours — white, black, 
and red. The red, being esteemed the most 
precious, was used, as noticed above, for 
ornamental purposes. 

Cor'ban, a Hebrew word adopted into 
the Greek of the New Testament and left 
untranslated. It occurs only once (Mark 
7 : 11). It means a gift or offering conse- 
crated to God. Anything over which this 
word was once pronounced was irrevocably 
dedicated to the temple. Land, however, 
so dedicated might be redeemed before the 
year of jubilee (Lev. 27 : 16-24). Our Lord 
condemns the Pharisees for their false doc- 
trine, inasmuch as by their traditions they 
had destroyed the commandment which re- 
quires children to honour their father and 
mother, teaching them to find excuse from 

11 



CORD 



160 



CORINTH 



helping their parents by the device of pro- 
nouncing "Corban" over their goods, thus 
reserving them to their own selfish use. 

Cord — frequently iised in its proper 
sense — for fastening a tent (Ex. 35 : 18 ; 
39 : 40), yoking animals to a cart (Isa. 5 : 18), 
binding prisoners (Judg. 15 : 13 ; Ps. 2:3; 
129 : 4), and measuring ground (2 Sam. 8:2; 
Ps. 78 : 55). Piguratively, death is spoken 
of as the giving way of the tent-cord (Job 
4 : 21. "Is not their tent-cord plucked up ? " 
R.V.). To gird one's self with a cord was 
a token of sorrow and humiliation. To 
stretch a line over a city meant to level it 
with the ground (Lam. 2 : 8). The "cords 
of sin " are the consequences or fruits of 
sin (Prov. 5 : 22). A " threefold cord " is a 
symbol of union (Eccl. 4 : 12). The " cords 
of a man " (Hos. 11 : 4) means that men em- 
ploy, in inducing each other, methods such 
as are suitable to men, and not "cords" 
such as oxen are led by. Isaiah (5 : 18) says, 
"Woe unto them that draw iniquity with 
cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a 
cart rope." This verse is thus given in the 
Chaldee paraphrase: "Woe to those who 
begin to sin by little and little, drawing 
sin by cords of vanity : these sins grow and 
increase till they are strong and are like a 
cart rope." This may be the true meaning. 
The wicked at first draw sin with a slender 
cord ; but by-and-by their sins increase, 
and they are drawn after them by a cart 
rope. Henderson in his commentary says : 
"The meaning is that the persons described 
were not satisfied with ordinary modes of 
provoking the Deity, and the consequent 
ordinary approach of his vengeance, but, 
as it were, yoked themselves in the harness 
of iniquity, and, putting forth all their 
strength, drew down vipon themselves, 
with accelerated speed, the load of punish- 
ment which their sins deserved. " 

Corian^der — Heb. gad — (Ex. 1G:31; 
Num. 11 : 7), seed to which the manna is 
likened in its form and colour. It is the 
Coriandrum sativum of botanists, an um- 
belliferous annual plant with a round stalk, 
about two feet high. It is widely cultivated 
in Eastern countries and in the south of 
Europe for the sake of its seeds, which are 
m the form of a little ball of the size of a 



peppercorn. They are used medicinally 
and as a spice. The Greek name of this 
IDlant is korion or koriannon, whence the 
name "coriander." 




CORIANDER 

Cor''intli, a Grecian city, on the isthmus 
which joins the Peloponnesus to the main- 
land of Greece. It is about 40 miles west 
of Athens. The ancient city was destroyed 
by the Romans (b.c. 146), and that men- 
tioned in the New Testament was quite a 
new city, having been rebuilt about a cen- 
tury afterwards and peopled by a colony 
of freedmen from Rome. It became under 
the Romans the seat of government for 
Southern Greece or Achaia (Acts 18 : 12-16). 
It was noted for its wealth, and for the 
luxurious and immoral and vicious habits 
of the people. It had a large mixed popu- 
lation of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. 
When Paul first visited the city (a.d. 51 
or 52), Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was 
proconsul. Here Paul resided for eighteen 
months (18 : 1-18). Here he first became 
acquainted Math Aquila and Priscilla, and 
soon after his departure Apollos came to 
it from Ephesus. After an interval he 
visited it a second time, and remained for 
three months (20 : 3). During this second 
visit his Epistle to the Romans was written 
(probably a.d. 55). Although there were 
many Jewish converts at Corinth, yet the 
Gentile element prevailed in the chvirch 
there. 

Some have argued from 2 Cor. 12 : 14 ; 
13 : 1, that Paul visited Corinth a third time 



CORINTHIANS 



161 



CORINTHIANS 



{i.e., that on some unrecorded occasion he 
visited the city between what are usually 
called the first and second visits). But the 
passages referred to only indicate Paul's 
intention to visit Corinth (comp. 1 Cor. 
10 : 5, where the Greek ijresent tense de- 
notes an intention) — an intention which 
was in some way frustrated. We can 
hardly suppose that such a visit could have 
been made by the apostle without more 
distinct reference to it. 

Corinth^ians, First Epistle to the, 
was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16 : 8) about 
the time of the Passover in the third year 
of the apostle's sojourn there (Acts 19 : 10; 
20 : 31), and when he had formed the pur- 
pose to visit Macedonia, and then return 
to Corinth (probably a.d. 57). 

The news which had reached him, how- 
ever, from Corinth frustrated his plan. 
He had heard of the abuses and contentions 
that had arisen among them, first from 
Apollos (Acts 19 : 1), and then from a letter 
they had written him on the subject, and 
also from some of the *' household of Chloe," 
and from Stephanas and his two friends 
who had visited him (1 Cor. 1 : 11 ; 16 : 17). 
Paul thereupon wrote this letter, for the 
purpose of checking the factious spirit and 
correcting the erroneous opinions that had 
sprung up among them, and remedying the 
many abuses and disorderly practices that 
prevailed. Titus and a brother whose 
name is not givpn were probably the bear- 
ers of the letter (2.Cor. 2 : 13; 8:6, 16-18). 

The epistle may be divided into four 
parts : — 

(1.) The apostle deals with the subject of 
the lamentable divisions and party strifes 
that had arisen among them (1 Cor. 1-4). 

(2. ) He next treats of certain cases of im- 
morality that had become notorious among 
them. They had apparently set at nought 
the very first principles of morality (5 ; 6). 

(3. ) In the third part he discusses various 
questions of doctrine and of Christian 
ethics in reply to certain communications 
they had made to him. He especially 
rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding 
the celebration of the Lord's supper (7- 
14). 

(4.) The concluding part (15; 16) contains 



an elaborate defence of the doctrine of the 
resurrection of the dead, which had been 
called in question by some among them, 
followed by some general instructions, in- 
timations, and greetings. 

This epistle "shows the powerful self- 
control of the apostle in spite of his 
physical weakness, his distressed circum- 
stances, his incessant troubles, and his 
emotional nature. It was written, he 
tells us, in bitter anguish, 'out of much 

affliction and pressure of heart and with 

streaming eyes ' (2 Cor. 2:4); yet he re- 
strained the expression of his feelings, and 
wrote with a dignity and holy calm which 
he thought most calculated to win back his 
erring children. It gives a vivid picture 
of the early church It entirely dissi- 
pates the dream that the apostolic church 
was in an exceptional condition of holiness 
of life or purity of doctrine. " The apostle 
in this epistle unfolds and applies great 
principles fitted to guide the church of all 
ages in dealing with the same and kindred 
evils in whatever form they may appear. 

This is one of the epistles the authen- 
ticity of which has never been called in 
question by critics of any school, so many 
and so conclusive are the evidences of its 
Pauline origin. 

The subscription to this epistle states 
erroneously in the Authorized Version that 
it was written at Philippi. This error 
arose from a mistranslation of 1 Cor. 16 : 5, 
"For I do pass through Macedonia," which 
was interpreted as meaning, ' ' I am passing 
through Macedonia. " In 16 : 8 he declares 
his intention of remaining some time longer 
in Ephesus. After that, his purpose is to 
" pass through Macedonia." 

Corinth^lans, Second Epistle to the. 
Shortly after writing his first letter to the 
Corinthians, Paul left Ephesus, where in- 
tense excitement had been aroused against 
him — the evidence of his great success — 
and proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing 
the usual route, he reached Troas, the port 
of departure for Europe. Here he expected 
to meet with Titus, whom he had sent 
from Ephesus to Corinth, with tidings of 
the effects produced on the church there 
by the first epistle ; but was disappointed 



CORMORANT 



162 



CORN 



(2 Cor. 1 : 8 ; 2 : 12, 13 ; 4 : 10, 11). He then 
left Troas and proceeded to Macedonia ; 
and at Philippi, where he tarried, he was 
soon joined by Titus (2 Cor. 7 : 6, 7), who 
brought him good news from Corinth, and 
also by Timothy. Under the influence 
of the feelings awakened in his mind by 
the favourable report which Titus brought 
back from Corinth, this second epistle was 
written. It was probably written at 
Philippi, or, as some think, Thessalonica, 
early in the year a.d. 58, and was sent to 
Corinth by Titus. This letter he addresses 
not only to the church in Corinth, but also 
to the saints in all Achaia — i.e., in Athens, 
Cenchrea, and other cities in Greece. 

The contents of this epistle may be thus 
arranged : — 

(1.) Paul speaks of his spiritual labours 
and course of life, and expresses his warm 
affection toward the Corinthians (2 Cor. 
1-7). 

(2. ) He gives specific directions regarding 
the collection that was to be made for 
their poor brethren in Judea (8 ; 9). 

(3.) He defends his own apostolic claim 
(10-13), and justifies himself from the 
charges and insinuations of the false teacher 
and his adherents. 

This epistle, it has been well said, shows 
the individuality of the apostle more than 
any other. "Human weakness, spiritual 
strength, the deepest tenderness of affection, 
wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, 
impassioned self-vindication, humility, a 
just self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the 
weak and suffering, as well as for the pro- 
gress of the church of Christ and for the 
spiritual advancement of its members, are 
all displayed in turn in the course of his 
appeal." — Lias, Second Corinthians. 

Of the effects produced on the Corinthian 
church by this epistle we have no definite 
information. We know that Paul visited 
Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20 : 
2, 3), and that on that occasion he tarried 
there for three months. In his letter to 
Rome, written at this time, he sent salu- 
tations from some of the principal members 
of the church to the Romans. 

Cor'morant (Lev. 11 : 17; Deut. 14 : 17) 
— Heb, shdlcik^ "plunging," or "darting 



down" {th.e Phalacrocorax car6o)— ranked 
among the "unclean" birds; of the same 
family group as the pelican. It is a 
' ' plunging " bird, and is common on the 
coasts and the inland seas of Palestine. 




CORMORANT, 

Some think the Hebrew word should be 
rendered "gannet" {Sula bassana, "the 
solan goose ") ; others that it is the " tern " 
or "sea swallow," which also frequents 
the coasts of Palestine as well as the Sea 
of Galilee and the Jordan valley during 
several months of the year. But there is 
no reason to depart from the ordinary ren- 
dering. 

In Isa. 34 : 11, Zeph. 2 : 14 (but in R.V., 
"pelican") the Hebrew word rendered by 
this name is kcCath'. It is translated " peli- 
can" {q.v.) in Ps. 102 : 6. The word liter- 
ally means the ' ' vomiter, " and the pelican 
is so called from its vomiting the shells 
and other things which it has voraciously 
swallowed. (See Pelican.) 

Corn. The word so rendered [ddgan') in 
Gen. 27 : 28, 37, Num. 18 : 27, Deut. 28 : 51, 
Lam. 2 : 12, is a general term representing 
all the commodities we usually describe by 
the words corn, grain, seeds, peas, beans. 
With this corresponds the use of the word 
in John 12 : 24. 

In Gen. 41 : 35, 49, Prov. 11 : 26, Joel 2 : 
24 ("wheat"), the word thus translated 
{bar; i.e., "winnowed") means corn puri- 
fied from chaff. With this corresponds the 
use of the word in the New Testament 
(Matt. 3 : 12 ; Luke 3 : 17 ; Acts 7 : 12). In 
Ps. 65 : 13 it means " growing corn," 



CORNELIUS 



16^ 



COTTAGE 



In Gen. 42 : 1, 2, 19, Ex. 8 : 5, Neh. 10 : 
31 ("victuals"), the word {sheber ; i.e., 
"broken," i.e., grist) denotes generally 
victuals, provisions, and corn as a principal 
article of food. 

Erom the time of Solomon, corn began 
to be exported from Palestine (Ezek. 27 : 
17; Amos 8 : 5). "Plenty of corn" was a 
part of Isaac's blessing conferred upon 
Jacob (Gen. 27 : 28 ; comp. Ps. 65 : 13). 

Corne^lius, a centurion whose history is 
narrated in Acts 10. He was a "devout 
man," and like the centurion of Caper- 
naum, believed in the God of Israel. His 
residence at Csesarea probably brought 
him into contact with Jews who communi- 
cated to him their expectations regarding 
the Messiah ; and thus he was prepared to 
welcome the message Peter brought him. 
He became the first fruit of the Gentile 
world to Christ. He and his family were 
baptized and admitted into the Christian 
church (Acts 10 : 1, 44-48). (See Centukion. ) 

Cor'ner. The angle of a house (Job 1 : 
19) or a street (Pro v. 7:8). " Corners " in 
Neh. 9 : 22 denotes the various districts of 
the promised land allotted to the Israelites. 
In Num. 24:17, the "corners of Moab" 
denotes the whole land of Moab. The 
"corner of a field " (Lev. 19 : 9 ; 23 : 22) is its 
extreme part, which was not to be reaped. 
The Jews were prohibited from cutting 
the "corners," i.e., the extremities, of the 
hair and whiskers running round the ears 
(Lev. 19 : 27; 21 : 5). The "four corners of 
the earth " in Isa. 11 : 12 and Ezek, 7 : 2 
denotes the whole land. The "corners of 
the streets " mentioned in Matt. 6 : 5 
means the angles where streets meet so as 
to form a square or place of public resort. 

The corner gate of Jerusalem (2 Eangs 
14 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 9) was on the north-west 
side of the city. 

Corner-stone (Job 38 : 6 ; Isa. 28 : 16), a 
block of great importance in binding to- 
gether the sides of a building. The " head 
of the corner " (Ps. 118 : 22, 23) denotes the 
coping, the "coign of vantage" — i.e., the 
topstone of a building. But the word 
"corner stone" is sometimes used to de- 
note some person of rank and importance 
(Isa. 28 : 16). It is applied to our Lord, 



who was set in highest honour (Matt. 21 : 
42). He is also styled "the chief corner 
stone " (Eph. 2 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 6, 8). When 
Zechariah (10 : 4), speaking of Judah, says, 
"Out of him came forth the corner," he is 
probably to be understood as ultimately 
referring to the Messiah as the "comer 
stone." (See Temple, Solomon's.) 

Coronet — Heb. shophdr, "brightness," 
with reference to the clearness of its sound 
(1 Chr. 15:28; 2 Chr. 15:14; Ps. 98:6; 
Hos. 5 : 8). It is usually rendered in the 
Authorized Version "trumpet." It de- 
notes the long and straight horn, about 
eighteen inches long. The words of Joel, 
"Blow the trumpet," literally, "Sound 
the cornet," refer to the festival which was 
the preparation for the day of Atonement. 
In Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word [lieren) so 
rendered is a curved horn. The Avord ' ' cor- 
net" in 2 Sam. 6 :5 (Heb. mena^an'trn, oc- 
curring only here) was some kind of in- 
strument played by being shaken like the 
Egyptian sistrum, consisting of rings or 
bells hung loosely on iron rods. 

Cotes, pens or enclosures for flocks (2 
Chr. 32:28, "cotes for flocks;" R.V., 
"flocks in folds"). 

Coftage. (1.) A booth in a vineyard 
(Isa. 1:8); a temporary shed covered Avith 
leaves or straw to shelter the watchman 
that kept the garden. These were slight 




LODGE IN A GARDEN. 

fabrics, and were removed when no longer 
needed, or were left to be blown down in 
Mdnter (Job 27 : 18). 

(2.) A lodging-place (rendered " lodge '* 
in Isa. 1:8); a slighter structure than the 



COUCH 



164 



COVENANT 



"booth," as the cucumber patch is more 
temporary than a vineyard (Isa. 24 : 20). 
It denotes a frail structure of boughs sup- 
ported on a few poles, which is still in use 
in the East, or a hammock suspended be- 
tween trees, in which the watchman was 
accustomed to sleep during summer. 

(3.) In Zeph. 2 : 6 it is the rendering of 
the Hebrew keroth, which some suppose to 
denote rather ' ' pits ' ' (R. V. marg. , ' ' caves ") 
or "wells of water," such as shepherds 
would sink. 

Couch (Gen. 49 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 1 ; Job 7 : 
13 ; Ps. 6 : 6, etc. ), a seat for repose or rest. 
(See Bed.) 

Coulter (1 Sam. 13 : 20, 21), an agricul- 
tural instrument, elsewhere called "plough- 
share" (Isa. 2:4; Micah4:3; Joel 3 : 10). 
It was the facing-piece of a plough, analo- 
gous to the modern coulter. 

Coun^cil, spoken of counsellors who sat 
in public trials with the governor of a pro- 
vince (Acts 25 : 12). 

The Jewish councils were the Sanhedrim, 
or supreme council of the nation, which 
had subordinate to it smaller tribunals 
(the "judgment," perhaps, in Matt. 5:21, 
22) in the cities of Palestine (Matt. 10 : 17 ; 
Mark 13 : 9). In the time of Christ the 
functions of the Sanhedrim were limited 
(John 16:2; 2 Cor. 11:24). In Ps. 68: 
27 the word "council" means simply a 
company of persons. 

In ecclesiastical history the word is used 
to denote an assembly of pastors or bishops 
for the discussion and regulation of church 
affairs. The first of these covmcils was 
that of the apostles and elders at Jeru- 
salem, of which we have a detailed account 
in Acts 15. 

Coun'sellor, an adviser (Prov. 11:14; 
15 : 22), a king's state counsellor (2 Sam. 
15 : 12). Used once of the Messiah (Isa. 
9 : 6). In Mark 15 : 43, Liike 23 : 50, the 
word probably means a member of the 
Jewish Sanhedrim. 

Courses. When David was not per- 
mitted to build the temple, he proceeded, 
among the last acts of his life, with the 
assistance of Zadok and Ahimelech, to 
organize the priestly and musical services 
to be conducted in the house of God. (1.) 



He divided the priests into twenty-four 
courses (1 Chr. 24 : 1-19), sixteen being of 
the house of Eleazar and eight of that of 
Ithamar. Each course was under a head 
or chief, and ministered for a week, the 
order being determined by lot. (2.) The 
rest of the 24,000 Levites (23 : 4) were di- 
vided also into twenty-four courses, each 
to render some allotted service in public 
worship : 4,000 in twenty-four courses were 
set apart as singers and musicians under 
separate leaders (25); 4,000 as porters or 
keepers of the doors and gates of the sanc- 
tuary (26 : 1-19) ; and 6,000 as officers and 
judges to see to the administration of the 
law in all civil and ecclesiastical matters 
(20-32). 

This arrangement was re-established by 
Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31 : 2) ; and afterwards 
the four sacerdotal courses which are said 
to have returned from the Captivity were 
re -divided into the original number of 
twenty-four by Ezra (6 : 18). 

Court, the enclosure of the tabernacle 
(Ex. 27 : 9-19 ; 40 : 8), of the temple (1 Kings 
6 : 36), of a prison (Neh. 3 : 25), of a private 
house (2 Sam. 17 : 18), and of a king's palace 
(2 Kings 20 : 4). 

Cov^enant, a contract or agreement be- 
tween two parties. In the Old Testament 
the Hebrew word bertth is always thus 
translated. Bertth is derived from a root 
which means "to cut," and hence a cove- 
nant is a "cutting," with reference to the 
cutting or dividing of animals into two 
parts, and the contracting parties passing 
between them, in making a covenant (Gen. 
15 ; Jer. 34 : 18, 19). 

The corresponding word in the New 
Testament Greek is diatheke, which is, 
however, rendered "testament" generally 
in the Authorized Version. It ought to 
be rendered, just as the word bertth of the 
Old Testament, ' ' covenant. " 

This word is used (1) of a covenant or 
compact between man and man (Gen. 21 : 
32), or between tribes or nations (1 Sam. 
11 : 1 ; Josh. 9 : 6, 15). In entering into a 
covenant, Jehovah was solemnly called on 
to witness the transaction (Gen. 31 : 50), 
and hence it was called a "covenant of the 
Lord " (1 Sam. 20 : 8). The marriage com- 



COVENANT 



165 



COVENANT 



pact is called "the covenant of God " (Prov. 
2 : 17), because the marriage was made in 
God's name. Wicked men are spoken of 
as acting as if they had made a " covenant 
with death " not to destroy them, or with 
hell not to devour them (Isa. 28 : 15, 18). 

(2. ) The word is used with reference to 
God's revelation of himself in the way of 
promise or of favour to men. Thus God's 
promise to Noah after the Flood is called a 
covenant (Gen. 9; Jer. 33:20, "my cove- 
nant "). We have an account of God's cove- 
nant with Abraham (Gen. 17, comp. Lev. 
26 : 42), of the covenant of the priesthood 
(Num. 25 : 12, 13 ; Deut. 33 : 9 ; Neh. 13 : 29), 
and of the covenant of Sinai (Ex. 34 :27, 28 ; 
Lev. 26 : 15), which was afterwards renewed 
at different times in the history of Israel 
(Deut. 29 ; Josh. 24 ; 2 Chr. 15 ; 23 ; 29 ; 
34 ; Ezra 10 ; Neh. 9). In conformity \vith 
human custom, God's covenant is said to 
be confirmed with an oath (Deut. 4 : 31 ; 
Ps. 89 : 3), and to be accompanied by a 
sign (Gen. 9 ; 17). Hence the covenant is 
called God's "counsel," "oath," "promise" 
(Ps. 89:3, 4; 105:8-11; Heb. 6:13-20; 
Luke 1 : 68-75). God's covenant consists 
wholly in the bestowal of blessing (Isa. 
59 : 21 ; Jer. 31 : 33, 34). 

The term covenant is also used to desig- 
nate the regular succession of day and 
night (Jer. 33 : 20), the Sabbath (Ex. 31 : 16), 
circumcision (Gen. 17 : 9, 10), and in gen- 
eral any ordinance of God (Jer. 34 : 13, 14). 

A "covenant of salt" signifies an ever- 
lasting covenant, in the sealing or ratifying 
of which salt, as an emblem of perpetuity, 
is used (Num. 18 : 19 ; Lev. 2 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 
13 : 5). 

Covenant of W^oeks, the constitution 
under which Adam was placed at his 
creation. In this covenant — (1.) The con- 
tracting parties were (a) God the moral 
Governor, and (b) Adam, a free moral agent, 
and representative of all his natural pos- 
terity (Rom. 5:12-19). (2.) The promise 
was "life" (Matt. 19:18, 17; Gal. 3:12). 
(3. ) The condition was perfect obedience to 
the law — the test in this case being ab- 
staining from eating the fruit of the "tree 
of knowledge," etc. (4.) The penalty was 
death (Gen. 2 : 16, 17). 



This covenant is also called a covenant 
of nature, as made with man in his nat- 
ural or unfallen state ; a covenant of life, 
because "life" was the promise attached 
to obedience ; and a legal covenant, be- 
cavTse it demanded perfect obedience to the 
law. 

The " tree of life " was the outward sign 
and seal of that life which was promised 
in the covenant, and hence it is usually 
called the seal of that covenant. 

This covenant is abrogated under the 
gospel, inasmuch as Christ has fulfilled all 
its conditions in behalf of his people, and 
now offers salvation on the condition of 
faith. 

It is still in force, however, as it rests on 
the immutable justice of God, and is bind- 
ing on all who have not fled to Christ and 
accepted his righteousness. 

Covenant of Grace, the eternal plan 
of redemption entered into by the three 
persons of the Godhead, and carried out 
by them in its several parts. In it the 
Eather represented the Godhead in its in- 
divisible sovereignty, and the Son his 
people as their surety (John 17 : 4, 6, 9 ; 
Isa. 42 : 6 ; Ps. 89 : 3). 

The conditions of this covenant were — (1. ) 
On the part of the Father {a) all needful 
preparation to the Son for the accomplish- 
ment of his work (Heb. 10 : 5 ; Isa. 42 : 1-7) ; 
(6) support in the work (Luke 22 : 43) ; and 
(c) a glorious reward in the exaltation of 
Christ when his work was done (Phil. 
2 : 6-11), his investiture with universal 
dominion (John 5 : 22 ; Ps. 110 : 1), his hav- 
ing the administration of the covenant 
committed into his hands (Matt. 28 : 18 ; 
John 1 : 12 ; 17 : 2 ; Acts 2 : 33), and in the 
final salvation of all his people (Isa. 35 : 10 ; 
53 : 10, 11 ; Jer. 31 : 33 ; Titus 1 : 2). (2. ) On 
the part of the Son the conditions were (a) 
his becoming incarnate (Gal. 4:4, 5) ; and 
(6) as the second Adam his representing 
all his people, assuming their place and 
undertaking all their obligations under the 
violated covenant of works; (c) obeying 
the law (Ps. 40:8; Isa. 42:21; John 9: 
4, 5), and (d) suffering its penalty (Isa. 53 ; 
2 Cor. 5 : 21 ; Gal. 3 : 13), in their stead. 

Christ, the viediator of, fulfils aU its con- 



COVERING 



166 



CREATION 



ditions in behalf of his people, and dis- 
penses to them all its blessings. In Heb. 
8:6; 9 : 15 ; 12 : 24, where this title is given 
to Christ, the language used (" new," 
"better") has reference to the fact that 
while Christ was from the beginning the 
sacerdotal mediator of the covenant, the 
"one mediator" (1 Tim. 2:5), he is now 
visibly disclosed or revealed as the true 
mediator, and as the immediate adminis- 
trator of the covenant. 

Christ, the surety of, mentioned only in 
Heb. 7 : 22, where the word rendered 
" testament " means the new or Christian 
dispensation of the covenant as contrasted 
with the old or Mosaic dispensation. He 
is surety as priest, in that he discharges all 
the obligations of his people under the 
broken covenant of works ; and as king, in 
that he dispenses all its blessings to his 
people. 

Administration of. The covenant of grace 
has been the same imder all dispensations. 
Erom the very beginning of the world's 
history the plan of salvation has been 
always the same — having the same prom- 
ise, the same Saviour, the same condition, 
the same salvation. Of this one covenant 
of grace there have been various dispen- 
sations. These are sometimes reckoned as 
four: — (1. ) The dispensation or revelation of 
the covenant in God's dealings with men 
from Adam to Abraham. (2.) Erom Abra- 
ham to Moses, when there was a clearer 
and fuller revelation than in the first 
l^eriod. (3.) Erom Moses to Christ. This 
is the period of the Mosaic covenant or econ- 
omy. And (4.) The gospel dispensation, 
which is not temporary and preparatory like 
those that went before, but permanent and 
final. It will last till the resurrection and 
the final judgment. (See Dispensation.) 

Cov'ering of the eyes, occurs only in 
Gen. 20 : 16. In the Revised Version the 
rendering is "it [i.e., Abimelech's present 
of 1,000 pieces of silver to Abraham] is 
for thee a covering of the eyes." This has 
been regarded as an implied advice to Sarah 
to conform to the custom of married women, 
and wear a complete veil, covering the eyes 
as well as the rest of the face. 

Cov'etousness, a strong desire after the 



possession of worldly things (Col. 3:5; 
Eph. 5:5; Heb. 13:5; 1 Tim. 6:9, 10; 
Matt. 6 : 20). It assumes sometimes the 
more aggravated form of avarice, which is 
the mark of cold-hearted worldliness. 

Cow. A cow and her calf were not to 
be killed on the same day (Lev. 22 : 28 ; 
Ex. 23 : 19 ; Deut. 22 : 6, 7). The reason 
for this enactment is not given. A state 
of great poverty is described in the words 
of Isa. 7 : 21-25, where, instead of possess- 
ing great resources, a man shall depend 
for the subsistence of himself and his 
family on what a single cow and two sheep 
could yield. 

Crane (Isa. 38 : 14 ; Jer. 8 : 7). In both 
of these passages the Authorized Version 
has reversed the Hebrew order of the 
words. "Crane or swallow" should be 
"swalloAV or crane," as in the Revised 
Version. The rendering is there correct. 
The Hebrew for crane is ^dgur, the Grus 
cinerea, a bird well known in Palestine. 
It is migratory, and is distinguished by 
its loud voice, its cry being hoarse and 
melancholy. 

Crea^tion. "In the beginning" God 
created — i.e., called into being — all things 
out of nothing. This creative act on the 
part of God was absolutely free, and for 
infinitely wise reasons. The cause of all 
things exists only in the will of God. The 
work of creation is attributed (1) to the 
Godhead (Gen. 1 : 1, 26) ; (2) to the Eather 
(1 Cor. 8:6); (3) to the Son (John 1:3; 
Col. 1:16, 17); (4) to the Holy Spirit 
(Gen. 1 : 2 ; Job 26 : 13 ; Ps. 104 : 30). The 
fact that he is the Creator distinguishes 
Jehovah as the true God (Isa. 37 : 16 ; 
40:12, 13; -54:5; Ps. 96:5; Jer. 10:11, 
12). The one great end in the work of 
creation is the manifestation of the glory 
of the Creator (Col. 1:16; Rev. 4:11; 
Rom. 11 : 36). God's works, equally with 
God's word, are a revelation from him ; 
and between the teachings of the one and 
those of the other, when rightly understood, 
there can be no contradiction. 

Traditions of the creation, disfigured by 
heathen corruptions, are found among the 
records of ancient Eastern nations. A 
peculiar interest belongs to the traditions 



CREATURE 



167 



CROWN 



of the Accadians, the primitive inhabitants 
of the plains of Lower Mesopotamia. These 
within the last few years have been brought 
to light in the tablets and cylinders which 
have been rescued from the long-buried 
palaces and temples of Assyria. They bear 
a remarkable resemblance to the record of 
Genesis. 

Crea'ture, denotes the whole creation in 
Rom. 8:39; Col. 1:15; Rev. 3:14; the 
whole human race in Mark 16 : 15 ; Rom. 
8 : 19-22. 

The liviruj creatures in Ezek. 10 : 15, 17, 
are imaginary beings, symbols of the Divine 
attributes and operations. 

Cres''cens — increasing — probably one of 
the seventy disciples of Christ. He was 
one of Paul's assistants (2 Tim. 4 : 10), 
probably a Christian of Rome. 

Cre^'te, now called Candia, one of the 
largest islands in the Mediterranean, about 
140 miles long and 35 broad. It was at 
one time a very prosperous and populous 
island, having a "hundred cities." The 
character of the people is described in 
Paul's quotation from "one of their own 
Xjoets" (Epimenides) in his epistle to Titus : 
"The Cretans are alway liars, evil beasts, 
slow bellies " (Titus 1 : 12). Jews from Crete 
were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost 
(Acts 2 : 11). The island was visited by 
Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27). 
Here Paul subsequently left Titus (1 : 5) 
"to ordain elders." Some have supposed 
that it was the original home of the Caph- 
torim [q.v.) or Philistines. 

Crim^son. See Colouk. 

Crisp'ing-pin (Isa. 3:22; R.V., "sat- 
chel"), some kind of female ornament, 
probably like the modern reticule. The 
Hebrew word harit properly signifies 
pouch or casket or purse. It is rendered 
"bag "in 2 Kings 5: 23. 

Cris^pus — curled — the chief of the syn- 
agogue at Corinth (Acts 18 : 8). He was 
converted and, with his family, baptized 
by Paul (1 Cor. 1 : 14). 

Cross, in the New Testament the in- 
strument of crucifixion, and hence used 
for the crucifixion of Christ itself (Eph. 
2 : 16 ; Heb. 12 : 2 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 17, 18 ; Gal. 
5 : 11 ; 6 : 12, 14 ; Phil. 3 : 18). The word 



is also used to denote any severe affliction 
or trial (Matt. 10 : 38 ; 16 : 24 ; Mark 8 : 34 ; 
10 : 21). 

The forms in which the cross is repre- 
sented are these : — 

1. The crux simplex (I), a "single piece 
without transom." 

2. The crux decussata (X), or St. An- 
drew's cross. 

3. The crux commissa (T), or St. An- 
thony's cross. 

4. The crux immissa (T), or Latin cross, 
which was the kind of cross on which our 
Saviour died. Above our Lord's head, on 
the projecting beam, was placed the " title. " 
(See Crucifixion.) 

After the conversion, so-called, of Con- 
stantine the Great (B.C. 313), the cross, 
first came into use as an emblem of Chris- 
tianity. He pretended at a critical mo- 
ment that he saw a flaming cross in the 
heavens bearing the inscrii:)tion, "In hoc 
signo vinces " — i.e., By this sign thou shalt 
conquer— and that on the following night 
Christ himself appeared and ordered him 
to take for his standard the sign of this 
cross. In this form a new standard, called 
the Labarum, was accordingly made, and 




LABARUM. 

borne bj^ the Roman armies. It remained 
the standard of the Roman army till the 
downfall of the Western empire. It bore 
the embroidered monogram of Christ — i.e., 
the first two Greek letters of his name, 
X and P [chi and rho), with the Alpha and 
Omega. (See Alpha.) 
Crown. (1. ) Denotes the plate of gold 



CROWN 



168 



CRUCIFIXION 



in the front of the high priest's mitre (Ex. 
29 : 6 ; 39 : 30). The same Hebrew word 
so rendered {ne^zer) denotes the diadem 
worn by Saul in battle (2 Sam. 1 : 10), and 
also that which was used at the coronation 
of Joash (2 Kings 11 : 12). 

(2.) The more general name in Hebrew 
for a crown is "atdrah, meaning a "circlet." 
This is used of crowns and head ornaments 
of divers kinds, including royal crowns. 
Such was the crown taken from the king 
of Ammon by David (2 Sam. 12 : 30). The 
crown worn by the Assyrian kings was a 
high mitre, sometimes adorned with flowers. 
There are sculptures also representing the 
crowns worn by the early Egyptian and 
Persian kings. Sometimes a diadem sur- 
rounded the royal head-dress of two or 
three fillets. This probably signified that 




MODERN ASIATIC CKOWNS. 

the wearer had dominion over two or three 
countries. In Rev. 12:3; 13:1, we read 
of "many crowns," a token of extended 
dominion. 

(3.) The ancient Persian crown (Esther 
1:11; 2:17; 6:8) was called kether ; i.e.,' 
"a chaplet," a high cap or tiara. Crowns 
were worn sometimes to represent honour 
and power (Ezek. 23 : 42). They were worn 
at marriages (Cant. 3:11; Isa. 61:10, "or- 
naments ; " R. v., "garlands "), and at feasts 
and public festivals. 

The crown was among the Romans and 
Greeks a symbol of victory and reward. 
The crown or wreath worn by the victors 
in the Olympic games was made of leaves 
of the wild olive ; in the Pythian games, 
of laurel ; in the Nemean games, of parsley ; 
and in the Isthmian games, of the pine. 
The Romans bestowed the "civic crown "on 



him who saved the life of a citizen. It was 
made of the leaves of the oak. In opposi- 
tion to all these fading crowns the apostles 
speak of the incorruptible crown, the 
crown of life (James 1 : 12 ; Rev. 2 : 10) 
"that fadeth not away " (1 Pet. 5 : 4— Gr. 
amarantinos ; comp. 1 : 4). Probably the 
word " amaranth " was applied to flowers 
we call "everlasting," the "immortal am- 
aranth. " 

Crown of thorns, our Lord was crowned 
with a, in mockery by the Romans (Matt. 
27 : 29). The object of Pilate's guard in 
doing this was probably to insult, and not 
specially to inflict pain. There is nothing 
to show that the shrub thus used was, as 
has been supposed, the spina Christi, which 
could not have been easily woven into a 
wreath. It was probably the thorny ndbh, 
which grew abundantly round about Jeru- 
salem, and whose flexible, pliant, and round 
branches could easily be platted into the 
form of a crown. (See Thokn, 3.) 

Cruciiix^ion, a common mode of punish- 
ment among heathen nations in early times. 
It is not certain whether it was known 
among the ancient Jews ; probably it was 
not. The modes of capital punishment 
according to the Mosaic law were, by the 
sword (Ex. 21), strangling, fire (Lev. 20), 
and stoning (Deut. 21). 

This was regarded as the most horrible 
form of death, and to a Jew it would ac- 
quire greater horror from the curse in Deut. 
21 : 23. 

This punishment began by subjecting 
the sufferer to scourging. In the case of 
our Lord, however, his scourging was rather 
before the sentence was passed upon him, 
and was inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, 
probably, of exciting pity and procuring 
his escape from further punishment (Luke 
23 : 22 ; John 19 : 1). 

The condemned one carried his own cross 
to the place of execution, which was out- 
side the city, in some conspicuous place set 
apart for the purpose. Before the nailing 
to the cross took place, a medicated cup 
of vinegar mixed with gall and myrrh (the 
sopor) was given, for the purpose of dead- 
ening the pangs of the sufferer. Our Lord 
refused this cup, that his senses might be 



CRUSE 



169 



CUCUMBERS 



clear (Matt. 27:34). The spongeful of 
vinegar — sour wine, posca — the common 
drink of the Roman soldiers, which was 
put on a hyssop stalk and offered to our 
Lord in contemptuous pity (Matt. 27 : 48 ; 
Luke 23 : 36), he tasted to alla3'' the agonies 
of his thirst (John 19 : 29). The accounts 
given of the crucifixion of our Lord are in 
entire agreement with the customs and 
practices of the Romans in such cases. He 
was crucified between two "malefactors" 
(Isa. 53 : 12 ; Luke 23 : 32), and was watched 
by a party of four soldiers (John 19 : 23 ; 
Matt. 27 : 36, 54), mth their centurion. The 
"breaking of the legs" of the malefac- 
tors was intended to hasten death, and 
put them out of misery (John 19 : 31) ; but 
the uniisual rapidity of our Lord's death 
(19 : 33) was due to his previous sufferings 
and his great mental anguish. The omis- 
sion of the breaking of his legs was the 
fulfilment of a type (Ex. 12:46). He 
literally died of a broken heart — a rup- 
tured heart — and hence the flowing of 
blood and water from the wound made 
by the soldier's spear (John 19 : 34). Our 
Lord uttered seven memorable words from 
the cross — namely, (1) Luke 23:34; (2) 
23 : 43 ; (3) John 19 : 26 ; (4) Matt. 27 : 46, 
Mark 15 : 34 ; (5) John 19 : 28 ; (6) 19 : 30 ; 
(7) Luke 23 : 46. 

Cruse, a utensil ; a flask or cup for hold- 
ing water (1 Sam. 26 : 11, 12, 16 ; 1 Kings 
19 : 6) or oil (1 Kings 17 : 12, 14, 16). 

In 1 Kings 14 : 3 the word there so ren- 
dered means properly a bottle — as in Jer. 
19 : 1, 10— or pitcher. In 2 Kings 2 : 20, a 
platter or flat metal saucer is intended. 
The Hebrew word here used is translated 
"dish" in 21:13; "pans," in 2 Chr. 35: 
13 ; and " bosom," in Pro v. 19 : 24 ; 26 : 15 
(R.V., "dish"). 

Crys'tal (Ezek. 1 : 22, with the epithet 
"terrible," as dazzling the spectators with 
its brightness). The word occurs in Rev. 4 : 
6 ; 21 : 11 ; 22 : 1. It is a stone of the flint 
order, the most refined kind of quartz. 
The Greek word here used means also 
literally "ice." The ancients regarded the 
crystal as only pure water congealed into 
extreme hardness by great length of time. 

Cu^bit — Heb. 'mnmdh ; i.e., "mother of 



the arm," the /ore-arm— is a word derived 
from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. It 
is difficixlt to determine the exact length of 
this measure, from the uncertainty whether 
it included the entire length from the elbow 
to the tip of the longest finger, or only 
from the elbow to the root of the hand at 
the wrist. The probability is that the 
longer was the original cubit. The com- 
mon computation as to the length of the 
cubit makes it 20.24 inches for the ordinary 
cubit, and 21.888 inches for the sacred one. 
This is the same as the Egyptian measure- 
ments. 

A rod or staff the measure of a cubit 
is called in Judg. 3 : 16 gomed, which liter- 
allj- means a "cut," something "cut off." 
The LXX. and Viilgate render it "span." 

Cuck'oo (Heb. shahaph), from a root 
meaning "to be lean; slender." This 
bird is mentioned only in Lev. 11 : 16 and 
Deut. 14:15 (R.V., "sea-mew"). Some 
have interpreted the Hebrew word by "pet- 
rel " or "shearwater" {Pnffinus cinereus), 
which is found on the coast of Syria ; others 
think it denotes the "sea-gull" or "sea- 
mew." The common cuckoo (Cuculus ca- 
norus) feeds on reptiles and large insects. 
It is found in Asia and Africa as well as in 
Europe. It only passes the mnter in Pales- 
tine. The Arabs suppose it to utter the cry 
Yakub, and hence they call it tir el- YaMb ; 
i.e., "Jacob's bird." 

Cu^cumbers (Heb. plur. kishshutm; i.e., 
"hard," "difficult" of digestion, only in 
Num. 11 : 5). This vegetable is extensively 
cultivated in the East at the present day, 
as it appears to have been in earlier times 
among the Hebrews. It belongs to the 
gourd family of plants. In the East its 
cooling pulp and juice are most refresh- 
ing. ' ' We need not altogether Avonder that 
the Israelites, wearily marching through 
the arid solitudes of the Sinaitic peninsula, 
thought more of the cucumbers and water- 
melons of which they had had no lack in 
Egypt, rather than of the cruel bondage 
which was the price of these luxuries." — 
Groser's Scripture Natural History. 

Isaiah speaks of a "lodge" (1:8; Heb. 
sukkdh) — i.e., a shed or edifice more solid 
than a booth — for the protection through- 



CUMMm 



170 



CURSE 



out the season from spring to autumn of 
the watchers in a "garden of cucumbers." 
Cuin''inin (Heb. kammon ; i.e., a "condi- 
ment"), the fruit or seed of an umbel- 
liferous plant, the Cuminum sativum, still 




extensively cultivated in the East. Its 
fruit is mentioned in Isa. 28 : 25, 27. In 
the New Testament it is mentioned in 
Matt. 23 : 23, where our Lord pronounces 
a "woe" on the scribes and Pharisees, who 
were zealous in paying tithes of "mint and 
anise and cummin," while they "omitted 
the weightier matters of the law." "It is 
used as a spice, both bruised, to mix with 
bread, and also boiled, in the various messes 
and stews which compose an Oriental ban- 
quet." — Tristram, Natural History. 

Cup, a wine-cup (Gen. 40:11, 21), various 
forms of which are found on Assyrian 
and Egyptian monuments. All Solomon's 
drinking vessels were of gold (1 Kings 10 : 
21). The cups mentioned in the New Tes- 
tament were made after Roman and Greek 
models, and were sometimes of gold (Rev. 
17 : 4). 

The art of divining by means of a cup 
was practised in Egypt (Gen. 44 : 2-17), and 
in the East generally. 

The "cup of salvation" (Ps. 116:13) is 
the cup of thanksgiving for the great sal- 
vation. The "cup of consolation" (Jer. 
16 : 7) refers to the custom of friends send- 
ing viands and wine to console relatives in 
mourning (Prov. 31:6). In 1 Cor. 10:16, 
the ' ' cup of blessing " is contrasted with 
the "cup of devils" (1 Cor. 10:21). The 



sacramental cup is the ' ' cup of blessing, " be- 
cause of blessing pronounced over it (Matt. 
26:27; Luke 22:17). The "portion of 
the cup " (Ps. 11 : 6 ; 16 : 5) denotes one's 
condition of life, prosperous or adverse. 
A "cup" is also a type of sensual allure- 
ment (Jer. 51:7; Prov. 23:31; Rev. 17:4). 
We read also of the "cup of astonishment," 
the "cup of trembling," and the "cup of 
God's wrath " (Ps. 75 : 8 ; Isa. 51 : 17 ; Jer. 
25:15; Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:32; Rev. 
16 : 19 ; comp. Matt. 26 : 39, 42 ; John 18 : 
11). The cup is also the symbol of death 
(Matt. 16 : 28 ; Mark 9:1; Heb. 2 : 9). 

Cup''-l)earer, an officer of high rank with 
Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, and Jewish 
monarchs. The cup-bearer of the king of 
Egypt is mentioned in connection with 
Joseph's history (Gen. 40:1-21; 41:9). 
Rabshakeh [q.v.) was cup-bearer in the 
Assyrian court (2 Kings 18 : 17). Nehe- 
miah filled this office to the king of Persia 
(Nell. 1 : 11). We read also of Solomon's 
cup-bearers (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr. 9 : 4). 

Cu'rious arts (Acts 19:19), magical 
arts ; jugglery practised by the Ephesian 
conjurers. Ephesus was noted for its 
\^dzards and the "Ephesian spells;" i.e., 
charms or scraps of parchment "WTitten 
over with certain formulae, which were 
worn as a safegiiard against all manner of 
evils. The more important and powerful 
of these charms were written out in books 
which circulated among the exorcists, and 
were sold at a great price. 

Curse, denounced by God against the 
serpent (Gen. 3 : 14), and against Cain (4 : 
11). These divine maledictions carried 
their effect with them. Prophetical curses 
were sometimes pronounced by holy men 
(Gen. 9 : 25 ; 49 : 7 ; Deut. 27 : 15 ; Josh. 6 : 
26). Such curses are not the consequence 
of passion or revenge, they are predic- 
tions. 

No one on pain of death shall curse father 
or mother (Ex. 21 : 17), nor the prince of his 
people (22 : 28), nor the deaf (Lev. 19 : 14). 
Cursing God or blaspheming was punish- 
able by death (Lev. 24 : 10-16). The words 
"curse God and die" (R.V., "renounce 
God and die "), used by Job's wdfe (Job 2 : 
9), have been variously interpreted. Per- 



CURTAIN 



171 



CUSHITE 



haps they simply mean that as nothing but 
death was expected, God would by this 
cursing at once interpose and destroy Job, 
and so put an end to his sufferings. 

Cur'tain. (1. ) Ten curtains, each twenty- 
eight cubits long and four wide, made of 
fine linen, also eleven made of goat's hair, 
covered the tabernacle (Ex. 26 : 1-13 ; 36 : 
8-17). 

(2.) The sacred curtain, separating the 
holy of holies from the sanctuary, is desig- 
nated by a different Hebrew word {pero- 
keth). It is described as a " veil of blue, 
and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined 
linen of cunning work " (Ex. 26 : 31 ; Lev. 
16 : 2 ; Num. 18 : 7). 

(3.) "Stretcheth out the heavens as a 
curtain" (Isa. 40:22), is an expression used 
with reference to the veil or awning which 
Orientals spread for a screen over their 
courts in summer. According to the pro- 
phet, the heavens are spread over our heads 
as such an awning. Similar expressions 
are found in Ps. 104 : 2 ; comp. Isa. 44 : 24 ; 
Job 9 : 8. 

Cush — Mack. (1.) A son, probably the 
eldest, of Ham, and the father of Nimrod 
(Gen. 10 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 10). From him the 
land of Cush seems to have derived its 
name. The question of the precise locality 
of the land of Cush has given rise to not a 
little controversy. The second river of 
Paradise surrounded the whole land of 
Cush (Gen. 2 : 13, R.V.). The term Cush is 
in the Old Testament generally applied to 
the countries south of the Israelites. It 
was the southern limit of Egypt (Ezek. 
29 : 10, A.V. " Ethiopia," Heb. Cush), with 
which it is generally associated (Ps. 68 :31; 
Isa. 18 : 1 ; Jer. 46 : 9, etc. ). It stands also 
associated with Elam (Isa. 11 : 11), with 
Persia (Ezek. 38 : 5), and with the Sabeans 
(Isa. 45:14). Erom these facts it has been 
inferred that Cush included Arabia and 
the country on the west coast of the Ped 
Sea. Pawlinson takes it to be the country 
still known as Khuzi-stan, on the east side 
of the Lower Tigris. But there are in- 
tunations which warrant the conclusion 
that there was also a Cush in Africa — the 
Ethiopia (so called by the Greeks) of Af- 
rica, Ezekiel speaks (29:10; comp, 30: 



4-6) of it as lying south of Egypt. It 
was the country now known to us as Nu- 
bia and Abyssinia (Isa. 18 : 1 ; Zeph. 3 : 10, 
Heb. Cush). In ancient Egyptian inscrip- 
tions Ethiopia is termed Kesh. The Cush- 
ites appear to have spread along extensive 
tracts, stretching from the Upper Nile to the 
Euphrates and Tigris. At an early period 
there was a stream of migration of Cushites 
"from Ethiopia, properly so called, through 
Arabia, Babylonia, and Persia, to Western 
India." The Hamite races, soon after their 
arrival in Africa, began to spread north, 
east, and west. Three branches of the 
Cushite or Ethiopian stock, moving from 
Western Asia, settled in the regions con- 
tiguous to the Persian Gulf. One branch, 
called the Cossseans, settled in the moun- 
tainous district on the east of the Tigris, 
known afterwards as Susiana ; another oc- 
cupied the lower regions of the Euphrates 
and the Tigris ; while a third colonized the 
southern shores and islands of the gulf, 
whence they afterwards emigrated to the 
Mediterranean and settled on the coast of 
Palestine as the Phoenicians. Nimrod was 
a great Cushite chief. He conquered the 
Accadians, aTauranian race, already settled 
in Mesopotamia, and founded his kingdom, 
the Cushites mingling with the Accads, 
and so forming the Chaldean nation. 

(2.) A Benjamite of this name is men- 
tioned in the title of Ps. 7. "Cush was 
probably a follower of Saul, the head of his 
tribe, and had sought the friendship of 
David for the purpose of 'rewarding evil 
to him that was at peace with him. ' " 

Cu^shan, probably a poetic or prolonged 
name of the land of Cush — the Arabian 
Cush (Hab. 3:7). 

Some have, however, supposed this to be 
the same as Chushan-rishathaim ( Judg. 
3 : 8, 10) — i.e., taking the latter part of the 
name as a title or local appellation, Chushan 
' ' of the two iniquities " ( = oppressing Israel, 
and provoking them to idolatry) — a Meso- 
potamian king, identified by Rawlinson 
with Asshur-ris-ilim (the father of Tiglath- 
pileser I. ) ; but incorrectly, for the empire 
of Assyria was not yet founded. He held 
Israel in bondage for eight years. 

Cushite. (1.) The messenger sent by 



CUSTOM 



172 



CYPRESS 



Joab to David to announce his victory over 
Absalom (2 Sam. 18 : 32). 

(2.) The father of Shelemiah (Jer. 36 : 14). 

(3.) Son of Gedaliah, and father of the 
prophet Zephaniah (1:1). 

(4.) Moses married a Cushite vi^oman 
(Num. 12 : 1). Trom this circumstance 
some have supposed that Zipporah was 
meant, and hence that Midian w^as Cush. 

Cus'tom, a tax imposed by the Romans. 
The tax-gatherers vi^ere termed publicans 
[q.v.), who had their stations at the gates 
of cities, and in the public highways, and 
at the place set apart for that purpose, 
called the "receipt of custom" (Matt. 9: 
9 ; Mark 2 : 14), where they collected the 
money that was to be paid on certain 
goods (Matt. 17:25). These publicans were 
tempted to exact more from the people 
than was lawful, and were, in conse- 
quence of their extortions, objects of great 
hatred. The Pharisees would have no in- 
tercourse with them (Matt. 5 : 46, 47 ; 9 : 
10, 11). 

A tax or tribute {q.v.) of half a shekel was 
annually paid by every adult Jew for the 
temple. It had to be paid in Jewish 
coin (Matt. 22:17-19; Mark 12:14, 15). 
Money-changers {q.v. ) were necessary, to en- 
able the Jews who came up to Jerusalem 
at the feasts to exchange their foreign 
coin for Jewish money ; but as it was 
forbidden by the law to carry on such a 
traffic for emolument (Deut. 23 : 20, 21), 
our Lord drove them from the temple 
(Matt. 21 : 12 ; Mark 11 : 15). 

Cu''thah, one of the Babylonian cities or 
districts from which Shalmaneser trans- 
planted certain colonists to Samaria (2 
Kings 17 : 24). The most probable con- 
jecture regarding this place is, that the 
" Cutheans " were identical with the "Cos- 
sseans " who inhabited the hill-country to 
the north of the river Choaspes, between 
Persia and Media. 

Cut^ting the flesh in various ways 
was an idolatrous practice — a part of idol- 
worship (Deut. 14:1; 1 Kings 18:28). 
The Israelites were commanded not to 
imitate this practice (Lev. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 5 ; 
Deut. 14 : 1). The tearing of the flesh 
from grief and anguish of spirit in mourn- 



ing for the dead was regarded as a mark 
of affection (Jer. 16 : 6 ; 41 : 5 ; 48 : 37). 

Allusions are made in Revelation (13 : 
16 ; 17 : 5 ; 19 : 20) to the practice of print- 
ing marks on the body, to indicate allegi- 
ance to a deity. We find also references 
to it, though in a different direction, by 
Paul (Gal. 6:7) and by Ezekiel (9:4). 
(See Hair.) 

Cym^bals (Heb, tzeltzelim, from a root 
meaning to "tinkle"), musical instruments, 
consisting of two convex pieces of brass, 
one held in each hand, which were clashed 
together to produce a loud clanging sound ; 
castanets; "loud cymbals." "High- 
sounding cymbals " consisted of two 
larger plates, one held also in each hand 
(2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150:5; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15: 
16, 19, 28 ; 1 Cor. 13 : 1). 

Cy^press (Heb. tirzdh, "hardness"), 
mentioned only in Isa. 44:14 (R.V., 
"holm-oak"). The oldest Latin version 
translates this word by ilex — i.e., the 
evergreen oak — which may possibly have 
been the tree intended ; but there is great 
probability that our Authorized Versioji 
is correct in rendering it " cypress." This 




BRANCH OP CYPRESS-TREE. 

tree grows abundantly on the mountains 
of Hermon. Its wood is hard and fra- 
grant, and very durable. Its foliage ia 
dark and gloomy. It is an evergreen {Cu- 
pressus sempervio'ens). " Throughout the 
East it is used as a funereal tree ; and its 
dark, tall, waving pkimes render it pe- 
culiarly api)ropriate among the tombs." 



CYPRUS 



173 



CYRUS 



Cy ^prus, one of the largest islands of the 
Mediterranean — about 148 miles long and 
40 broad. It is distant about 60 miles 
from the Syrian coast. It was the " Chit- 
tim " of the Old Testament (Num. 24 : 24). 
The Greek colonists gave it the name of 
Kypros, from the Cyprus— i.e., the henna 
(see Camphiee) — which grew on this island. 
It was originally inhabited by Phoenicians. 
In B.C. 477 it fell under the dominion of 
the Greeks ; and became a Roman prov- 
ince B.C. 58. In ancient times it was a 
centre of great commercial activity. Corn 
and wine and oil were produced here in 
the greatest perfection. It was rich also 
in timber and in mineral wealth. 

It is first mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment (Acts 4 : 36) as the native place of 
Barnabas. It was the scene of Paul's first 
missionary labours (13 : 4—13), when he 
and Barnabas and John Mark were 
sent forth by the church of Antioch. It 
was afterwards visited by Barnabas and 
Mark alone (15:39). Mnason, an "old 
disciple," probably one of the converts of 
the day of Pentecost belonging to this 
island, is mentioned 21 : 16. It is after- 
wards mentioned in connection with the 
voyages of Paul (Acts 21 : 3 ; 27 : 4). After 
being under the Tmrks for three hundred 
years, it was given up to the British Gov- 
ernment in 1878. 

Cyre'ne, a city (now Tripoli) in Upper 
Libya, North Africa, founded by a colony 
of Greeks (B.C. 630). It contained latterly 
a large number of Jews, who were intro- 
duced into the city by Ptolemy, the son of 
Lagus, because he thought they would con- 
tribute to the security of the place. They 
increased in number and influence ; and 
we are thus prepared for the frequent re- 
ferences to them in connection with the 
early history of Christianity. Simon, who 
bore our Lord's cross, was a native of this 
place (Matt. 27 : 32 ; Mark 15 : 21). Jews 
from Cyrene were in Jerusalem at Pente- 
cost (Acts 2 : 10) ; and Cyrenian Jews had 
a synagogue at Jerusalem (6 : 9). Con- 
verts belonging to Cyrene contributed to 
the formation of the first Gentile church 
at Antioch (11:20). Among "the pro- 
phets and teachers" who "ministered to 



the Lord at Antioch " was Lucius of Cy- 
rene (13 : 1). 

Cyre^nius, the Grecized form of Quir- 
inus. His full name was Publius Sul- 
picius Quirinus. Recent historical inves- 
tigation has proved that Quirinus was 
governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to 
Syria at the time of our Lord's birth. 
Cilicia, which he ruled, being a province 
of Syria, he is called the governor, which 
he was de jure, of Syria. Some ten years 
afterwards he was appointed governor of 
Syria for the second time. During his 
tenure of office, at the time of our Lord's 
birth (Luke 2 : 2), a " taxing " (R.V., " en- 
rolment ;" i.e., a registration) of the people 
was "first made;" i.e., was made for the 
first time under his government. (See 
Taxing. ) 

Cy'rus (Heb. Eo'resh), the celebrated 
"king of Persia" (Elam) who was con- 
queror of Babylon, and issued the decree 
of liberation to the Jews (Ezra 1 : 1, 2). 
He was the son of Cambyses, the prince 
of Persia, and was born about B.C. 599. In 
the year B.C. 559 he became king of Persia, 
the kingdom of Media being added to it 
partly by conquest. Cyrus was a great 
military leader, bent on universal con- 
quest. Babylon fell before his army (b.o. 
538) on the night of Belshazzar's feast 
(Dan. 5 : 30), and then the ancient do- 
minion of Assyria was also added to his 
empire (c/., " Go up, O Elam"— Isa. 21 : 2). 

Hitherto the great kings of the earth 
had only oppressed the Jews. Cyrus was 
to them as a "shepherd" (Isa. 44:28; 
45 : 1). God employed him in doing ser- 
vice to his ancient people. He may pos- 
sibly have gained, through contact with the 
Jews, some knowledge of their religion. 

The " first year of Cyrus " (Ezra 1 : 1) is 
not the year of his elevation to power over 
the Medes, nor over the Persians, nor the 
year of the fall of Babylon, but the year 
succeeding the two years during which 
" Darius the Mede " was viceroy in Babylon 
after its fall. At this time only (B.C. 536) 
Cyrus became actual king over Palestine, 
which became a part of his Babylonian 
empire. The edict of Cyrus for the re- 
building of Jerusalem marked a great 



DABERATH 



174 



D^MON 



epoch in the history of the Jewish people 
(2 Chr. 36 : 22, 23 ; Ezra 1:1-4; 4 : 3 ; 5 : 
13, 17 ; 6 : 3). 

This decree was discovered " at Ach- 
metha [or Ecbatana], in the palace that is 
in the province of the Medes " (Ezra 6 : 2). 
When Ezra wrote, about a century after 
Cyrus, the Persian kings usually held their 
court at Susa or at Babylon, visiting only 
occasionally the city of Achmetha. But 
Cyrus is known from profane history to have 
held his court permanently at Achmetha ; 
and hence it was here, among the archives 
of his reign, that this decree was found. 

"The character of Cyrus and his actions, 
as indicated by Ezra and Daniel, are in 
remarkable agreement with the notices 
which we possess of him in profane history. 

He was distinguished for his mildness 

and clemency ; he was a hater of idolatry, 
and would naturally sympathize with such a 
people as the Jews, a people whose religious 
views bore so great a resemblance to his 
own." The restoration of the Jews, and 
" the edicts which he issued on the occasion 
(Ezra 1 : 2-4 ; 6 : 3-5), are alike suitable to 
his religious belief and the generosity of 
his character. His acknowledgment of 
one ' Lord and God of heaven ' (1 : 2), his 
identification of this God with the Jehovah 
of the Jews, and his pious confession that 
he has received all the kingdoms over 
which he rules from this source, breathe 
the spirit of the old Persian religion 
(Zoroastrianism), of which Cyrus was a 
sincere votary ; while the delivery of 
the golden vessels from oiit of the treasury 
(1 : 7-11 ; 6:5), the allowance of the whole 



expense of rebuilding the temple out of 
the royal revenue (6 : 4), and the general 
directions given to all Persian subjects to 
' help with silver, and with gold, and with 
goods, and with beasts ' (1 : 4), accord well 
with the munificence which is said to have 
been one of his leading characteristics." — 
Rawlinson's History Illustrated. 

The remarkable thing about this great 
Medo-Persian monarch is that he is 




TOMB OF CYRUS AT MOURGHAB. 

mentioned by name in prophecy long be- 
fore his birth (Isa. 41 : 2-6 ; 44 : 28 ; 45 : 
1-4 ; 46 : 11) as the deliverer of the Jews 
from their seventy years' captivity, and 
also as the hand of God in the overthrow 
of Babylon, raised up "in righteousness" 
to do his work. " He shall build my city, 
and he shall let go my captives, not for 
price nor reward, saith the Lord of hosts " 
(45 : 13). A tomb said to be that of Cyrus is 
shown at Mourghab, the ancient Pasargidae. 



DaVerath— pasiwrg— a Levitical town 
of Issachar (Josh. 19 : 12 ; 21 : 28), near the 
border of Zebulun. It is the modern small 
village of Dehurieh, at the base of Mount 
Tabor. Tradition has incorrectly made it 
the scene of the miracle of the cure of the 
lunatic child (Matt. 17 : 14). 

Dse^mon, the Greek form, rendered 



" devil " in the Authorized Version of the 
New Testament. Daemons are spoken of 
as spiritual beings (Matt. 8 : 16 ; 10 : 1 ; 
12 : 43-45) at enmity with God, and as 
having a certain power over man (James 2 : 
19 ; Rev. 16 : 14). They recognize our 
Lord as the Son of God (Matt. 8 : 29 ; Luke 
4 : 41). They belong to the number of 



DEMONIAC 



175 



DALMATIA 



those angels that "kept not their first 
estate," " unclean spirits, " " fallen angels, " 
the angels of the devil (Matt. 25 : 41 ; Rev. 
12:7, 9). They are the "principalities 
and powers " against which we must 
" wrestle " (Eph. 6:12). 

D0enion''iac, one " possessed with a 
devil." In the days of our Lord and his 
apostles evil spirits, "daemons," were 
mysteriously permitted by God to exercise 
an influence both over the souls and bodies 
of men, inflicting dumbness (Matt. 9 : 32), 
blindness (12:22), epilepsy (Mark 9:17- 
27), insanity (Matt. 8 : 28 ; Mark 5 : 1-5). 
Daemoniacs are frequently distinguished 
from those who are afflicted with ordinary 
bodily maladies (Mark 1 : 32 ; 16 : 17, 18 ; 
Luke 6 : 17, 18). The daemons speak in 
their own persons (Matt. 8 : 29 ; Mark 1 : 
23, 24 ; 5 : 7). This influence is clearly 
distinguished from the ordinary power of 
corruption and of temptation over men. In 
the daemoniac his personality seems to be 
destroyed, and his actions, words, and 
even thoughts to be overborne by the evil 
spirit (Mark, I.e. ; Acts 19 : 15). It is 
plain that it was not an ordinary assault 
of Satan Avith his temptations and allure- 
ments. It was a real, direct power of evil 
spirits among men in that age, and in that 
age only. During his sojourn on earth, 
Christ met and overcame this foe to man 
at all points. He waged war with Satan's 
emissaries " before the eyes of men, to en- 
able them not to infer but to see the viru- 
lence of diabolical power and the gracious 
efficacy of that omnipotence which came 
to counterwork it." 

Da^gon — little fish ; diminutive from 
dag = a fish — the fish-god ; the national 
god of the Philistines. This idol had the 
body of a fish with the head and hands of 
a man. It was an Assyrio-Babylonian 
deity, the worship of which was introduced 
among the. Philistines through Chaldea. 

The most famous of the temples of Da- 
gon were at Gaza ( Judg. 16 : 21-30) and 
Ashdod (1 Sam. 5 : 5, 6). 

Da^gon's house (1 Sam, 5 : 2), or Beth- 
dagon, as elsewhere rendered (Josh. 15 : 
41 : 19 : 27), was the sanctuary or temple 
of Dagon, 



The Beth-dagon of Josh. 15 : 41 was one 
of the cities of the tribe of Judah, in the 
lowland or plain which stretches westward. 
It has not been identified. 

The Beth-dagon of Josh. 19 : 27 was one 
of the border cities of Asher. 

That of 1 Chr. 10:10 was in the 
western half-tribe of Manasseh, where the 
Philistines, after their victory at Gilboa, 
placed Saul's head in the temj)le of their 
god. (Comp. 1 Sam. 31 : 8-13. ) 

Daily sacrifice (Dan. 8 : 12 ; 11 : 31 ; 
12 : 11), a burnt offering of two lambs of a 
year old, which were daily sacrificed in 
the name of the whole Israelitish people 
upon the great altar — the first at dawn of 
day, and the second at evening (Dan. 9 : 
21), or more correctly, "between the two 
evenings." (See Sacrifice.) 

Dale, the king's, the name of a valley, 
the alternative for " the valley of Shaveh " 
{q.v.), near the Dead Sea, where the king of 
Sodom met Abraham (Gen. 14 : 17). Some 
have identified it with the southern part 
of the valley of Jehoshaphat, where Ab- 
salom reared his family monument (2 Sam. 
18 : 18). 

Dalmanu^'tha, a place on the west of 
the Sea of Galilee, mentioned only in Mark 
8 : 10. In the parallel passage it is said 
that Christ came "into the borders of 
Magdala" (Matt. 15:39). It is plain, 
then, that Dalmanutha was near Mag- 
dala, which was probably the Greek name 
of one of the many Migdols [i.e., watch- 
towers) on the western side of the lake of 
Gennesaret. It has been identified in the 
ruins of a village about a mile from Mag- 
dala, in the little open valley of 'Ain-el- 
Barideh, "the cold fountain," called el- 
Mejdel, possibly the "Migdal-el" of Josh. 
19 : 38. 

Dalma^tia, a mountainous country on 
the eastern shore of the Adriatic, a part 
of the Roman province of lUyricum. It 
still bears its ancient name. During 
Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, 
Titus left him to visit Dalmatia (2 Tim. 
4 : 10) for some unknown purpose. Paul 
had himself formerly preached in that 
region (Rom. 15 : 19). 

The present Emperor of Austria bears, 

12 



DAMARIS 



176 



DAMASCUS 



among his other titles, that of "King of 
Dalmatia. " 

Dam^aris — a heifer — an Athenian wo- 
man converted to Christianity under the 
preaching of Paul (Acts 17 : 34). Some 
have supposed that she may have been 
the wife of Dionysius the Areopagite. 

Damas^cus — activity — the most ancient 
of Oriental cities ; the capital of Syria (Isa. 
7:8; 17 : 3) ; situated about 133 miles to 
the north of Jerusalem. Its modern name 
isEsh-Shdm; i.e., "the East." 



The situation of this city is said to be 
the most beautiful of all Western Asia. 
The whole region around it is unsurpassed 
in richness and beauty, which to a large 
extent it owes to the rivers Abana and 
Pharpar {q.v.). 

It is first mentioned in Scripture in con- 
nection with Abraham's victory over the 
confederate kings under Chedorlaomer 
(Gen. 14 : 15). It was the native place of 
Abraham's steward (15 : 2). It is not again 
noticed till the time of David, when 




DAMASCUS. 



" the Syrians of Damascus came to succour 
Hadadezer" {q.v.)— 2 Sam. 8:5; 1 Chr. 
18 : 5. In the reign of Solomon, Rezon be- 
came leader of a band who revolted from 
Hadadezer (1 Kings 11 : 23), and betak- 
ing themselves to Damascus, settled there 
and made their leader king. There was a 
long war, with varying success, between 
the Israelites and Syrians, who at a later 
period became allies of Israel against Judah 
(2 Kings 15 : 37). 

The Syrians were at length subdued by 



the Assyrians, the city of Damascus was 
taken and destroyed, and the inhabitants 
carried captive into Assyria (2 Kings 16 : 
7-9 ; comp. Isa. 7 : 8). In this, prophecy was 
fulfilled (Isa. 17 : 1 ; Amos 1:4; Jer. 49 : 
24). The kingdom of Syria remained a 
province of Assyria till the capture of 
Nineveh by the Medes (B.C. 625), when it 
fell under the conquerors. After passing 
through various vicissitudes, Syria was 
invaded by the Romans (B.C. 64), and Da- 
mascus became the seat of the government 



DAMNATION 



177 



DAN 



of the province. In a.d. 37 Aretas, the 
king of Arabia, became master of Damas- 
cus, having driven back Herod Antipas. 

This city is memorable as the scene of 
Saul's conversion (Acts 9 : 1-25). The street 
called " Straight, " in which Judas lived, in 
whose house Saul was found by Ananias, is 
known by the name Sulta/tiy, or " Queen's 
Street." It is the principal street of the 
city. Paul visited Damascus again on his 
return from Arabia (Gal. 1 : 16, 17). Chris- 
tianity was planted here as a centre (19 ; 
Acts 9 : 20), from which it spread to the 
surrounding regions. 

In A.D. 634 Damascus was conquered 
by the growing Mohammedan power. In 
A.D. 1516 it fell under the dominion of the 
Turks, its present rulers. It is now the 
largest city in Asiatic Turkey. Christi- 
anity has again found a firm footing within 
its walls. 

Danina''tion, in Rom. 13 : 2, means 
"condemnation," which comes on those 
who withstand God's ordinance of magis- 
tracy. This sentence of condemnation 
comes not from the magistrate, but from 
God, whose authority is thus resisted. 

In 1 Cor. 11:29 (E.V., "judgment") this 
word means condemnation, in the sense 
of exposure to severe temporal judgments 
from God, as the following verse explains. 

In Rom. 14 : 23 the word ' ' damned " 
means "condemned" by one's own con- 
science, as well as by the Word of God. 
The apostle shows here that many things 
which are lawful are not expedient ; and 
that in using our Christian liberty the 
question should not simply be, Is this 
course I follow lawful? but also. Can I 
follow it without doing injury to the 
spiritual interests of a brother in Christ ? 
He that "doubteth" — i.e., is not clear in his 
conscience as to " meats " — will violate his 
conscience "if he eat," and in eating is con- 
demned ; and thus one ought not so to use 
his liberty as to lead one who is "weak" to 
bring upon himself this condemnation. 

"Dan.— a judge. (1. ) The fifth son of Jacob. 
His mother was Bilhah, Rachel's maid 
(Gen. 30:6, "God h&th judged mc"—lieh. 
ddnanni). The blessing pronounced on him 
by his father was, "Dan shall judge his 



people " (49 : 16), probably in allusion to 
the judgeship of Samson, who was of the 
tribe of Dan. 

The tribe of Dan had their place in the 
march through the wilderness on the north 
side of the tabernacle (Num. 2 : 25, 31 ; 
10:25). It was the last of the tribes to 
receive a portion in the Land of Promise. 
Its position and extent are described in 
Josh. 19 : 40-48. 

The territory of Dan extended from the 
west of that of Ephraim and Benjamin to 
the sea. It was a small territory, but was 
very fertile. It included in it, among 
others, the cities of Lydda, Ekron, and 
Joppa, which formed its northern bound- 




MAP SHOWING THE TERRITORY OF DAN. 

(See also Map oj Ashen page S9-) 

ary. But this district was too limited. 
" Squeezed into the narrow strip between 
the mountains and the sea, its energies 
were great beyond its numbers." Being 
pressed by the Amorites and the Philis- 
tines, whom they were unable to conquer, 
they longed for a wider space. They ac- 
cordingly sent out five spies from two of 
their towns, who went north to the sources 
of the Jordan, and brought back a favour- 
able report regarding that region. * ' Arise, " 
they said, "be not slothful to go, and to 
possess the land," for it is "a place where 
there is no want of any thing that is in the 
earth" (Judg. 18:10). On receiving this 
report, 600 Danites girded on their weapons 



DANCE 



178 



DANIEL 



of war, and taking with them their wives 
and their children, marched to the foot of 
Hermon, and fought against Leshem, and 
took it from the Sidonians, and dwelt 
therein, and changed the name of the con- 
quered town to Dan (Josh. 19 : 47). This new 
city of Dan became to them a new home, 
and was wont to be spoken of as the nor- 
thern limit of Palestine, the length of which 
came to be denoted by the expression ' ' from 
Dan to Beersheba " — i.e., about 144 miles. 

"But like Lot under a similar tempta- 
tion, they seem to have succumbed to the 
evil influences around them, and to have 
sunk down into a condition of semi-heathen- 
ism from which they never emerged. The 
mounds of ruins which mark the site of the 
city show that it covered a considerable ex- 
tent of ground. But there remains no record 
of any noble deed wrought by the degener- 
ate tribe. Their name disappears from the 
roll-book of the natural and the spiritual 
Israel." — Manning's Those Holy Fields. 

This old border city was originally called 
Laish. Its modern name is Tell el-Kddy, 
" Hill of the Judge." It stands about four 
miles below Ceesarea Philippi, in the midst 
of a region of surpassing richness and beauty. 

(2. ) This name occurs in Ezek 27 : 19, 
Authorized Version ; but the words there, 
"Dan also," should be simply, as in the 
Revised Version, "Vedan," an Arabian 
city, from which various kinds of merchan- 
dise were brought to Tyre, Some suppose 
it to have been the city of Aden in Arabia. 
(See Mahneh-dan.) 

Dance, found in Judg. 21:21, 23; Ps. 
30 : 11; 149 : 3 ; 150 : 4 ; Jer. 31 : 4, 13, etc., 
as the translation of hul, which points to the 
whirling motion of Oriental sacred dances. 
It is the rendering of a word {rakad') which 
means to skip or leap for joy, in Eccl. 3:4; 
Job 21: 11; Isa. 13:21, etc. 

In the New Testament it is in like man- 
ner the translation of different Greek 
words — circular motion (Luke 15 : 25) ; 
leaping up and down in concert (Matt. 11 : 
17), and by a single person (Matt. 14 : 6). 

It is spoken of as symbolical of rejoicing 
(Eccl. 3 : 4. Comp. Ps. 30 : 11 ; Matt. 11 : 
17). The Hebrews had their sacred dances 
expressive of joy and thanksgiving, when 



the performers were usually females (Ex. 
15:20; 1 Sam. 18:6). 

The ancient dance was very different 
from that common among Western nations. 
It was usually the part of the women only 
(Ex. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; comp. 5:1). 
Hence the peculiarity of David's conduct in 
dancing before the ark of the Lord (2 Sam. 
6 : 14). The women took part in it with 
their timbrels. Michal should, in accord- 
ance with the example of Miriam and others, 
have herself led the female choir, instead 
of keeping aloof on the occasion and "look- 
ing through the window." David led the 
choir "uncovered" — i.e., wearing only the 
ephod or linen tunic. He thought only of 
the honour of God, and forgot himself. 

From being reserved for occasions of 
religious worship and festivity, it came 
gradually to be practised in common life 
on occasions of rejoicing (Jer. 31 : 4). The 
sexes among the Jews always danced sepa- 
rately. The daughter of Herodias danced 
alone (Matt. 14 : 6). 

Dan''iel — God is my judge, or judge oj 
God. (1.) David's second son, "born unto 
him in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess " 
(1 Chr. 3 : 1). He is called also Chileab 
(2 Sam. 3 : 3). 

(2.) One of the four great prophets, al- 
though he is not once spoken of in the Old 
Testament as a prophet. His life and pro- 
phecies are recorded in the Book of Daniel. 
He was descended from one of the noble 
families of Judah (Dan. 1 : 3), and was 
probably born in Jerusalem about B.C. 623, 
during the reign of Josiah. At the first 
deportation of the Jews by Nebuchad- 
nezzar (the kingdom of Israel had come to 
an end nearly a century before), or imme- 
diately after his victory over the Egyptians 
at the second battle of Carchemish, in the 
fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (B.C. 
606), Daniel and other three noble youths 
were carried off to Babylon, along with 
part of the vessels of the temple. There 
he was obliged to enter into the service of 
the king of Babylon, and in accordance' with 
the custom of the age received the Chal- 
dean name of Belteshazzar — i.e., "prince 
of Bel," or "Bel protect his life." His 
residence in Babylon was very probably in 



DANIEL 



179 



DANIEL 



the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, now identi- 
fied with a mass of shapeless mounds called 
the Kasr, on the right bank of the river. 

His training in the schools of the wise 
men in Babylon (Dan. 1 : 4) was to fit him 
for service to the empire. He was dis- 
tinguished during this period for his piety 
and his strict observance of the Mosaic 
law (1 : 8-16), and gained the confidence 
and esteem of those who were over him. 
His habit of attention gained during his 
education in Jerusalem enabled him soon 
to master the wisdom and learning of the 
Chaldeans, and even to excel his compeers. 

At the close of his three years of dis- 
cipline and training in the royal schools, 
Daniel Avas distinguished for his proficiency 
in the " wisdom " of his day, and was 
brought out into public life. He soon be- 
came known for his skill in the interpreta- 
tion of dreams (1 : 17 ; 2 : 14), and rose to the 
rank of governor of the province of Babylon, 
and became "chief of the governors "(Chald. 
Rab-signin) over all the wise men of Baby- 
lon. He made known and also interpreted 
Nebuchadnezzar's dream ; and many years 
afterwards, when he was now an old man, 
amid the alarm and consternation of the 
terrible night of Belshazzar's impious feast, 
he was called in at the instance of the queen- 
mother (perhaps Nitocris, the daughter of 
Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret the mysteri- 
ous handwriting on the wall. He was re- 
warded with a purple robe and elevation 
to the rank of "third ruler." The place 
of "second ruler" was held by Belshazzar 
as associated with his father — Nabonidus — 
on the throne (5 : 16). Daniel interpreted 
the handwriting, and "in that night was 
Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. " 

After the taking of Babylon, Cyrus, who 
was now master of all Asia from India to 
the Dardanelles, placed Darius {q.v.), a 
Median prince, on the throne, during the 
two years of whose reign Daniel held the 
office of first of the "three presidents" of 
the empire, and was thus practically at the 
head of affairs, no doubt interesting himself 
in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 
9), whom he had at last the happiness of 
seeing restored to their own land, although 
he did not return with them, but remained 



still in Babylon. His fidelity to God ex- 
posed him to iDersecution, and he was cast 
into a den of lions, but was miraculously 
delivered ; after which Darius issued a 
decree enjoining "reverence for the God 
of Daniel " (6 : 26). He " prospered in the 
reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus 
the Persian," whom he probably greatly in- 
fluenced in the matter of the decree which 
put an end to the Captivity (b.c. 536). 

He had a series of prophetic visions vouch- 
safed to him which opened up the prospect 
of a glorious future for the people of God, 
and must have imparted peace and glad- 
ness to his spirit in his old age as he waited 
on at his post till the "end of the days." 
The time and circumstances of his death 
are not recorded. He probably died at 
Susa, about eighty-five years of age. 

Ezekiel, with whom he was contempo- 
rary, mentions him as a pattern of right- 
eousness (14 : 14, 20) and wisdom (28 : 3). 
(See Nebuchadnezzar.) 

Daniel, Book of, is ranked by the 
Jews in that division of their Bible called 
the Hagiograj)ha (Heb. Khethuhim). (See 
Bible. ) It consists of two distinct parts. 
The first part, consisting of the first six 
chapters, is chiefly historical ; and the 
second part, consisting of the remaining six 
chapters, is chiefly prophetical. 

The historical part of the book treats of 
the period of the Captivity. Daniel is "the 
historian of the Captivity, the writer Avho 
alone furnishes any series of events for 
that dark and dismal period during which 
the harp of Israel hung on the trees that 
grew by the Euphrates. His narrative 
may be said in general to intervene between 
Kings and Chronicles on the one hand and 
Ezra on the other, or (more strictly) to fill 
out the sketch which the author of the 
Chronicles gives in a single verse in his 
last chapter : ' And them that had escaped 
from the sword carried he [i.e., Nebuchad- 
nezzar] away to Babylon ; where they 
were servants to him and his sons until 
the reign of the kingdom of Persia ' " 
(2 Chr. 36 : 20). 

The prophetical part consists of three 
visions and one lengthened prophetical 
communication. 



DANJAAN 



180 



DARIUS 



The authenticity of this book has been 
much disputed, but the arguments in its 
favour place its claims beyond a doubt. 
(1.) We have the testimony of Christ 
(Matt. 24:30; 25:31; 26:64) and his 
apostles (1 Cor. 6:2; 2 Thess. 2:3) for 
its authority; and (2) the important tes- 
timony of Ezekiel (14 : 14, 20 ; 28 : 3). 
(3.) The character and records of the 
book are also entirely in harmony with 
the times and circumstances in which the 
author lived. (4.) The linguistic char- 
acter of the book is, moreover, just such 
as might be expected. Certain portions 
(Dan. 2:4; 7) are written in the Chaldee 
language ; and the portions written in He- 
brew are in a style and form having ^ close 
affinity with the later books of the Old 
Testament, especially with that of Ezra. 
The Avriter is familiar both with the He- 
brew and the Chaldee, passing from the one 
to the other just as his subject required. 
This is in strict accordance with the posi- 
tion of the author and of the people for 
whom his book was written. That Daniel 
is the writer of this book is also testified 
to in the book itself (7:1, 28; 8:2; 9:2; 
10:1, 2; 12:4, 5). 

jysiii'ja^an—iooodlcmd Dan— a, place prob- 
ably somewhere in the direction of Dan, 
near the sources of the Jordan (2 Sam. 24 : 
6). The LXX. and the Vulgate read 
"Dan-ja'ar"— «'.c., "Dan in the forest." 

Dan'nah — murmuring — a city (Josh. 15 : 
49) in the mountains of Judah about 8 
miles sovith-west of Hebron. 

Dar''da — pearl of loisdom — one of the 
four who were noted for their wisdom, but 
whom Solomon excelled (1 Kings 4 : 31). 

Dar^'ic, in the Revised Version of 1 Chr. 
29:7; Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72, 
where the Authorized Version has ' ' dram. " 
It is the rendering of the Hebrew darkhnon 
and the Greek dareikos. It was a gold 
coin, bearing the figure of a Persian king 
with his crown and armed with bow and 
arrow. It was current among the Jew^s 
after their return from Babylon — i. c. , 
while under the Persian domination. It 
weighed about 128 grains troy, and was of 
the value of about one guinea or rather 
more of our money. It is the first coin 



mentioned in Scripture, and is the oldest 
that history makes known to us. 




{Obverse: the Kitig of Persia knee/iiig 
boiu and Javelin.) 



bearing 



-the 



Dari'us — the holder or supporter- 
name of several Persian kings. 

(1.) Darius the Mede (Dan. 11:1), "the 
son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes " 
(9 : 1). On the death of Belshazzar the Chal- 
dean he "received the kingdom" of Baby- 
lon as viceroy from Cyrus. During his 
brief reign (b.c. 538-536) Daniel was pro- 
moted to the highest dignity (Dan. 6:1, 2); 
but on account of the malice of his enemies 
he was cast into the den of lions. After his 
miraculous escape, a decree was issued by 
Darius enjoining "reverence for the God 
of Daniel " (6 : 26). This king was prob- 
ably the "Astyages" of the Greek histo- 
rians. Nothing can, however, be with cer- 
tainty affirmed regarding him. Some are 
of ojjinion that the name ' ' Darius " is simply 
a name of office, equivalent to "governor," 
and that the "Gobryas" of the inscriptions 
was the person intended by the name. 

(2.) Darius, king of Persia, was the son 
of Hystaspes, of the royal family of the 
Achsemenidse. He did not immediately 
succeed Cyrus on the throne. There were 
two intermediate kings— ^•^2;., Cambyses 
(the Ahasuerus of Ezx^a), the son of Cyrus, 
who reigned from B.C. 529-522, and was 
succeeded by a usurper named Smerdis, 
who occupied the throne only ten months, 
and was succeeded by this Darius (B.C. 
521-486). Smerdis was a Magian, and 
therefore had no sympathy with Cyrus 
and Cambyses in the manner in which 
they had treated the Jews. He issued a 
decree prohibiting the restoration of the 
temple and of Jerusalem (Ezra 4 : 17-22). 
But soon after his death and the accession 
of Darius, the Jews resumed their work. 



DARKNESS 



181 



DATE 



thinking that the edict of Smerdis would 
be now null and void, as Darius was in 
known harmony with the religious policy 
of Cyrus. The enemies of the Jews lost no 
time in bringing the matter under the notice 
of Darius, who caused search to be made 
for the decree of Cyrus (q.v.). It was not 
found at Babylon, but at Achmetha (Ezra 
6:2); and Darius^ forthwith issued a new 
decree, giving the Jews full liberty to prose- 
cute their work, at the same time requiring 
the Syrian satrap and his subordinates to 
give them all needed help. It was with the 
army of this king that the Greeks fought 
the famous battle of Marathon (B.C. 490). 
During his reign the Jews enjoyed much 
peace and prosperity. He was succeeded 
by Ahasuerus, known to the Greeks as 
Xerxes, who reigned for twenty-one years. 

(3.) Darius the Persian (Neh. 12 : 22) was 
probably the Darius II. (Ochus or Nothus) of 
profane history, the son of Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, who was the son and successor of 
Ahasuerus (Xerxes). There are some, how- 
ever, who think that the king here meant 
was Darius III. (Codomannus), the antag- 
onist of Alexander the Great (b.c. 336-331). 

Dark^ness. The plague (the ninth) of 
darkness in Egypt (Ex. 10 : 21) is described 
as a darkness "which may be felt." It 
covered "all the land of Egypt," so that 
"they saw not one another." It did not 
extend to the land of Goshen (ver. 23). 

When Jesus hung upon the cross (Ma.tt.. 
27 : 45 ; Luke 23 : 44), from the "sixth hour 
there was darkness over all the land unto 
the ninth hour." 

On Mount Sinai, Moses (Ex. 20:21) 
"drew near unto the thick darkness where 
God was." This was the "thick cloud 
upon the mount " in which Jehovah was 
when he spake unto Moses there. The 
Lord dwelt in the cloud upon' the mercy- 
seat (1 Kings 8 : 12) — the cloud of glory. 
When the psalmist (Ps. 97 : 2) describes 
the inscrutable nature of God's workings 
among the sons of men, he says, ' ' Clovids 
and darkness are round about him." God 
dw^ells in thick darkness. 

Darkness (Isa. 13:9, 10; Matt. 24:29) 
also is a symbol of the judgments that 
attend on the coming of the Lord. It is a 



symbol of misery and adversity (Job 18 : 6 ; 
Ps. 107 : 10 ; Isa. 8 : 22 ; Ezek. 30 : 18). The 
"day of darkness " in Joel 2 : 2, caused by 
clouds of locusts, is a symbol of the ob- 
scurity which overhangs all divine pro- 
ceedings. "Works of darkness" are im- 
pure actions (Eph. 5 : 11). "Outer darkness " 
refers to the darkness of the streets in the 
East, which are never lighted up by any 
l)ublic or private lamps after nightfall, in 
contrast with the blaze of cheerful light in 
the house. It is also a symbol of igno- 
rance (Isa. 9:2; 60 : 2; Matt. 6 : 23) and of 
death (Job 10 : 21 ; 17 : 13). 

Dart, an instrument of war; a light 
spear. "Eiery darts" (Eph. 6:16) are so 
called in allusion to the habit of discharging 
darts from the bow while they are on fire 
or armed with some combustible material. 
Arrows are compared to lightning (Deut. 
32:23, 42; Ps. 7:13; 120:4). 

Darling (Ps. 22 : 20 ; 35 : 17) means an 
"only one." 




"^ ^r^t^J!' 



DATE PALM. 



Date, the fruit of a species of palm (g.f.), 
the Phoenix clactilifera. This was a common 
tree in Palestine (Joel 1 : 12 ; Neh. 8 : 15). 



DATHAN 



182 



DAVID 



Palm branches were carried by the Jews 
on festive occasions, and especially at the 
feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23 : 40; Neh. 8 : 
15). 

Da^'than — ivelled; belonging to a fountain 
— a son of Eliab, a Reubenite, who joined 
Korah {q.v.) in his conspiracy, and with his 
accomplices was swallowed up by an earth- 
quake (Num. 16:1; 26:9; Deut. 11:6; 
Ps. 106 : 17). 

Daugh^ter. This word, besides its 
natural and proper sense, is used to desig- 
nate — (1.) A niece or any female descend- 
ant (Gen. 20:12; 24:48.; 28:6). (2.) 
Women as natives of a place, or as pro- 
fessing the religion of a place; as, "the 
daughters of Zion " (Isa. 3 : 16), "daughters 
of the PhiHstines " (2 Sam. 20). (3.) Small 
towns and villages lying around a city are 
its "daughters," as related to the metrop- 
olis or mother-city. Tyre is in this sense 
called the daughter of Sidon (Isa. 22 : 12). 
(4.) The people of Jerusalem are spoken of 
as "the davighters of Zion" (Isa. 37:22). 
(5.) The daughters of a tree are its boughs 
(Gen. 49:22). (6.) The "daughters of 
music " (Eccl. 12 : 4) are singing women. 

Da'vid — beloved — the eighth and young- 
est son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. 
His father seems to have been a man in 
humble life. His mother's name is not 
recorded. Some think she was the Nahash 
of 2 Sam. 17 : 25. As to his personal ap- 
pearance, we only know that he was " red- 
haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face" 
(ISam. 16:12; 17:42). 

His early occupation was that of tending 
his father's sheep on the uplands of Judah. 
From what we know of his after history, 
doubtless he frequently beguiled his time, 
when thus engaged, with his shepherd's 
flute, while he drank in the many lessons 
taught him by the varied scenes spread 
around him. His first recorded exploits 
were his encounters with the wild beasts 
of the field. He mentions that with his 
own unaided hand he slew a lion and also 
a bear, when they came out against his 
flock, beating them to death in open con- 
flict with his club (1 Sam. 17 : 34, 35). 

While David, in the freshness of ruddy 
youth, was thus engaged with his flocks, 



Samuel paid an unexpected visit to Beth- 
lehem, having been guided thither by divine 
direction (1 Sam. 16:1-13). There he 
offered up sacrifice, and called the elders 
of Israel and Jesse's family to the sacri- 
ficial meal. Among all who appeared be- 
fore him he failed to discover the one he 
sought. David was sent for, and the pro- 
phet immediately recognized him as the 
chosen of God — chosen to succeed Saul, 
who was now departing from the ways of 
God, on the throne of the kingdom. He 
accordingly, in anticipation, poured on his 
head the anointing oil. David went back 
again to his shepherd life, but from "that 
day forward the Spirit of the Lord came 
upon David," and "the Spirit of the Lord 
departed from Saul " (1 Sam. 16 : 13, 14). 

Not long after this David was sent for 
to soothe with his harp the troubled spirit 
of Saul, who suffered from a strange melan- 
choly dejection. He played before the 
king so skilfully that Saul was greatly 
cheered, and began to entertain great af- 
fection for the young shepherd. After 
this he went home to Bethlehem. But he 
soon again came into prominence. The 
armies of the Philistines and of Israel 
were in battle array in the valley of Elah, 
some 16 miles south-west of Bethlehem ; 
and David was sent by his father with 
provisions for his three brothers, who were 
then fighting on the side of the king. On 
his arrival in the camp of Israel, David 
(now about twenty years of age) was made 
aware of the state of matters when the 
champion of the PhiHstines, Goliath of 
Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David 
took his sling, and Avith a well-trained aim 
threw a stone "out of the brook," which 
struck the giant's forehead, so that he fell 
senseless to the ground. David then ran 
and slew him, and cut off his head with 
his own sword (1 Sam. 17). The result was 
a great victory to the Israelites, who pur- 
sued the Philistines to the gates of Gath 
and Ekron. 

David's popularity consequent on this 
heroic exploit awakened Saul's jealousy 
(1 Sam. 18 : 6-16), which he showed in 
various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred 
toward him, and by various stratagems 



DAVID 



183 



DAVID 



sought his death (1 Sam. 17-ch. 30). The 
deep-laid plots of the enraged king.whocould 
not fail to observe that David "prospered 
exceedingly," all proved futile, and only 
endeared the young hero the more to the 
people, and very specially to Jonathan, 
Saul's son, between whom and David a 
life-long warm friendship was formed. 

A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance 
of Saul, David fled to Ramah (1 Sam. 19 : 
13-18) to Samuel, who received him, and 
he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, 
who were there under Samuel's training. 
It is supposed by some that the sixth, 
seventh, and eleventh Psalms were com- 
posed by him at this time. This place was 
only 3 miles from the residence of Saul, 
who soon discovered whither the fugitive 
had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring 
him back. Jonathan made a fruitless effort 
to bring his father to a better state of 
mind toward David (1 Sam. 20), who, being 
made aware of the fact, saw no hope of 
safety but in flight to a distance. We 
accordingly find him first at Nob (21 : 1-9) 
and then at Gath, the chief city of the 
Philistines. The king of the Philistines 
would not admit him into his service, as he 
expected that he would, and David accord- 
ingly now betook himself to the strong- 
hold of Adullam (22 : 1-4; 1 Chr. 12 : 8-18). 
Here in a short time 400 men gathered 
around him and acknowledged him as their 
leader. It was at this time that David, 
amid the harassment and perils of his 
position, cried, "Oh that one would give 
me drink of the water of the well of Beth- 
lehem ; " when three of his heroes broke 
through the lines of the Philistines and 
brought him the water for which he longed 
(2 Sam. 23:13-17), but which he would 
not drink. 

In his rage at the failure of all his efforts 
to seize David, Saul gave orders for the 
massacre of the entire priestly family at 
Nob — "persons who wore a linen ephod" — 
to the number of eighty-five persons, who 
were put to death by Doeg the Edomite. 
The sad tidings of the massacre were 
brought to David by Abiathar, a son of 
Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. 
Comp. Ps. 52. 



Hearing that Keilah, a town on the 
western frontier, was harassed by the 
Philistines, David with his men relieved 
it (1 Sam, 23 : 1-14) ; and then, for fear of 
Saul, he fled to the strongholds in the 
"hill country" of Judah. Comp. Ps. 31. 
While encamped there, in the forest in the 
district of Ziph, he was visited by Jon- 
athan, who spoke to him words of encour- 
agement (23 : 16-18). The two now parted 
never to meet again. Saul continued his 
pursuit of David, who narrowly escaped 
from him at this time, and fled to the crags 
and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore 
of the Dead Sea (1 Sam. 24). Here Saiil, 
who still pursued him with his army, nar- 
rowly escaped, through the generous for- 
bearance of David, and was greatly affected 
by what David had done for him. He re- 
turned home from pursuing him, and David 
betook himself to Maon, where, with his 
600 men, he maintained himself by con- 
tributions gathered from the district. Here 
occurred the incident connected with Nabal 
and his "wife Abigail (1 Sam. 25 : 2-44), 
whom David married after Nabal's death, 

Saul again went forth (1 Sam, 26) in 
pursuit of David, who had hid himself 
"in the hill Hachilah, which is before 
Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and 
was a second time spared through his for- 
bearance. He returned home, professing 
shame and penitence for the way in which 
he had treated David, and predicting his 
elevation to the throne. 

Fighting against Israel. Harassed by 
the necessity of moving from place to place 
through fear of Saul, David once m-ore 
sought refuge among the Philistines (1 
Sam, 27), He was welcomed by the king, 
who assigned him Ziklag as his residence. 
Here David lived among his followers for 
some time as an independent chief engaged 
in frequent war with the Amalekites and 
other tribes on the south of Judah, 

Achish summoned David with his men 
to join his army against Saul ; but the 
lords of the Philistines were suspicious of 
David's loyalty, and therefore he was sent 
back to Ziklag, which he found to his dis- 
may had been pillaged and burnt during 
his brief absence, David pursued after 



DAVID 



184 



DAVID 



the raiders, the Amalekites, and com- 
pletely routed them. On his return to 
Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul's death 
(2 Sam. 1). An Amalekite brought Saul's 
crown and bracelet and laid them at his 
feet. David and his men rent their clothes 
and mourned for Sauil, who had been de- 
feated in battle near Mount Gilboa. David 
composed a beaiitiful elegy — the most beau- 
tiful of all extant Hebrew odes — a "lam- 
entation over Saul and over Jonathan his 
son " (2 Sam. 1 : 18-27). It bore the title 
of "The Bow," and was to be taught to 
the children, that the memory of Saul and 
Jonathan might be preserved among them. 
' ' Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher " 
(q.v.). 

David king over Judah. David and his 
men now set out for Hebron under divine 
direction (2 Sam. 2 : 1-4). There they were 
cordially welcomed, and he was at once 
anointed as king. He was now about thirty 
years of age. 

But his title to the throne was not un- 
disputed. Abner took Ish-bosheth, Saul's 
only remaining son, over the Jordan to 
Mahanaim, and there crowned him as 
king. Then began a civil war in Israel. 
The first encounter between the two oppos- 
ing armies, led on the one side by Abner, 
and on the other by Joab, took place at 
the pool of Gibeon. It resulted in the 
defeat of Abner. Other encounters, how- 
ever, between Israel and Judah followed 
(2 Sam. 3 : 1, 5), but still success was on 
the side of David. For the space of seven 
and a half years David reigned in Hebron. 
Abner now sided with David, and sought 
to promote his advancement ; but was 
treacherously put to death by Joab in re- 
venge for his having slain his brother 
Asahel at Gibeon (3:22-39). This was 
greatly to David's regret. He mourned 
for the death of Abner. Shortly after this 
Ish-bosheth was also treacherously put to 
death by two Canaanites of Beeroth ; and 
there being now no rival, David was an- 
ointed king over all Israel (4 : 1-12). 

David king over all Israel (2 Sam. 5 : 1-5 ; 
1 Chr. 11 : 1-3). The elders of Israel now 
repaired to Hebron and offered allegiance 
to David in name of all the people, among 



whom the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. 
He was anointed king over all Israel, and 
sought out a new seat of government, more 
suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his 
empire. At this time there was a Jebusite 
fortress — "the stronghold" — on the hill of 
Zion, called also Jebus. This David took 
from the Jebusites, and made it Israel's 
capital, and established here his residence, 
and afterwards built for himself a palace 
by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. The 
Philistines, who had for some time ob- 
served a kind of truce, now made war 
against David ; but were defeated in battle 
at a place afterwards called, in remem- 
brance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again 
they invaded the land, and were a second 
time routed by him. He thus delivered 
Israel from their enemies. 

David now resolved to bring up the ark 
of the covenant to his new capital (2 Sam. 
6). It was in the house of Abinadab at 
Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jer- 
usalem, where it had been for many years, 
from the time when the Philistines had 
sent it home (1 Sam. 6 ; 7). In conse- 
quence of the death of Uzzah (for it was 
a divine ordinance that only the Levites 
should handle the ark — Num. 4), who had 
put forth his hand to steady the ark when 
the cart in which it was being conveyed 
shook by reason of the roughness of the 
road, David stayed the procession, and 
conveyed the ark into the house of Obed- 
edom, a Philistine from Gath. After three 
months David brought the ark from the 
house of Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. 
Comp. Ps. 24. Here it was placed in a 
new tent or tabernacle which David erected 
for the purpose. About seventy years had 
passed since it had stood in the tabernacle 
at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at 
Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David 
now (1 Chr. 16) carefully set in order all 
the ritual of divine worship at Jerusalem, 
along with Abiathar the high priest. A 
new religious era began. The service of 
praise was for the first time introduced 
into public worship. Zion became hence- 
forth "God's holy hill." 

David's wars. David now entered on 
a series of conquests which " greatly ex- 



DAVID 



185 



DAVID 



tended and strengthened his kingdom " 
(2 Sam. 8). In a few years the whole ter- 
ritory from the Euphrates to the river of 
Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to 
Thapsacus on the east, was imder his sway 
(2 Sam. 8 : 3-13 ; 10). 

David's fall. He had now reached the 
height of his glory. He ruled over a vast 
empire, and his capital was enriched with 
the spoils of many lands. But in the midst 
of all this success he fell, and his character 
became stained with the sin of adultery 
(2 Sam. 11 : 2-27). It has been noted as 
characteristic of the Bible that while his 
military triumphs are recorded in a few 
verses, the sad story of his fall is given in 
detail — a story full of warning, and there- 
fore recorded. This crime, in the attempt 
to conceal it, led to another. He was 
guilty of murder. Uriah, whom he had 
foully wronged — an officer of the Gibborim, 
the corps of heroes (23 : 39) — was, by his 
order, "set in the front of the hottest 
battle" at the siege of Rabbah, in order 
that he might be put to death. Nathan 
the prophet, whose name here appears for 
the first time, was sent by God to bring 
home his crimes to the conscience of the 
guilty monarch. He became a true peni- 
tent. He bitterly bewailed his sins before 
God. The thirty-second and fifty-first 
Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his 
soul, and his spiritual recovery. 

Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah's 
death. Her first-born son died, accord- 
ing to the word of the prophet. She 
gave birth to a second son, whom David 
called Solomon, and who ultimately suc- 
ceeded him on the throne (2 Sam. 12 : 24, 
25). 

Peace. After the successful termination 
of all his wars, David formed the idea of 
building a temple for the ark of God. 
This he was not permitted to carry into 
execution, because he had been a man of 
war. God, however, sent Nathan to him 
with a gracious message (2 Sam. 7 : 1-16), 
On receiving it he went into the sanctuary 
■ — the tent where the ark was — and sat be- 
fore the Lord, and poured out his heart 
in words of devout thanksgiving (18-29). 
The building of the temple was reserved 



for his son Solomon, who would be a man 
of peace (1 Chr. 22 : 9 ; 28 : 3). 

A cloudy evening. Hitherto David's 
career had been one of great prosperity 
and success. Now cloudy and dark days 
came. His eldest son Amnon, whose 
mother was Ahinoam of Jezreel, was guilty 
of a great and shameful crime (2 Sam. 13). 
This was the beginning of the disasters of 
his later years. After two years Absalom 
terribly avenged the crime against Tamar, 
and put Amnon to death. This brought 
sore trouble to David's heart. Absalom^ 
afraid of the consequences of his guilt, fled, 
to Geshur beyond Jordan, where he re- 
mained for three years, when he was 
brought back through the intrigue of Joab 
(2 Sam. 14). 

After this there fell upon the land the 
calamity of three years' famine (2 Sam. 
21 : 1-14). This was soon after followed 
by a pestilence, brought upon the land as 
a punishment for David's sinful pride in 
numbering the people (2 Sam. 24), in which 
no fewer than 70,000 perished in the space 
of three days. 

Rebellion of Absalom. The personal re- 
spect for David was sadly lowered by the 
incident of Bathsheba. There was a strong 
popular sentiment against the taking of the 
census, and the outburst of the plague in 
connection with it deepened the feeling of 
jealousy that had begun to manifest itself 
among some of the tribes against David. 
Absalom, taking full advantage of this 
state of things, gradually gained over the 
people, and at length openly rebelled 
against his father, and usurped the throne. 
Ahithophel was Absalom's chief counsellor. 
The revolt began in Hebron, the capital 
of Judah. Absalom was there proclaimed 
king. David was now in imminent dan- 
ger, and he left Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15 : 
13-20), and once more became a fugitive. 
It was a momentous day in Israel. The 
incidents of it are recorded with a fulness 
of detail greater than of any other day in 
Old Testament history. David fled with 
his followers to Mahanaim, on the east of 
Jordan. An unnatural civil war broke out. 
After a few weeks the rival armies were 
mustered and organized. They met in hos- 



DAVID 



186 



DAVID 



tile array at the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. 
18 : 1-8). Absalom's army was defeated, 
and himself put to death by the hand of 
Joab (9-18). The tidings of the death of 
his rebellious son filled the heart of David 
with the most poignant grief. He "went 
up to the chamber over the gate, and wept " 
(33), giving utterance to the heart-broken 
cry, "Would God I had died for thee, O 
Absalom, my son, my son ! " Peace was 
now restored, and David returned to Jer- 
usalem and resumed the direction of affairs. 
An unhappy dispute arose between the men 
of Judah and the men of Israel (41-43). 
Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the 
men of Israel. He was pursued to Abel- 
beth-maachah, and was there put to death, 
and so the revolt came to an end. 



The end. After the suppression of the 
rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba, 
ten comparatively peaceful years of David's 
life passed away. During those years he 
seems to have been principally engaged in 
accumulating treasures of every kind for 
the great temple at Jerusalem, which it 
was reserved to his successor to build 
(1 Chr. 22; 28; 29)— a house which was 
to be "exceeding magnifical, of fame and 
of glory throughout all countries " (22 : 5). 
The exciting and laborious life he had 
spent, and the dangers and trials through 
which he had passed, had left him an en- 
feebled man, prematurely old. It became 
apparent that his life was now drawing to 
its close. A new palace conspiracy broke 
out as to who should be his successor. 




SUPPOSED TOMB OF DAVID, MOUNT ZION. 



Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of 
his party met at the "Fuller's spring," in 
the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him 
king ; but Nathan hastened on a decision 
on the part of David in favour of Solomon, 
and so the aim of Adonijah's party failed. 
Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and 
was anointed king and seated on his 
father's throne (1 Kings 1 : 11-53). David's 
last words are a grand utterance, revealing 
his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful 
confidence in his gracious covenant prom- 
ises (2 Sam. 23 : 1-7). 

After a reign of forty years and six 
months (2 Sam. 5:5; 1 Chr. 3:4) David 
died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy years, 
"and was buried in the city of David." 



His tomb is still pointed out on Mount 
Zion. 

Both in his prophetical and in his regal 
character David was a type of the Messiah 
(1 Sam. 16 : 13). The book of Psalms com- 
monly bears the title of the "Psalms of 
David," from the circumstance that he 
was the largest contributor (about eighty 
psalms) to the collection. (See Psalms.) 

' ' The greatness of David was felt when 
he was gone. He had lived in harmony 
with both the priesthood and the prophets ; 
a sure sign that the spirit of his govern- 
ment had been thoroughly loyal to the 
higher aims of the theocracy. The nation 
had not been oppressed by him, but had 
been left in the free enjoyment of its 



DAVID 



18- 



DEACON 



ancient liberties. As far as his power 
went he had striven to act justh^ to all 
(2 Sam. 8 : 15). His weak indulgence to 
his sons, and his own great sin besides, 
had been bitterly atoned, and were for- 
gotten at his death in the remembrance 
of his long-tried worth. He had reigned 
thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven 
and a half at Hebron (2 Sam. 5 : 5). Israel at 
his accession had reached the lowest point 
of national depression ; its new-bom unity 
rudely dissolved ; its territory assailed by 
the PhiHstines. But he had left it an 
imperial power, %^dth dominions Hke those 
of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of Solo- 
mon was already, before his father's death, 
owned from the Mediterranean to the Eu- 
phrates, and from the Orontes to the Red 
Sea." — Geikie's Hours, etc., iii. 

David, City of. (1.) David took from 
the Jebusites the fortress of Mount Zion. 
He "dwelt in the fort, and called it the 
city of David " (1 Chr. 11 : 7). This was 
the name afterw^ards given to the castle 
and royal palace on Mount Zion, as dis- 
tinguished from Jerusalem generally (1 
Kings 3 : 1 ; 8 : 1). It was on the south- 
west side of Jerusalem, opposite the tem- 
ple mount, with which it was connected by 
a bridge over the Tyropoeon valley. 

(2.) Bethlehem is called the "city of 
David " (Luke 2 : 4, 11), because it was 
Da\'id's birth-place and early home (1 Sam. 
17 : 12). 

Day. The Jews reckoned the day from 
sunset to sunset (Lev. 23 : 32). It was 
originally di\T.ded into three parts (Ps. 
55:17). "The heat of the day" (1 Sam. 
11 : 11 ; Neh. 7 : 3) was at our nine o'clock, 
and " the cool of the day " just before sun- 
set (Gen. 3 : 8). Before the Captivity the 
Jews divided the night into three watches 
— (1) from sunset to midnight (Lam. 2:19); 
(2) from midnight till the cock-crowing 
(Judg. 7 : 19) ; and (3) from the cock-crow- 
ing till sunrise (Ex. 14 : 24). In the New 
Testament the division of the Greeks and 
Romans into four watches was adopted 
(Mark 13 : 35). (See Watches. ) 

The division of the day by hours is first 
mentioned in Dan. 3:6, 15 ; 4 : 19 ; 5:5. 
This mode of reckoning was borrowed from 



the Chaldeans. The reckoning of twelve 
hours was from sunrise to sunset, and 
accordingly the hoiirs were of variable 
length (John 11 : 9). 

The word " day " sometimes signifies an 
indefinite time (Gen. 2:4; Isa. 2 : 12 ; 22 : 5 ; 
Heb. 3 : 8, etc. ). In Job 3 : 1 it denotes a 
birth-day, and in Acts 17 : 31, and 2 Tim. 
1 : 18, the great day of final jiidgment. 

Day's journey. The usual length of a 
day's journey in the East, on camel or horse- 
back, in six or eight hours, is about 25 or 
30 miles. The "three days' journey" men- 
tioned in Ex. 3 : 18 is simply a journey 
which would occupy three days in going 
and returning. 

Days^man, an umpire or arbiter or judge 
(Job 9 : 33). This word is formed from the 
Latin diem dicere — i.e., to fix a day for hear- 
ing a cause. Such an one is empowered by 
mutual consent to decide the cause, and to 
"lay his hand" — i.e., to impose his autho- 
rity — on both, and enforce his sentence. 

Day-spring (Job 38 : 12 ; Luke 1 : 78), the 
dawn of the morning ; daybreak. (Comp. 
Isa. 60 : 1, 2 ; Mai. 4:2; Rev. 22 : 16. ) 

Day'^-star, which precedes and accom- 
panies the sun-rising. It is found only in 
2 Pet. 1 : 19, where it denotes the mani- 
festation of Christ to the soul, imparting 
spiritual light and comfort. He is the 
"bright and morning star " of Rev. 2 : 28 ; 
22 : 16. 

Dea'con, Anglicized form of the Greek 
word diaconos, meaning a "runner," "mes- 
senger," "servant." Eor a long period a 
feeling of mutual jealousy had existed be- 
tween the "Hebrews," or Jews proper, 
who spoke the sacred language of Pales- 
tine, and the "Hellenists," or Jews of the 
Grecian speech, who had adopted the 
Grecian language, and read the Septua- 
gint version of the Bible instead of the 
Hebrew. This jealousy early appeared in 
the Christian community. It was alleged 
by the Hellenists that their widows were 
overlooked in the daily distribution of 
alms. This spirit must be checked. The 
apostles accordingly advised the disciples 
to look out for seven men of good report, 
full of the Holy Ghost, and men of prac- 
tical wisdom, who should take entire charge 



DEACONESS 



188 



DEAD 



of this distribution, leaving them free to 
devote themselves entirely to the spiritual 
functions of their office (Acts 6 : 1-6). This 
was accordingly done. Seven men were 
chosen, who appear from their names to 
have been Hellenists. The name " deacon " 
is nowhere applied to them in the New 
Testament ; they are simply called " the 
seven " (21 : 8). Their office was at first 
secular, but it afterwards became also spir- 
itual ; for among other qualifications they 
must also be "apt to teach" (1 Tim. 3: 
8-12). Both Philip and Stephen, who were 
of "the seven," preached; they did "the 
work of evangelists." 



Dea'coness (Rom. 16:1, 3, 12; Phil. 4: 
2, 3 ; 1 Tim. 3 : 11 ; 5 : 9, 10 ; Titus 2 : 3, 4). 
In these passages it is evident that females 
were then engaged in various Christian 
ministrations. Pliny makes mention of 
them also in his letter to Trajan (a.d. 110). 

Dead Sea, the name given by Greek 
writers of the second century to that in- 
land sea called in Scripture the "salt sea " 
(Gen. 14 : 3 ; Num. 34 : 12), the " sea of the 
plain" (Deut. 3:17), the "east sea" (Ezek. 
47 : 18 ; Joel 2 : 20), and simply "the sea " 
(Ezek. 47:8). The Arabs call it Bahr 
Lilt — i.e., the Sea of Lot. It lies about 
16 miles in a straight line to the east of 




NORTH END OF THE DEAD SEA. 



Jerusalem. Its surface is 1,300 feet below 
the surface of the Mediterranean Sea. It 
covers an area of about 300 square miles. 
Its depth varies from 1,310 to 11 feet. 
From various phenomena that have been 
observed, its bottom appears to be still 
subsiding. It is about 46 miles long, and 
of an average breadth of 10 miles. It has 
no outlet, the great heat of that region 
causing such rapid evaporation that its 
average depth, notwithstanding the rivers 
that run into it (see Jordan), is maintained 
with little variation. The Jordan alone 
discharges into it no less than six million 
tons of water every twenty-four hours. It 



is so much impregnated with salt, which 
flows into it as brine from the great salt 
mountain of Usdum at its south end, that 
three pounds of its water will yield one 
pound of solid salt. Bitumen, from which 
it anciently derived the name of the Lake 
Asphaltites, is still found on its shores, 
and sometimes floating in its waters. This 
was the "slime " spoken of in Gen. 14 : 10. 
Recent explorations have made it probable 
that this sea was at one time 1,400 feet 
above its present level, and that the whole 
Jordan valley, from Lebanon to the Red 
Sea, was once a branch of the Indian 
Ocean. 



DEARTH 



189 



DEBIR 



Nothing- living can exist in this sea. 
' ' The fish carried down by the Jordan at 
once die, nor can even mussels or corals 
live in it ; but it is a fable that no bird 
can fly over it, or that there are no living 
creatures on its banks. Dr. Tristram found 
on the shores three kinds of kingfishers, 
gulls, ducks, and grebes, which he says 
live on the fish which enter the sea in 
shoals, and presently die. He collected 
one hundred and eighteen species of birds, 
some new to science, on the shores, or 
swimming or flying over the waters. The 
cane-brakes which fringe it at some parts 
are the homes of about forty species of 
mammalia, several of them animals un- 
known in England ; and innumerable trop- 
ical or semi-tropical plants perfume the at- 
mosphere wherever fresh water can reach. 
The climate is perfect and most delicious, 
and indeed there is perhaps no place in the 
world where a sanatorium could be estab- 
lished with, so much prospect of benefit as 
at Ain Jidi (Engedi)." — Geikie's Hours 
with the Bible. 

Dearth, a scarcity of provisions (1 Kings 
17). There were frequent dearths in Pal- 
estine. In the days of Abram there was 
a "famine in the land" (Gen. 12:10), so 
also in the days of Jacob (47 : 4, 13). We 
read also of dearths in the tim.e of the 
judges (Ruth 1 : 1), and of the kings (2 
Sam. 21 : 1 ; 1 Kings 18 : 2 ; 2 Kings 4 : 38 ; 
2 Sam. 21 : 2). 

In New Testament times there was an 
extensive famine in Palestine (Acts 11 : 28) 
in the fourth year of the reign of the em- 
peror Clavidius (a.d. 44 and 45), 

Death may be simply defined as the 
termination of life. It is represented 
under a variety of aspects in Scrij^ture : — 

(1.) "The dust shaU return to the earth 
as it was " (Eccl. 12 : 7). 

(2.) "Thou takest away their breath, 
they die " (Ps. 104 : 29). 

(3.) It is the dissolution of "our earthly 
house of this tabernacle " (2 Cor. 5:1); the 
"putting off this tabernacle" (2 Pet. 1: 
13, 14). 

(4.) Being " unclothed " (2 Cor. 5 : 3, 4). 

(5.) "Falling on sleep" (Ps, 76:5; Jer, 
51 : 39 ; John 11 : 13). 



(6.) "I go whence I shall not return" 
(Job 10:21); "Make me to know mine 
end" (Ps. 39:4); "to depart" (Phil, 1: 
23), 

The grave is represented as "the gates 
of death " (Job 38 : 17 ; Ps, 9 : 13 ; 107 : 18). 
The gloomy silence of the grave is spoken 
of under the figure of the "shadow of 
death " (Jer. 2 : 6). 

Death is the effect of sin (Heb. 2 : 14), and 
not a "debt of nature." It is but once 
(9 : 27), universal (Gen. 3 : 19), necessary 
(Luke 2 : 28-30). Jesus has by his own 
death taken away its sting for all his 
followers (1 Cor. 15 : 55-57). 

There is a spiritual death in trespasses 
and sins — i.e., the death of the soiil under 
the power of sin (Rom. 8:6; Eph, 2:1, 3 ; 
Col. 2 : 13). 

The "second death" (Rev. 2: 11) is the 
everlasting perdition of the wicked (Rev. 
21 : 8), and " second " in respect to natural 
or temporal death. 

The Death of Christ is the procuring 
cause incidentally of all the blessings men 
enjoy on earth. But specially it is the 
procuring cause of the actual salvation of 
all his peoiDle together, with all the means 
that lead thereto. It does not make their 
salvation merely possible, but certain 
(Matt. 18 : 11 ; Rom. 5 : 10 ; 2 Cor, 5 : 21 ; 
Gal, 1:4; 3 : 13 ; Eph. 1 : 7 ; 2 : 10 ; Rom. 
8 : 32-35), 

De'bir — oracle tmvn; sanctuary. (1.) 
One of the eleven cities to the west of 
Hebron, in the highlands of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 49 ; Judg, 1 : 11-15). It was originally 
one of the towns of the Anakim (Josh. 15 : 
15), and was also called Kirjath-sepher 
{q.v.) and Kirjath-sannah (49). Caleb, 
who had conquered and taken possession of 
the town and district of Hebron (Josh. 
14 : 6-15), offered the hand of his daughter 
to any one who would successfully lead a 
party against Debir, Othniel, his younger 
brother (Judg. 1 : 13 ; 3:9), achieved the 
conquest, and gained Achsah as his wife. 
She was not satisfied with the portion her 
father gave her, and as she was proceeding 
toward her new home, she "lighted off her 
ass" and said to him, "Give me a bless- 
ing" {i.e., a dowry) : "for thou hast given 



DEBORAH 



190 



DECALOGUE 



me a south land " (Josh. 15 : 19, A.V.) ; or, 
as in the Revised Version, * ' Thou hast set 
me in the land of the south" — i.e., in the 
Negeb, outside the rich valley of Hebron, 
in the dry and barren land. "Give me 
also springs of water. And he gave her 
the upper springs, and the nether springs." 

Debir has been identified with the 
modern JEdh-Dhdheriyeh — i.e., " the well on 
the ridge " — to the south of Hebron. 

(2.) A place near the "valley of Achor" 
(Josh. 15 : 7), on the north boundary of 
Judah, between Jerusalem and Jericho. 

(3.) The king of Eglon, one of the five 
Canaanitish kings who were hanged by 
Joshua (Josh. 10 : 3, 23) after the victory at 
Gibeon. These kings fled and took refuge 
in a cave at Makkedah. Here they were 
kej)t confined till Joshua returned from 
the pursuit of their discomfited armies, 
when he caused them to be brought forth, 
and "Joshua smote them, and slew them, 
and hanged them on five trees " (26). 

De'b''orah — a bee. (1. ) Rebekah's nurse. 
She accompanied her mistress when she 
left her father's house in Padan-aram to 
become the wife of Isaac (Gen. 24 : 59). 
Many years afterwards she died at Bethel, 
and was buried under the "oak of weep- 
ing "— AUon-bachuth (35 : 8). 

(2.) A prophetess, "wife" (woman?) of 
Lapidoth. Jabin, the king of Hazor, had 
for twenty years held Israel in degrading 
subjection. The spirit of patriotism 
seemed crushed out of the nation. In this 
emergency Deborah roused the people from 
their lethargy. Her fame spread far and 
wide. She became a "mother in Israel" 
(Judg. 4:6, 14; 5:7), and "the children 
of Israel came to her for judgment " as she 
sat in her tent under the palm tree "be- 
tween Ramah and Bethel." Preparations 
were everywhere made by her direction 
for the great effort to throw off the yoke 
of bondage. She summoned Barak from 
Kadesh to take the command of 10,000 
men of Zebulun and Naphtali, and lead 
them to Mount Tabor on the plain of 
Esdraelon at its north-east end. With his 
aid she organized this army. She gave the 
signal for attack, and the Hebrew host 
rushed down impetuously upon the army 



of Jabin, which was commanded by Sisera, 
and gained a great and decisive victory. 
The Canaanitish army, almost wholly per- 
ished. That was a great and ever-memor- 
able day in Israel. In Judg. 5 is given 
the grand triumphal ode, the "song of 
Deborah," which she wrote in grateful 
commemoration of that great deliverance. 
(See Lapidoth, Jabin [2].) 

Debt. The Mosaic law encouraged the 
practice of lending (Deut. 15 : 7 ; Ps. 37 : 
26; Matt. 5:42); but it forbade the ex- 
action of interest except from foreigners. 
Usury was strongly condemned (Prov. 28 : 
8 ; Ezek. 18 : 8, 13, 17 ; 22 : 12 ; Ps. 15 : 5). 
On the Sabbatical year all pecuniary ob- 
ligations were cancelled (Deut. 15 : 1-11). 
These regulations prevented the accumula- 
tion of debt. 

Debt''or. Various regulations as to the 
relation between debtor and creditor are 
laid down in the Scriptures. 

(1.) The debtor was to deliver up as a 
pledge to the creditor what he could most 
easily dispense with (Deut. 24 : 10, 11). 

(2.) A mill, or millstone, or upper gar- 
ment, when given as a pledge, could not be 
kept over night (Ex. 22 : 26, 27). 

(3. ) A debt could not be exacted during 
the Sabbatic year (Deut. 15 : 1-15). 

For other laws bearing on this relation 
see Lev. 25 : 14, 32, 39 ; Matt. 18 : 25, 34. 

(4. ) A surety was liable in the same way 
as the original debtor (Prov. 11 : 15 ; 17 : 
18). 

Dec'alogue, the name given by the 
Greek fathers to the ten commandments ; 
"the ten words," as the original is more 
literally rendered (Ex. 20:3-17). These 
commandments were at first written on two 
stone slabs (31 : 18), which were broken by 
Moses throwing them down on the ground 
(32 : 19). They were written by God a 
second time (34 : 1). The decalogue is 
alluded to in the New Testament five 
times (Matt. 5 : 17, 18, 19 ; Mark 10 : 19 ; 
Luke 18 : 20 ; Rom. 7:7, 8 ; 13 : 9 ; 1 Tim. 
1 : 9, 10). 

These commandments have been divided 
since the days of Origen the Greek father, 
as they stand in the Confession of all the 
Reformed Churches except the Lutheran. 



DECAPOLIS 



191 



deda:n' 



The division adopted by Liither, and 
which has ever since been received in the 
Lutheran Church, makes the first two 
commandments one, and the third the 
second, and so on to the last, which is 
divided into two. " Thou shalt not covet 
thy neighbour's house" being ranked as 
ninth, and "Thou shalt not covet thy 
neighbour's wife," etc., the tenth. (See 
Commandments. ) 

Decap''olis — ten cities=deka, ten, and 
polis, a city — a district on the east and 
south-east of the Sea of Galilee containing 
"ten cities," which were chiefly inhabited 
by Gentiles. It included a portion of Ba- 
shan and Gilead, and is mentioned three 



^Hippos 




ibiJalliAmnioii 



MAP OF THE DISTRICT OF DECAPOLIS. 

times in the New Testament (Matt. 4 : 25 ; 
Mark 5:20; 7:31). These cities were 
Scy thopolis— i. e. , " city of the Scy thi ans " — 
(ancient Bethshean, the only one of the 
ten cities on the west of Jordan), Hippos, 
Gadara, Bella (to which the Christians fled 
just before the destruction of Jerusalem), 
Bhiladelphia (ancient Rabbath - ammoii), 
Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Raphana, and 
Damascus. When the Romans conquered 
Syria (B.C. G5) they rebuilt, and endowed 
with certain privileges, these "ten cities," 
and the province connected with them they 
called "Decapolis." 

Decision, Valley of, a name given to 
the valley of Jehoshaphat [q.v.) as I^Jw vale 



of the sentence. The ideal scene of Jeho- 
vah's signal inflictions on Zion's enemies 
(Joel 3 : 14). 

Decrees of God. " The decrees of God 
are his eternal, unchangeable, holy, wise, 
and sovereign purpose, comprehending at 
once all things that ever were or will be in 
their causes, conditions, successions, and 
relations, and determining their certain 
futurition. The several contents of this 
one eternal purpose are, because of the 
limitation of our faculties, necessarily con- 
ceived of by us in partial aspects, and in 
logical relations, and are therefore styled 
Decrees.'^ The decree being the act of an 
infinite, absolute, eternal, unchangeable, 
and sovereign Berson, comprehending a 
plan including all his works of all kinds, 
great and small, from the beginning of 
creation to an unending eternity ; ends as 
well as means, causes as well as effects, 
conditions and instrumentalities as well as 
the events which depend upon them, must 
be incomprehensible by the finite intellect 
of man. The decrees are eternal (Acts 15 : 
18 ; Eph. 1 : 4 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 13), unchangeable 
(Bs. 33 : 11 ; Isa. 4G : 9), and comprehend 
all things that come to i^ass (Eph. 1 : 11 ; 
Matt. 10 : 29, 30 ; Eph. 2 : 10 ; Acts 2 : 23 ; 
4 : 27, 28 ; Bs. 17 : 13, 14). 

The decrees of God are (1) efficacious, as 
they respect those events he has deter- 
mined to bring about by his own imme- 
diate agency ; or (2) permissive, as they 
respect those events he has determined 
that free agents shall be permitted by him 
to effect. 

This doctrine ought to produce in our 
minds "humility, in view of the infinite 
greatness and sovereignty of God, and of 
the dependence of man ; confidence and 
implicit reliance upon the wisdom, righte- 
ousness, goodness, and immutability of 
God's purposes." 

De^dan — loio ground. (1.) A son of 
Raamah (Gen. 10 : 7). His descendants are 
mentioned in Isa. 21 : 13, and Ezek. 27 : 15. 
They probably settled among the sons of 
Cush, on the north-west coast of the Bersian 
Gulf. 

(2.) A son of Jokshan, Abraham's son 
by Keturah (1 Chr. 1 : 32). His descend- 

13 



DEDANIM 



192 



DELUGE 



ants settled on the Syrian borders about 
the territory of Edoin. They probably led 
a pastoral life. 

Ded^anim, the descendants of Dedan, 
the son of Raamah. They are mentioned 
in laa. 21:13 as sending out "travelling 
companies" which lodged "in the forest 
of Arabia." They are enumerated also by 
Ezekiel (27 : 20) among the merchants who 
supplied Tyre with precious things. 

Dedica^tion, Feast of the (John 10 : 22, 
42) — i.e., the feast of the renewing. It was 
instituted B.C. 164 to commemorate the 
purging of the temple after its pollution 
by Antiochus Epiphanes (b.c. 167), and the 
rebuilding of the altar after the Syrian 
invaders had been driven out by Judas 
Maccabseus. It lasted for eight days, be- 
ginning on the 25th of the month Chisleu 
(December), which was often a period of 
heavy rains (Ezra 10 : 9, 13). It was an 
occasion of much rejoicing and festivity. 

Bvit there were other dedications of the 
temple. (1. ) That of Solomon's temple (1 
Kings 8 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 5:3); (2) the dedica- 
tion in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29) ; 
and (3) the dedication of the temple after 
the Captivity (Ezra 6 : 16). 

Deep, used to denote (1) the grave or 
the abyss (Rom. 10 : 7 ; Luke 8 : 31) ; (2) 
the deepest part of the sea (Ps. 69 : 15) ; (3) 
the chaos mentioned in Gen. 1:2; (4) the 
bottomless pit, hell (Rev. 9:1, 2 ; 11 : 7 ; 
20 : 13). 

Degrees, Song of— song of steps — a title 
given to each of these fifteen psalms, 120-134 
inclusive. The probable origin of this name 
is the circumstance that these psalms came 
to be sung by the people on the ascents or 
goings up to Jerusalem to attend the three 
great festivals (Deut. 16 : 16). They were 
well fitted for being sung by the way from 
their peculiar form, and from the sentiments 
they express. " They are characterized by 
brevity, by a key-word, by epanaphora 
[i.e., repetition], and by their epigram- 
matic style... More than half of them are 
cheerful, and all of them hopeful." They 
are sometimes called "Pilgrim Songs." 
Eour of them were written by David, one 
(127) by Solomon, and the rest are anony- 
mous. 



Deha'vites — villagers — one of the As- 
syrian tribes which Asnapper sent to re- 
populate Samaria (Ezra 4 : 9). They were 
probably a nomad Persian tribe on the 
east of the Caspian Sea, and near the Sea 
of Azof. 

'DelaVah.— freed by Jehovah. (1.) The 
head of the twenty-third division of the 
priestly order (1 Chr. 24 : 18). 

(2.) A son of Shemaiah, and one of the 
courtiers to whom Jeremiah's first roll of 
prophecy was read ( Jer. 36 : 12). 

(3.) The head of one of the bands of 
exiles that returned under Zerubbabel to 
Jerusalem (Ezra 2 : 60 ; Neh. 7 : 62). 

Deli^'lah — languishing — a Philistine 
woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek 
( Judg, 16 : 4-20), She was bribed by the 
"lords of the Philistines" to obtain from 
Samson the secret of his strength and the 
means of overcoming it (Judg. 16 : 4-18). 
She tried on three occasions to obtain from 
him this secret in vain. On the fourth 
occasion she wrung it from him. She 
made him sleep upon her knees, and then 
called the man who was waiting to help 
her ; who ' ' cut off the seven locks of his 
head," and so his "strength went from 
him." (See Samson.) 

Deluge, the name given to Noah's flood, 
the history of which is recorded in Gen. 7 
and 8. 

It began in the year 2516 B.C., and con- 
tinued twelve lunar months and ten days, 
or exactly one solar year. 

The cause of this judgment was the 
corruption and violence that filled the 
earth in the ninth generation from Adam. 
God in righteous indignation determined 
to purge the earth of the ungodly race. 
Amid a world of crime and guilt there was 
one household that continued faithful and 
tnie to God — the household of Noah. 
"Noah was a just man and perfect in his 
generation. " 

At the command of God, Noah made an 
ark 300 cubits long, 50 broad, and 30 high. 
He slowly proceeded with this work dur- 
ing a period of one hundred and twenty 
years (Gen. 6:3). At length the pur- 
pose of God began to be carried into 
effect. 



DELUGE 



193 



DEPUTY 



The following table exhibits the order of 
events as they occurred : — 

In the six hundredth year of his life Noah is 

commanded by God to enter the ark, taking 

with him his wife, and his three sons with 

their wives (Gen. 7 : 1-4). 
The rain begins on the seventeenth day of the 

second month (Gen. 7 : 5-17). 
The rain ceases — the waters prevail, fifteen cubits 

upward (Gen. 7 : 18-24). 
The ark grounds on one of the mountains of 

Ararat on the seventeenth day of the seventh 

month, or one hundred and fifty days after 

the Deluge began (Gen. 8 : 1-4). 
Tops of the mountains visible on the first day of 

the tenth month (Gen. 8 : 5). 
Eaven and dove sent out forty days after this 

(Gen. 8 : 6-9). 
Dove again sent out seven days afterwards ; and 

in the evening she returns with an olive 

leaf in her mouth (Gen. 8 : 10, 11). 
Dove sent out the third time after an interval of 

other seven days, and returns no more (Gen. 

8 : 12). 
The ground becomes dry on the first day of the 

first month of the new year (Gen. 8 : 13). 
Noah leaves the ark on the twenty-seventh day 

of the second month (Gen. 8 : 14-19). 

The historical truth of the narrative of 
the riood is established by the references 
made to it by our Lord (Matt. 24 : 37 ; 
comp. Luke 17 : 26). Peter speaks of it 
also (1 Pet. 3 : 20 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 5). In Isa. 
54 : 9 the Plood is referred to as "the waters 
of Noah." The Biblical narrative clearly 
shows that so far as the human race was 
concerned the Deluge was universal ; that 
it swept away all men living except Noah 
and his family, who were preserved in the 
ark ; and that the present human race is 
descended from those who were thus pre- 
served. 

Traditions of the Deluge are found 
among all the great divisions of the human 
family ; and these traditions, taken as a 
whole, wonderfully agree ^vith the Biblical 
narrative, and agree ^vith it in such a way 
as to lead to the conclusion that the Bibli- 
cal is the authentic narrative, of which all 
these traditions are more or less corrupted 
versions. The most remarkable of these 
traditions is that recorded on tablets pre- 
pared by order of Assur-bani-pal, the king 
of Assj'^ria. These were, however, copies 
of older records which belonged to some- 



where about B.C. 2000, and which formed 
part of the priestly library at Erech {q.v.), 
the modern Warka, about 120 miles south- 
east of Babylon. (See Noah.) 

De'mas, a companion and fellow-labourer 
of Paul during his first imprisonment at 
Rome (Philemon 24 ; Col. 4 : 14). It appears, 
however, that the love of the world after- 
wards mastered him, and he deserted the 
apostle (2 Tim. 4 : 10). 

Deine''trius. (1.) A silversmith at Eph- 
esus, whose chief occupation was to make 
"silver shrines for Diana" {q.v.) — Acts 19: 
24 — i.e., models either of the temple of 
Diana or of the statue of the goddess. 
This trade brought to him and his fellow- 
craftsmen "great gain," for these shrines 
found a ready sale among the coTxntless 
thousands who came to this temple from 
all parts of Asia Minor. This traffic was 
greatly endangered by the progress of the 
gospel, and hence Demetrius excited the 
tradesmen employed in the manufacture 
of these shrines, and caused so great a 
tumult that "the whole city was filled 
with confusion." 

(2.) A Christian who is spoken of as 
having " a good report of all men, and of 
the truth itself " (3 John 12). 

De^mon. See D^mon. 

Den, a lair of wild beasts (Ps. 10:9; 
104 : 22 ; Job 37 : 8) ; the hole of a venomous 
reptile (Isa. 11 : 8) ; a recess for secrecy "in 
dens and caves of the earth " (Heb. 11 : 38) ; 
a resort of thieves (Matt. 21 : 13 ; Mark 
11 : 17). Daniel was cast into "the den of 
lions " (Dan. : 16, 17). Some recent dis- 
coveries among the ruins of Babylon have 
brought to light the fact that the practice 
of punishing offenders against the law by 
throwing them into a den of lions was 
common. 

Dep^uty, in 1 Kings 22 : 47, means a 
prefect ; one set over others. The same 
Hebrew word is rendered "officer;" i.e., 
chief of the commissariat appointed by 
Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 5, etc.). 

In Esther 8:9; 9 : 3 (K V., "governor ") 
it denotes a Persian prefect "on this side" 
— i.e. , in the region' west of — the Euphrates. 
It is the modern word pasha. 

In Acts 13 : 7, 8, 12 ; 18 : 12, it denotes a 



DERBE 



194 



DESOLATION 



proconsul; i.e., the governor of a Roman 
province holding his appointment from the 
senate. The Roman provinces were of 
two kinds — (1) senatorial and (2) imperial. 
The appointment of a governor to the 
former was in the hands of the senate, and 
he bore the title of proconsul (Gr. anthu- 
patos). The appointment of a governor to 
the latter was in the hands of the em- 
peror, and he bore the title of proprietor 
(Gr. antistrategos). 

Der''be, a small town on the eastern part 
of the upland plain of Lycaonia, about 20 
miles from Lystra. Paul passed through 
Derbe on his route from Cilicia to Iconium, 
on his second missionary journey (Acts 16 : 
1), and probably also on his third journey 
(18:23; 19:1). On his first journey (14:20, 
21) he came to Derbe from the other side ; 
i.e., from Iconium. It was the native place 
of Gains, one of Paul's companions (20 : 4). 
He did not here suffer persecution (2 Tim. 
3 : 11). 

Dessert. (1.) Heb. midbar, "pasture- 
ground ; " an open tract for pasturage ; a 
common (Joel 2 : 22). The "backside of the 
desert " (Ex. 3 : 1) is the west of the desert, 
the region behind a man, as the east is the 
region in front. The same Hebrew word 
is rendered "wilderness," and is used of 
the country lying between Egypt and 
Palestine (Gen. 21 : 14, 21 ; Ex. 4 : 27 ; 19 : 
2 ; Josh. 1 : 4), the wilderness of the wan- 
derings. It was a grazing tract, where 
the flocks and herds of the Israelites found 
pasturage during the whole of their jour- 
ney to the Promised Land. 

The same Hebrew word is used also to 
denote the wilderness of Arabia, which in 
winter and early spring supplies good 
pasturage to the flocks of the nomad 
tribes that roam over it (1 Kings 9 : 18). 

The wilderness of Judah is the moun- 
tainous region along the western shore of 
the Dead Sea, where David fed his 
father's flocks (1 Sam. 17:28; 2G : 2). 
Thus in both of these instances the word 
denotes a country without settled in- 
habitants and without streams of water, 
but having good pasturage for cattle ; a 
country of wandering tribes, as distin- 
guished from that of a settled people (Isa. 



35:1; 50:2; Jer. 4:11). Such, also, is 
the meaning of the word " wilderness " in 
Matt. 3 : 3 ; 15 : 33 ; Luke 15 : 4. 

(2.) The translation of the Hebrew 
Ardbah', "an arid tract" (Isa. 35:1, 6; 40: 
3; 41:19; 51:3, etc.). The name ^?-a- 
bah is specially applied to the deep valley 
of the Jordan (the Ghor of the Arabs), 
which extends from the lake of Tiberias 
to the Elanitic gulf. While midbar de- 
notes properly a pastoral region, arabah 
denotes a wilderness. It is also trans- 
lated "plains;" as "the plains of Jericho" 
(Josh. 5 : 10; 2 Kings 25 : 5), " the plains of 
Moab " (Num. 22 : 1; Deut. 34 : 1, 8), " the 
plains of the wilderness " (2 Sam. 17 : 16). 

(3. ) In the Revised Version of Num. 21 : 
20 the Hebrew word jeshimon' is properly 
rendered ' ' desert, " meaning the waste 
tracts on both shores of the Dead Sea. 
This word is also rendered "desert" in 
Ps. 78:40; 106:14; Isa. 43:19, 20. It 
denotes a greater extent of uncultivated 
country than the other words so rendered. 
It is especially applied to the desert of the 
peninsula of Arabia (Num. 21 : 20 ; 23 : 
28), the most terrible of all the deserts 
with which the Israelites were acquainted. 
It is called "the desert" in Ex. 23:31; 
Deut. 11 : 24. (See Jeshimon.) 

(4.) A dry place ; hence a desolation (Ps. 
9 : 6), desolate (Lev. 26 : 34) ; the rendering 
of the Hebrew word horbah'. It is ren- 
dered " desert " only in Ps. 102 : 6, Isa. 
48 : 21, and Ezek. 13 : 4, where it means 
the wilderness of Sinai. 

(5.) This word is the symbol of the 
Jewish church when they had forsaken 
God (Isa. 40 : 3). Nations destitute of the 
knowledge of God are called a " wilder- 
ness " (32 : 15, midbar). It is a symbol of 
temptation, solitude, and persecution (Isa. 
27 : 10, midbar ; 33 : 9, arabah). 

Desire of all nations (Hag. 2:7), usu- 
ally interpreted as a title of the Messiah. 
The Revised Version, however, more cor- 
rectly renders " the desirable things of 
all nations ;" i.e., the choicest treasures of 
the Gentiles shall be consecrated to the 
Lord. 

Desola^tion, Abomination of (Matt. 
24 : 15 ; Mark 13 : 14 ; comp. Luke 21 : 20), 



DESTROYER 



195 



DEUTERONOMY 



is interpreted of the eagles, the standards 
of the Roman army, which were an 
abomination to the Jews. These standards, 
rising over the site of the temple, were a 
sign that the holy place had fallen under 
the idolatrous Romans. The references 
are to Dan. 9 : 27. (See Abomination.) 

Destroy'er (Ex. 12 : 23), the agent em- 
ployed in the killing of the first-born ; the 
destroying angel or messenger of God. 
(Comp. 2 Kings 19 : 35 ; 2 Sam. 24 : 15, 16 ; 
Ps. 78:49; Acts 12: 23.) 

Destruc'tion in Job 26 : 6, 28 : 22 (Heb. 
dbaddon), is sheol, the realm of the dead. 

Destruc^tion, City of (Isa. 19 : 18 ; Heb. 
Ir-ha-Heres, "city of overthrow," because 
of the evidence it would present of the 
overthrow of heathenism), the ideal title of 
On or Heliopolis {q.v.). 

Deu^teron^omy. The Pentateuch, or 
first five books of the Bible, were all 
written by Moses, with the exception of 
the last part of Deuteronomy, relating to 
his own death, which was written prob- 
ably by Joshua. We have the testimony 
of our Lord and his apostles to the Mo- 
saic authorship of the Pentateuch. The 
work is one harmonious whole, and it 
claims to be the production of Moses. 
In affirming the Mosaic authorship of 
the book, we do not dispute that it may 
have been edited by some men of the 
later schools of the prophets, and most 
probably by Ezra. It is the "Book 
of Moses," the "Book of the Law of 
Moses. " It is a veritable historical record 
written by Moses in the wilderness. It is 
a fact, " better established than any other 
in antiquarian research, that the Penta- 
teuch is the basis and necessary prelim- 
inary of all Old Testament history and 
literature, both of which — and with them 
Christianity as their fruit and perfection — 
would resemble a tree without roots, a 
river without a source, or a building with- 
out a firm foundation, if the composition 
of the Pentateuch were relegated to a 
later period of Jewish history." "The 
whole Pentateuch — the five books and all 
the portions of which it is at present made 
up — is the basis and necessary antecedent 
of the history of the Jewish people, com- 



monwealth, religion, manners, and litera- 
ture." 

In all the Hebrew manuscripts the Pen- 
tateuch forms one roll or volume, divided 
into larger and smaller sections called 
parshioth and sedarim. It is not easy to 
say when it was divided into five books. 
This was probably first done by the Greek 
translators of the book. 

The fifth of these books was called by 
the Greeks Deuteronomion — i.e., the second 
law — hence our name Deuteronomy, or a 
second statement of the laws already pro- 
mulgated. The Jews designated the book 
by the two first Hebrew words that occur, 
Elle haddabharim ; i.e., "These are the 
words." They divided it into eleven ^ar- 
shioth. In the English Bible it contains 
thirty-four chapters. 

It consists chiefly of three discourses de- 
livered by Moses a short time before his 
death. They were spoken to all Israel in 
the plains of Moab, in the eleventh month 
of the last year of their wanderings. 

The first discourse (1-4 : 40) recapitu- 
lates the chief events of the last forty years 
in the wilderness. 

The second discourse (5-26 : 19) is in effect 
the body of the whole book. The first ad- 
dress is introductory to it. It contains 
practically a recapitulation of the law al- 
ready given by God at Mount Sinai. 

The concluding discourse (27-30) relates 
almost wholly to the solemn sanctions of 
the law — the blessings to the obedient, and 
the curse that would fall on the rebellious. 

This is followed by what might be called 
three appendices, namely — (1) the song of 
Moses ; (2) the blessing of the twelve 
tribes ; and (3) the story of his death (32 : 
48-ch. 34). 

' ' This book speaks for itself. It ex- 
pressly states its Mosaic aiithorship (Deut. 
31 : 24) ; and the internal evidence of its 
contents bears out this testimony. Its 
grand addresses to the tribes have a living 
power which witnesses to their genuineness. 
Every sentence carries us back to the "wil- 
derness life, or the scenes of the holy 
mount, or the days of Egyptian slavery. 
The words glow in each line with the emo- 
tions of a great leader recounting to his 



DEVIL 



196 



DIADEM 



contemporaries the marvellous story of 
their common experience. The enthusi- 
asm they kindle, even to-day, though ob- 
scured by translation, reveals their match- 
less adaptation to the circumstances under 
which they were first spoken. Confidence 
for the future is evoked by remembrance of 
the past. The same God who had done 
mighty works for the tribes since the Exodus 
would cover their head in the day of battle 
with the nations of Palestine, soon to be 
invaded. Their great lawgiver stands be- 
fore us, vigorous in his hoary age, stern in 
his abhorrence of evil, earnest in his zeal 
for God, but mellowed in all relations to 
earth by his nearness to heaven. The com- 
manding wisdom of his enactments, the 
dignity of his position as the founder of 
the nation and the first of prophets, en- 
force his utterances. But he touches our 
deepest emotions by the human tenderness 
that breathes in all his words. Standing 
on the verge of life, he speaks as a father 
giving his parting counsels to those he 
loves ; willing to depart and be with God 
he has served so well, but fondly lengthen- 
ing out his last farewell to the dear ones 
of earth. No book can compare Avith Deu- 
teronomy in its mingled sublimity and 
tenderness." — Geikie, Hours, etc., v. (See 
Pentateuch. ) 

Devil (Gr. didbolos) — a slanderer — the 
arch-enemy of man's spiritual interest 
(Job 1:6; Rev. 12 : 10 ; Zech. 3 : 1). He 
is called also "the accuser of the breth- 
ren " (1 Pet. 5 : 8). 

In Lev. 17:7 the word "devil" is the 
translation of the Hebrew sair', meaning a 
"goat" or "satyr" (Isa. 13:21; 34:14), 
alluding to the wood-demons, the objects 
of idolatrous worship among the heathen. 

In Deut. 32 : 17 and Ps. 106 : 37 it is the 
translation of Hebrew shed, meaning ' ' lord, " 
an "idol," regarded by the Jews as a " de- 
mon," as the word is rendered in the Re- 
vised Version. 

In the narratives of the Gospels regard- 
ing the " casting out of devils " a different 
Greek word {daimon) is used. That in the 
time of our Lord persons were actually 
possessed by demons, which had the power 
of inflicting bodily and mental diseases, is 



beyond a doubt, if we are to accept the 
plain teaching of the evangelists (Matt. 
12:25-30; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 4:35; 
10 : 18, etc.). (See Demoniac.) 

Dew. " There is no dew properly so 
called in Palestine, for there is no moisture 
in the hot summer air to be chilled into 
dew-drops by the coldness of the night. 
Prom May till October rain is unknown, 
the sun shining with unclouded brightness 
day after day. The heat becomes intense, 
the ground hard, and vegetation would 
perish but for the moist west winds that 
come each night from the sea. The bright 
skies cause the heat of the day to radiate 
very quickly into space, so that the nights 
are as cold as the day is the reverse- — a 
peculiarity of climate from which poor 
Jacob suffered thousands of years ago 
(Gen. 31:40). To this coldness of the 
night air the indispensable watering of 
all plant-life is due. The winds, loaded 
with moisture, are robbed of it as they 
pass over the land, the cold air condensing 
it into drops of water, which fall in a 
gracious rain of mist on every thirsty 
blade. In the morning the fog thus cre- 
ated rests like a sea over the plains, and 
far up the sides of the hills, which raise 
their heads above it like so many islands. 
At sunrise, however, the scene speedily 
changes. By the kindling light the mist 
is transformed into vast snow-white clouds, 
which presently break into separate 
masses and rise up the mountain-sides, to 
disappear in the blue above, dissipated by 
the increasing heat. These are ' the morn- 
ing clouds and the early dew that go 
away ' of which Hosea (6:4; 13 : 3) speaks 
so touchingly " (Geikie's The Holy Land, 
etc., i., p. 72). Dew is a source of great 
fertility (Gen. 27 : 28 ; Deut. 33 : 13 ; Zech. 
8 : 12), and its withdrawal is regarded as a 
curse from God (2 Sam. 1:21; 1 Kings 
17 : 1). It is the symbol of a multitude 
(2 Sam. 17 : 12 ; Ps. 110 : 3) ; and from its 
refreshing influence it is an emblem of 
brotherly love and harmony (Ps. 133 : 3), 
and of rich spiritual blessings (Hos. 14 : 5-7). 

Di-'adem, the tiara of a king (Ezek. 
21:26; Isa. 28:5; 62:3); the turban 
(Job 29:14). In the New Testament a 



DIAL 



191 



DINAH 



careful distinction is drawn between the 
diadem as a badge of roj^alty (Rev. 12 : 3 ; 
13 : 1 ; 19 : 12) and the ero^^^l as a mark of 
distinction in private life. It is not 
known what the ancient Jewish " diadem " 
was. It was the mark of Oriental sove- 
reigns. (See Crown.) 

Di^al, for the measurement of time, only 
once mentioned in the Bible, erected by 
Ahaz (2 Kings 20 : 11 ; Isa. 38 : 8). The 
Hebrew word [ma'aloth] is rendered 
"steps" in Ex. 20:26, 1 Kings 10:19, 
and "degrees" in 2 Kings 20:9, 10, 11. 
The ma\doth was probably stairs on which 
the shadow of a column or obelisk placed 
on the top fell. The shadow would cover 
a greater or smaller number of steps, ac- 
cording as the sun was low or high. 

Probably the sun-dial was a Babylonian 
invention. Daniel at Babylon (Dan. 3 : 6) 
is the first to make mention of the "hour." 

Di''ainond. (1.) A precious gem (Heb. 
yahaloni', in allusion to its hardness), 
othermse unknown, the sixth — i.e., the 
third in the second row — in the breast- 
plate of the high priest, with the name 
of Naphtali engraven on it (Ex. 28 : 18 ; 
39 : 11). 

(2.) A precious stone (Heb. shamir', a 
sharp j9oin^) mentioned in Jer. 17:1. Erom 
its hardness it was used for cutting and 
perforating other minerals. It is rendered 
"adamant" {q.v.) in Ezek. 3:9, Zech. 7: 
12. It is the hardest and most valuable 
of precious stones. 

Dia'na — so called by the Romans ; called 
Artemis by the Greeks — the " great " god- 
dess worshipped among heathen nations 
under various modifications. Her most 
noted temple was that at Ephesus. It 
was built outside the city walls, and was 
one of the seven wonders of the ancient 
world. " Eirst and last it was the work 
of 220 years ; built of shining marble ; 342 
feet long by 164 feet broad ; supported by 
a forest of columns, each 56 feet high ; a 
sacred museum of masterpieces of sculp- 
ture and painting. At the centre, hidden 
by curtains, within a gorgeous shrine, 
stood the very ancient image of the god- 
dess, on wood or ebony reputed to have fallen 
from the sky. Behind the shrine was a 



treasury, where, as in ' the safest bank 
in Asia, ' nations 
and kings stored 
their most precious 
things. The temple 
as St. Paul saw it 
subsisted till a.d. 
262, when it was ru- 
ined by the Goths '' 
(Acts 19:23-35).— 
Moule on Ephesi- 
ans : Introd. 

'Dila'lalxa.-doubled 
cakes — the mother 
of Gomer, who was 
Hosea's wife (Hos. 
1:3). 

Diblatha^im -^zco 
cakes — a city of 
Moab, on the east 
of the Dead Sea 
(Num. 33 : 46 ; Jer. 
48 : 22). 

Di"boii — pining ; 
wasting. (1.) A city 
in Moab (Num. 21 : 
30); called also Di- , ,_ ^„ 

'' -\ u SI'aTUE of DIANA, 

bon-gad (33 : 45), be- (Pro)n the Te7>iple of Diana, 

cause it was built ^>'^f«"'" "''^'' "' ^^'^ ^^^'""'"' 

at JSiaples.) 

by Gad and Dimon 

(Isa. 15 : 9). It has been identified with 
the modern Dtbdn, about 3 miles north 
of the Arnon and 12 miles east of the Dead 
Sea. (See MoABiTE Stone.) 

(2.) A city of the tribe of Judah, inha- 
bited after the Captivity (Neh. 11:25); 
called also Dimonah (Josh. 15 : 22). It is 
probably the modern ed-Dheih. 

Did'ymus (Gr. twin — Heb. Thomas, 
g.r.)— John 11 : 16 ; 20 : 24 ; 21 : 2. 

Dimonah — dunghill— 2i city of Zebulun 
given to the Merarite Levites (Josh. 21 : 
35). In 1 Chr. 6:77 the name " Rim- 
mon " is substituted. 

Di''nah — judged ; vindicated — daughter 
of Jacob by Leah, and sister of Simeon 
and Levi (Gen. 30 : 21). She was seduced 
by Shechem, the son of Hamor, the Hivite 
chief, when Jacob's camp was in the 
neighbourhood of Shechem. This led to 
the terrible revenge of Simeon and Levi 
in putting the Shechemites to death (Gen. 




DINE 



198 



BISPEHSION 



34). Jacob makes frequent reference to 
this deed of blood with abhorrence and 
regret (Gen. 34 : 30 ; 49 : 5-7). She is men- 
tioned among the rest of Jacob's family 
that went down into Egypt (Gen. 46 : 
8, 15). 

Dine (Gen. 43 : 16). It was the custom in 
Egypt to dine at noon. But it is probable 
that the Egyptians took their principal 
meal in the evening, as was the general 
custom in the East (Luke 14 : 12). 

Din''habah — robbers' den — an Edomitish 
city, the capital of king Bela (Gen. 36 : 
32). It is probably the modern Dihdiha, a 
little north-east of Petra. 

Diony^sius, the Areopagite, one of Paul's 
converts at Athens (Acts 17 : 34). 

Diot ^replies — Jove-nourished — rebuked 
by John for his pride (3 John 9). He was 
a Jiidaizer, prating against John and his 
fellow-labourers "with malicious words " (7). 
Disci^ple — a scholar — sometimes applied 
to the followers of John the Baptist (Matt. 
9:14), and of the Pharisees (22:16), but 
principally to the followers of Christ. A 
disciple of Christ is one who (1) believes 
his doctrine, (2) rests on his sacrifice, 
(3) imbibes his spirit, and (4) imitates his 
example (Matt. 10:24 ; Luke 14:26, 27, 33; 
John 6 : 69). 

Dish, for eating from (2 Kings 21 : 13). 
Judas dipped his hand with a "sop" or 
piece of bread in the same dish with our 
Lord, thereby indicating friendly intimacy 
(Matt. 26:23). The "lordly dish" in Judg. 
5 : 25 was probably the shallow drinking 
cup, usually of brass. In Judg. 6 : 38 the 
same Hebrew word is rendered "bowl." 

The dishes of the tabernacle were made 
of pure gold (Ex. 25 : 29 ; 37 : 16). 

Di''shan — antelope— th.Q youngest son of 
Seir the Horite, head of one of the tribes 
of Idumaea (Gen. 36 : 21, 28, 30). 

Dispensa^tion(Gr. oikonomia, "manage- 
ment," "economy"). (1.) The method or 
scheme according to which God carries out 
his purposes towards men is called a dispen- 
sation. There are usually reckoned three 
dispensations— the Patriarchal, the Mosaic 
or Jewish, and the Christia,n. (See Cove- 
nant, Administration of.) These were so 
many stages in God's unfolding of his pur- 



pose of grace toward men. The word is not 
found with this meaning in Scripture. 

(2.) A commission to preach the gospel 
(1 Cor. 9:17; Eph. 1:10; 3:2; Col. 1:25). 

Dispensations of Providence are providen- 
tial events which affect men either in the 
way of mercy or of judgment. 

Disper^sion (Gr. diaspora, "scattered," 
James 1 : 1 ; 1 Pet. 1:1) of the Jews. At 
various times, and from the operation of 
divers causes, the Jews were separated and 
scattered into foreign countries "to the 
outmost parts of heaven " (Deut. 30 : 4). 

(1.) Many were dispersed over Assyria, 
Media, Babylonia, and Persia, descendants 
of those who had been transported thither 
by the Exile. The ten tribes, after exist- 
ing as a separate kingdom for two hundred 
and fifty-five years, were carried captive 
(B.C. 721) by Shalmaneser (or Sargon), king 
of Assyria. They never returned to their 
own land as a distinct people, although 
many individuals from among these tribes, 
there can be no doubt, joined with the 
bands that returned from Babylon on the 
proclamation of Cyrus. 

(2. ) Many Jews migrated to Egypt and 
took up their abode there. This migration 
began in the days of Solomon (2 Kings 18 : 
21, 24 ; Isa. 39 : 7). Alexander the Great 
placed a large number of Jews in Alex- 
andria, which he had founded, and con- 
ferred on them eqvial rights with the 
Egyptians. Ptolemy Philadelphiis, it is 
said, caused the Jewish Scriptures to be 
translated into Greek (the work began B.C. 
284), for the use of the Alexandrian Jews. 
The Jews in Egypt continued for many 
ages to exercise a powerful influence on 
the public interests of that country. From 
Egypt they spread along the coast of Africa 
to Cyrene (Acts 2 : 10) and to Ethiopia (7 : 27). 
(3.) After the time of Seleucus Nicator 
(B.C. 280), one of the captains of Alexander 
the Great, large numbers of Jews migrated 
into Syria, where they enjoyed equal rights 
with the Macedonians. From Syria they 
found their way into Asia Minor. Anti- 
ochus, the great king of Syria and Asia, 
removed 3,000 families of Jews from Meso- 
potamia and Bab3donia, and planted them 
in Phrygia and Lydia. 




THE ANCIENT WORLD. SHOWING THE DISPERSION OF THE NATIONS AFTER THE FLOOD. 

Sec ^agc IQQ. 




JOURNEYING OF THE ISRAELITES FROM EGYPT TO CANAAN. 



See page 244.. 



DISPERSION 



199 



DISPERSION 



(4.) From. Asia Minor many Jews moved 
into Greece and Macedonia, chiefly for 
purposes of commerce. In the apostles' 
time they were found in considerable num- 
bers in all the princii^al cities. 

Erom the time of Pompey the Great (B.C. 
63) numbers of Jews from Palestine and 
Greece went to Rome, where they had a 
separate quarter of the city assigned to them. 
Here they enjoyed considerable freedom. 

Thus were the Jews everywhere scattered 
abroad. This, in the overruling providence 
of God, ultimately contributed in a great 
degree toward opening the way for the 
spread of the gospel into all lands. 

Disper''sion from the plain of Shinar. 



This was occasioned by the confusion of 
tongues at Babel (Gen. 11 : 9). They were 
scattered abroad "every one after his 
tongue, after their families, in their na- 
tions " (Gen. 10 : 5 ; 20 : 31). 

The tenth chapter of Genesis gives us an 
account of the principal nations of the 
earth in their migrations from the plain 
of Shinar, which was their common resi- 
dence after the Elood. In general, it may 
be said that the descendants of Japheth 
were scattered over the north, those of 
Shem over the central regions, and those 
of Ham over the extreme south. 

The following table shows how the dif- 
ferent families were dispersed : — 



JAPHETH. 



Gomer. 

I ■ 
Cimmerians 

and 
Armenians. 



Magog. 

I 


Madai. 


Jav 


an. 


Tubal. 


1 
Caucasians 


Medes and 






1 
The Tibareni 


and 


some Persian 






and 


Scythians. 


tribes. 






the Tartars. 



Meshech. 

The Moschi 

and the 
Muscovites. 



Tiras. 

The 
Thracians. 



Elishah. 

I 

The Greelis. 



Tarshish. 



Chittim. 



Dodanim. 



Etruscans Cyprians The Rhodians. 

and and 

Romans. Macedonians. 



SHEM. 



I 
Elam. 

I 

Some Persian 

tribes. 



I 
I 

Asshur. 

The Assyrian 

founders of Nineveh, 

Eehoboth, Calneh, 

and Eesen. 



Arphaxad. 
Abraham. 



Lud. 
The Lydians. 



Aram. 

i 
The Syrians. 



Isaac. 



Ishmael. 



Jacob. Esau. The Ishmaelites, who mingled with the . 

I I Arab tribes descended from Joktan, 

The Hebrews. The Edomites. in the line of Eber, from Arphaxad. 



HAM. 



Cush. 



Mizraim. 



Phut. 



Canaan. 



The Ethiopians and 
their colonies 



The Egyptians and 
their colonies. 



The Libyans and 
Mauri tanians. 



The Canaanites, Phoeni- 
ciansj and their colonies. 



DISTAFF 



200 



DODANIM 



Dis^taff (Heb. pelek, a "circle"), the 
instrument used for twisting threads by a 
whirl (Prov. 31 : 19). 

Divina'tion of false prophets (Deut. 18 : 
10, 14 ; Micah 3:6, 7, 11), of necromancers 
(1 Sam. 28 : 8), of the Philistine priests 
and diviners (1 Sam. 6 : 2), of Balaam (Josh. 
13 : 22). Three kinds of divination are 
mentioned in Ezek. 21 : 21 — by arrows, con- 
sulting with images (the terai^him), and 
by examining the entrails of animals sacri- 
ficed. The practice of this art seenas to 
have been encouraged in ancient Egypt. 
Diviners also abounded among the abori- 
gines of Canaan and the Philistines (Isa. 
2 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 28). At a later jDeriod multi- 
tudes of magicians poured from Chaldea 
and Arabia into the land of Israel, and 
pursued their occupations (Isa. 8 : 19 ; 2 
Kings 21 : 6 ; 2 Chr. 33 : 6). This super- 
stition widely spread, and in the time of 
the apostles there were "vagabond Jews, 
exorcists " (Acts 19 : 13), and men like 
Simon Magus (Acts 8 : 9), Bar-jesus (13 : 6, 
8), and other jugglers and impostors (19 : 19 ; 
2 Tim. 3 : 13). Every species and degree 
of this superstition was strictly forbidden 
by the law of Moses (Ex. 22 : 18 ; Lev. 19 : 
26, 31 ; 20 : 27 ; Deut. 18 : 10, 11). 

But beyond these various forms of super- 
stition, there are instances of divination on 
record in the Scriptures by which God 
was pleased to make known his will. 

(1. ) There was divination by lot, by which, 
when resorted to in matters of moment, 
and with solemnity, God intimated his 
will (Josh. 7 : 13). The land of Canaan 
was divided by lot (Num. 26 : 55, 56) ; 
Achan's guilt was detected (Josh. 7 : 16-19), 
Saul was elected king (1 Sam. 10 : 20, 21), 
and Matthias chosen to the apostleship, by 
the solemn lot (Acts 1 : 26). It was thus 
also that the scape-goat was determined 
(Lev. 16 : 8-10). 

(2.) There was divination by dreams 
(Gen. 20:6; Deut. 13:2, 3; Judg. 7:13, 
15; Matt. 1:20; 2:12, 13, 19, 22). This is 
illustrated in the history of Joseph (Gen. 
41 : 25-32) and of Daniel (2 : 27 ; 4 : 19-28). 

(3.) By divine appointment there was 
also divination by the Urim and Thum- 
mim (Num. 27 : 21), and by the ephod. 



(4. ) God was pleased sometimes to vouch- 
safe direct vocal communications to men 
(Deut. 34:10; Ex. 3:4; 4:3; Deut. 4:14,15; 
1 Kings 19 : 12). He also communed with 
men from above the mercy-seat (Ex. 25 : 
22), and at the door of the tabernacle (Ex. 
29 : 42, 43). 

(5.) Through his prophets God revealed 
himself, and gave intimations of his will 
(2 Kings 13 : 17 ; Jer. 51 : 63, 64). 

Divorced The dissolution of the mar- 
riage tie was regulated by the Mosaic law 
(Deut. 24 : 1-4). The Jews, after the Cap- 
tivity, were required to dismiss the foreign 
women they had married contrary to the 
law (Ezra 10:11-19). Christ limited the 
permission of divorce to the single case of 
adultery. It seems that it Avas not un- 
common for the Jews at that time to dis- 
solve the union on very slight pretences 
(Matt. 5 : 31, 32 ; 19 : 1-9 ; Mark 10 : 2-12 ; 
Luke 16 : 18). These precepts given by 
Christ regulate the law of divorce in the 
Christian Church. 

Diz^ahab — region of gold — a place in the 
desert of Sinai, on the western shore of the 
Elanitic gulf (Deut. 1 : 1). It is now called 
Dehah. 

Doc'tor (Luke 2 : 46 ; 5 : 17 ; Acts 5 : 34), 
a teacher. The Jewish doctors taught and 
disputed in synagogues, or wherever they 
could find an audience. Their disciples 
were allowed to propose to them questions. 
They assumed the office without any ap- 
pointment to it. The doctors of the law 
were principally of the sect of the Phari- 
sees. Schools were established after the 
destruction of Jerusalem at Babylon and 
Tiberias, in which academical degrees were 
conferred on those who passed a certain 
examination. Those of the school of Tibe- 
rias were called by the title "rabbi," and 
those of Babylon by that of "master." 

Dod^ai — loving — one of David's captains 
(1 Chr. 27 : 4). (See Dodo [2].) 

Dod''aniin — leaders — a race descended 
from Javan (Gen. 10 : 4). They are known 
in profane history as the Dardani, origi- 
nally inhabiting . Illy ricum. They were a 
semi-Pelasgic race, and m the ethnographi- 
cal table (Gen. 10) they are grouped with 
the Chittim [q.v.]. In 1 Chr. 1 : 7, they are 



DODO 



201 



DOR 



called Rodanim. The LXX. and the Sam- 
aritan Version also read Rhodii, whence 
some have concluded that the Rhodians, 
the inhabitants of the island of Rhodes, 
are meant. 

Do'do — amatory; loving. (1.) A descend- 
ant of Issachar ( Judg. 10 : 1). 

(2. ) An Ahohite, father of Eleazar, who 
was one of David's three heroes (2 Sam. 
23 : 9 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 12). He was the same 
with Dodai mentioned in 1 Chr. 27 : 4. 

(3.) A Bethlehemite, and father of El- 
hanan, who was one of David's thirty 
heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 24). 

Do' e^— fearful — an Edomite, the chief 
overseer of Saul's flocks (1 Sam. 21 : 7). 
At the command of Saul he slew the high 
priest Ahimelech [q.v.) at Nob, together 
with all the priests to the number of eighty- 
five persons. (Comp. Ps. 52.) 

Dog, frequently mentioned both in the 
Old and New Testaments. Dogs were used 
by the Hebrews as a watch for their houses 
(Isa. 56 : 10), and for guarding their flocks 
(Job 30 : 1). There were also then as now 
troops of semi-wild dogs that wandered 
about devouring dead bodies and the offal 
of the streets (1 Kings 14 : 11 ; 16 : 4 j 21 : 
19, 23 ; 22 : 38 ; Ps. 59 : 6, 14). 

As the dog was an unclean animal, the 
terms "dog," "dog's head," "dead dog," 
were used as terms of reproach or of hu- 
miliation (1 Sam. 24:14; 2 Sam. 3:8; 9: 
8; 16:9). Paul calls false apostles "dogs" 
(Phil. 3 : 2). Those who are shut out of the 
kingdom of heaven are also so designated 
(Rev. 22 : 15). Persecutors are called "dogs " 
(Ps. 22 : 16). Hazael's words, "Thy servant 
which is but a dog " (2 Kings 8 : 13), are 
spoken in mock humility = impossible that 
one so contemptible as he should attain to 
such power. 

Doleful creatures (occurring only Isa. 
13 : 21. Heb. ochim — i. e. , " shrieks ; " hence 
"howling animals"), a general name for 
screech owls [howlets), which occupy the 
desolate palaces of Babylon. Some render 
the word "hysenas." 

Doors moved on pivots of wood fastened 
in sockets above and below (Prov. 26 : 14). 
They were fastened by a lock ( Judg. 3 : 23, 
25 ; Cant. 5 : 5) or by a bar (Judg. 16 : 3 ; Job 



38 : 10). In the interior of Oriental houses, 
curtains were frequently used instead of 
doors. The entrances of the tabernacle 
had curtains (Ex. 26 : 31-33, 36). 

The "valley of Achor" is called a "door 
of hope," because iramediately after the 
execution of Achan the Lord said to 
Joshua, "Fear not," and from that time 
Joshua went forward in a career of unin- 
terrupted conquest. Paul speaks of a 
" door opened " for the spread of the gos- 
pel (1 Cor. 16 : 9 ; 2 Cor. 2 : 12 ; Col. 4 : 3). 
Our Lord says of himself, "I am the door'" 
(John 10 : 9). John (Rev. 4 : 1) speaks of a 
"door ojoened in heaven." 

Door-keeper. This word is used in Ps. 
84:10 (R.V. marg., "stand at the thresh- 
old of, " etc. ), but there it signifies properly 
"sitting at the threshold in the house of 
God." The psalmist means that he would 
rather stand at the door of God's house 
and merely look in, than dwell in houses 
where iniquity prevailed. 

Persons were appointed to keep the 
street door leading into the interior of the 
house (John 18 : 16, 17 ; Acts 12 : 13). Some- 
times females held this post. 

Door-posts. The Jews were commanded 
to write the divine name on the posts {mc- 
zuzoW) of their doors (Deut. 6 : 9). The 
Jews, misunderstanding this injunction, 
adopted the custom of writing on a slip of 
parchment these verses (Deut. 6 : 4-9, and 
11 : 13-21), which they enclosed in a reed or 
cylinder and fixed on the right-hand door- 
post of every room in the house. 

Doph'kah — knocking — an encampment 
of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 
33 : 12). It was in the desert of Sin, on 
the eastern shore of the western arm of the 
Red Sea, somewhere in the Wady Feir^n. 

"Dor— dwelling — the Dora of the Romans, 
an ancient royal city of the Canaanites 
(Josh. 11 : 1, 2 ; 12 : 23). It was the most 
southern settlement of the Phoenicians on 
the coast of Syria. The original inhabit- 
ants seem never to have been expelled, 
although they were made tributary by 
David. It was one of Solomon's commis- 
sariat districts (Judg. 1 : 27 ; 1 Kings 4 : 
11). It has been identified with Tantilra 
(so named from the siipposed resemblance 



DORCAS 



202 



DRAGON 



of its tower to a tantur — i.e., "a horn" — • 
worn as an ornament on the head by the 
women of Lebanon and Hanran), about 
8 miles north of Caesarea, "a sad and 
sickly hamlet of ^VTetched huts, on a naked 
sea-beach." Here are found the remains 
of an old Crusading fortress. 

Dor^cas — a female antelope, or gazelle — a 
pious Christian widow at Joppa whom 
Peter restored to life (Acts 9 : 36-41). She 
was a Hellenistic Jewess, called Tabitha 
by the Jews and Dorcas by the Greeks. 

Do'' than — two wells — a famous pasture- 
ground where Joseph found his brethren 
watching their flocks. Here, at the sug- 
gestion of Judah, they sold him to the 
Ishmaelite merchants (Gen. 37 : 17) who 
were on their way down to Egypt from the 
spice district of Gilead. 

It was the residence of Elisha (2 Kings 
6 : 13), and the scene of a remarkable vision 
of chariots and horses of fire surrounding 
the mountain on which the city stood. It 
is identified with the modern Tell-Dotlidn, 
on the south side of the plain of Jezreel, 
about 12 miles north of Samaria, among 
the hills of Gilboa. The "two wells" are 
still in existence, one of which bears the 
name of the "pit of Joseph" [Juhh Yusuf). 

Dough {batsek, meaning "swelling," ^■.f., 
in fermentation). The dough the Israelites 
had prepared for baking was carried away 
by them out of Egypt in their kneading- 
troughs (Ex. 12 : 34, 39). In the process of 
baking, the dough had to be turned (Hos. 
7:8). 

Dove. In their wild state doves gener- 
ally build their nests in the clefts of rocks, 
but when domesticated "dove-cots" are 
prepared for them (Cant. 2 : 14 ; Jer. 48 : 
28 ; Isa. 60 : 8). The dove was placed on 
the standards of the Assyrians and Baby- 
lonians in honour, it is supposed, of Semi- 
ramis (Jer. 25:38; "Vulg., "fierceness of 
the dove;" comp. Jer. 46:16; 50:16). 
Doves and turtle-doves were the only 
birds that could be offered in sacrifice, as 
they were clean according to the Mosaic 
law (Gen. 15 : 9 ; Lev. 5:7; 12 : 6 ; Luke 
2 : 24). The dove was the harbinger of 
peace to Noah (Gen. 8 : 8, 10). It is often 
mentioned as the emblem of purity (Ps. 



55 : 6-8). It is a symbol of the Holy Spirit 
(Gen. 1:2; Matt. 3 : 16 ; Mark 1 : 10 ; Luke 
3 : 22 ; John 1 : 32) ; also of tender and 
devoted affection (Cant. 1 : 15 ; 2 : 14). 
David in his distress wished that he had 
the wings of a dove, that he might fly away 
and be at rest (Ps. 55 : 6-8). There is a 
species of dove found at Damascus " whose 
feathers, all except the wings, are literally 
as yellow as gold " (68 : 13). 

Dove's dung (2 Kings 6:25) has been 
generally understood literally. There are 
instances in history of the dung of pigeons 
being actually iised as food during a famine. 
Compare also the language of Rabshakeh 
to the Jews (2 Kings 18 : 27 ; Isa. 36 : 12). 
This name, however, is applied by the 
Arabs to different vegetable substances, 
and there is room for the opinion of those 
who think that some such substance is here 
referred to, as, e.g., the seeds of a kind of 
millet, or a very inferior kind of pulse, or 
the root of the ornithogalum — i.e., bird-milk 
— the star-of -Bethlehem. 




STAR-OF-BETHLEHEM. 

Dow'ry {mdhar; i.e., price paid for a 
wife— Gen. 34:12; Ex. 22:17; 1 Sam. 
18 : 25), a nuptial present ; some gift, as a 
sum of money, which the bridegroom offers 
to the father of his bride as a satisfaction 
before he can receive her. Jacob had no 
do^^Ty to give for his Avife, but he gave his 
services (Gen. 29 : 18 ; 30 : 20 ; 34 : 12). 

Drag'on. (1.) Heb. tannim, plural of 
tan. The name of some unknoA^Ti creature 
inhabiting desert places and ruins (Job 
30:29; Ps. 44:19; Isa. 13:22; 34:13; 
43:20; Jer. 10:22; Micahl:8: Mai. 1:3); 
probably, as translated in the Revised Ver- 
sion, the jackal ((/.r.). 



DRAGON 



203 



DRESS 



(2. ) Heb. tannin. Some great sea monster 
( Jer. 51 : 34). In Isa. 51 : 9 it may denote 
the crocodile. In Gen. 1 : 21 (Heb. plural 
tanninim) the Authorized Version renders 
"whales," and the Revised Version "sea 
monsters." It is rendered "serpent" in 
Ex. 7:9. It is used figuratively in Ps. 
74 : 13 ; Ezek. 29 : 3. 

In the New Testament the word 
"dragon " is found only in Rev. 12 : 3, 4, 7, 
9, 16, 17, etc., and is there used metaphori- 
cally of " Satan. " (See Whale. ) 

Dragoon well (Neh. 2 : 13), supposed by 
some to be identical with the Pool of Gihon. 

Dram. The Authorized Version under- 
stood the word 'adarkdntm (1 Chr. 29 : 7 ; 
Ezra 8 : 27), and the similar word darkom- 
nini (Ezra 2 : 69 ; Neh. 7 : 70), as equivalent 
to the Greek silver coin the drachma. But 
the Revised Version rightly regards it as 
the Greek dareikos, a Persian gold coin (the 
daric) of the value of about £1, 2s., which 
was first struck by Darius, the son of 
Hystaspes, and was current in Western 
Asia long after the fall of the Persian em- 
pire. (See Dakic. ) 

Draught-house (2 Kings 10 : 27). Jehu 
ordered the temple of Baal to be destroyed, 
and the place to be converted to the vile 
use of receiving offal or ordure. (Comp. 
Matt. 15:17.) 

Drawer of water (Deut. 29 : 11 ; Josh. 
9 : 21, 23), a servile employment to which 
the Gibeonites were condemned. 

Dream. God has frequently made use 
of dreams in communicating his will to 
men. The most remarkable instances of 
this are recorded in the history of Jacob 
(28:12; 31:10), Laban (31:24), Joseph 
(37 : 6-11), Gideon ( Judg. 7), and Solomon 
(1 Kings 3 : 5), Other significant dreams 
are also recorded, such as those of Abime- 
lech (Gen. 20 : 3-7), Pharaoh's chief butler 
and baker (40:5), Pharaoh (41:1-8), the 
Midianites (Judg. 7 : 13), Nebuchadnezzar 
(Dan. 2:1; 4 : 10, 18), the wise men from 
the east (Matt. 2:12), and Pilate's wife 
(27 : 19). 

To Joseph "the Lord appeared in a 
dream," and gave him instructions regard- 
ing the infant Jesus (Matt. 1 : 20 ; 2 : 12, 
13, 19). In a vision of the night a "man 



of Macedonia " stood before Paul and said, 
' ' Come over into Macedonia and help us '' 
(Acts 16 : 9 ; see also 18 : 9 ; 27 : 23.) (See 
Vision.) 

Dregs (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17, 22), the 
lees of wine which settle at the bottom of 
the vessel. 

Dress. (1.) Materials used. The ear- 
liest and simiDlest an apron of fig-leaves 
sewed together (Gen. 3:7); then skins of 
animals (3 : 21). Elijah's dress was prob- 
ably the skin of a sheep (2 Kings 1 : 8). 
The Hebrews were early acquainted with 
the art of weaving hair into cloth (Ex. 26 : 
7 ; 35 : 6), which formed the sackcloth of 
mourners. This was the material of John 
the Baptist's robe (Matt. 3 : 4). Wool was 
also woven into garments (Lev, 13 : 47 ; 
Deut. 22:11; Ezek. 34:3; Job 31:20; 
Prov. 27 : 26). The Israelites probably 
learned the art of weaving linen when they 
were in Egypt (1 Chr. 4 : 21). Eine linen 
was used in the vestments of the high 
priest (Ex. 28 : 5), as well as by the rich 
(Gen. 41 : 42 ; Prov. 31 : 22 ; Luke 16 : 19). 
The use of mixed material, as wool and 
flax, was forbidden (Lev. 19 : 19 ; Deut. 
22 : 11). 

(2.) Colour. The prevailing colour was 
the natural white of the material used, 
which was sometimes rendered purer by 
the fuller's art (Ps. 104 : 1, 2 ; Isa. 63 : 3 ; 
Mark 9 : 3). The Hebrews were acquainted 
with the art of dyeing (Gen. 37 : 3, 23). 
Various modes of ornamentation were 
adopted in the process of weaving (Ex. 28 : 
6 ; 26 : 1, 31 ; 35 : 25), and by needle- work 
(Judg. 5 : 30 ; Ps. 45 : 13). Dyed robes w^ere 
imported from foreign countries, jDarticu- 
larly from Phoenicia (Zeph. 1 : 8). Purple 
and scarlet robes were the marks of the 
wealthy (Luke 16 : 19 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 24). 

(3. ) Form. The robes of men and women 
Avere not very much different in form from 
each other. 

{a) The "coat" {kethoneth), of wool, cot- 
ton, or linen, was worn by both sexes. It 
was a closely-fitting garment, resembling 
in use and form our shirt (John 19 : 23). It 
Avas kept close to the body by a girdle 
(John 21 : 7). A person wearing this " coat " 
alone was described as naked (1 Sam. 19 : 



DRESS 



2C4 



DROMEDARY 



24 ; Isa. 20 : 2 ; 2 Kings 6 : 30 ; John 21 : 7) ; 
deprived of it he would be absolutely naked. 
(6) A linen cloth or wrapper (sadin) of 
fine linen, used somewhat as a night-shirt 
(Mark 14 : 51). It is mentioned in Judg. 
14 : 12, 13, and rendered there "sheets." 

(c) An upper tunic {meil), longer than the 
"coat " (1 Sam. 2 : 19 ; 24 : 4 ; 28 : 14). In 
1 Sam. 18 : 14 it is the mantle in which 
Samuel was enveloped ; in 1 Sam. 24 : 4 it is 
the "robe" under which Saul slept. 

The disciples were forbidden to wear two 
" coats" (Matt. 10 : 10 ; Luke 9 : 3). 

{d) The usual outer garment consisted of 
a piece of woollen cloth like a Scotch plaid, 
either wrapped round the body or thrown 
over the shoulders like a shawl, with the 
ends hanging down in front, or it might be 
thrown over the head so as to conceal the 
face (2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Esther 6 : 12). It was 
confined to the waist by a girdle, and the 
fold formed by the overlapping of the robe 
served as a pocket (2 Kings 4 : 39 ; Ps. 79 : 
12 ; Hag. 2 : 12 ; Prov. 17 : 23 ; 21 : 14). 

Female dress. The " coat " was common 
to both sexes (Cant. 5 : 3). But peculiar to 
females were (1) the " veil "or " wimple," 
a kind of shawl (Ruth 3 : 15 ; rendered 
"mantle," R. V., Isa. 3:22); (2) the 
"mantle," also a species of shawl (Isa. 3: 
22); (3) a "veil," probably a light summer 
dress (Gen. 24:65); (4) a "stomacher," a 
holiday dress (3 : 24). The outer garment 
terminated in an ample fringe or border, 
which concealed the feet (Isa. 47 : 2 ; Jer. 
13 : 22). 

The dress of the Pey^sians is described in 
Dan. 3 : 21. 

The references to the art of seiving are few, 
inasmuch as the garments generally came 
forth from the loom ready for being worn, 
and all that was required in the making of 
clothes devolved on the women of a family 
(Prov. 31 : 22 ; Acts 9 : 39). 

Extravagance in dress is referred to in 
Jer. 4 : 30 ; Ezek. 16 : 10 ; Zeph. 1 :8 (R.V., 
"foreign apparel"); 1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 
3:3. 

Rending the robes was expressive of grief 
(Gen. 37 : 29, 34), fear (1 Kings 21 : 27), in- 
dignation (2 Kings 5 : 7), or despair (Judg. 
11:35; Esther 4:1). 



Shaking the garments, or shaking the 
dust from off them, was a sign of renuncia- 
tion (Acts 18 : 6) ; wrapping them round the 
head, of awe (1 Kings 19 : 13) or grief (2 
Sam. 15 : 30) ; casting them off, of excite- 
ment (Acts 22 : 23) ; laying hold of them, of 
supplication (1 Sam. 15 : 27). In the case 
of travelling, the outer garments were girded 
up (1 Kings 18 : 46). They were thrown 
aside also when they would impede action 
(Mark 10 : 50 ; John 13 : 4 ; Acts 7 : 58). 

Drink. The drinks of the Hebrews were 
water, wine, "strong drink," and vinegar. 
Their drinking vessels were the cup, goblet 
or "basin," the " cruse" or pitcher, and the 
saucer. 

To drink water by measure (Ezek. 4:11), 
and to buy water to drink (Lam. 5 : 4), de- 
note great scarcity. To drink blood means 
to be satiated with slaughter. 

The Jews carefully strained their drinks 
through a sieve, through fear of violating 
the law of Lev. 11 : 20, 23, 41, 42. (See 
Matt. 23 : 24. " Strain at " should be ' ' strain 
out.") 

Drink, strong (Heb. shekar'), an intoxi- 
cating liquor (Judg. 13 : 4 ; Luke 1 : 15 ; Isa. 
5:11; Micah 2:11) distilled from corn, 
honey, or dates. The effects of the use of 
strong drink are referred to in Ps. 107 : 27 ; 
Isa. 24 : 20 ; 49 : 26 ; 51 : 17-22. Its use pro- 
hibited, Prov. 20 : 1. (See WiNE.) 

Drink-offering consisted of wine (Num. 
15 : 5 ; Hos. 9 : 4) poured around the altar 
(Ex. 30 : 9). Joined with meat-offerings 
(Num. 6:15, 17; 2 Kings 16:13; Joel 1:9, 
13 ; 2 : 14), presented daily (Ex. 29 : 40), on 
the Sabbath (Ntim. 28 : 9), and on f east-daj^s 
(28 : 14). One-fourth of an hin of wine was 
required for one lamb, one-third for a ram, 
and one-fourth for a bullock (Num. 15 : 5 ; 
28 : 7, 14). " Drink offerings of blood " (Ps. 
16 : 4) is used in allusion to the heathen prac- 
tice of mingling' the blood of animals sacri- 
ficed with wine or water, and pouring out 
the mixture in the worship of the gods, 
and the idea conveyed is that the psalmist 
would not partake of the abominations of 
the heathen. 

Drom'edary (Isa. 60 : 6), an African or 
Arabian species of camel having only one 
hump, while the Bactrian camel has two. 



DHOPSY 



205 



DUNG 



It is distinguished from the camel only as 
a trained saddle-horse is distinguished from 
a cart-horse. It is remarkable for its speed 
( Jer. 2 : 23). Camels are frequently spoken 
of in patriarchal times (Gen. 12 : 16 ; 24 : 10 ; 
30 : 43 ; 31 : 17, etc.). They were used for 
carrying burdens (Gen. 37 : 25 ; Judg. 6 : 5), 
and for riding (Gen, 24 : 64). The hair of 
the camel falls off of itself in spring, and 
is woven into coarse cloths and garments 
(Matt. 3 : 4). (See Camel.) 

Drop'^sy, mentioned only in Luke 14 : 2. 
The man afflicted with it was cured by 
Christ on the Sabbath. 

Dross, the impurities of silver separated 
from the ore in the process of melting 
(Prov. 25 : 4 ; 26 : 23 ; Ps. 119 : 119). It is 
also used to denote the base metal itself, 
probably before it is smelted, in Isa. 1 : 22, 
25. 

Drought. From the middle of May to 
about the middle of August the land of 
Palestine is dry. It is then the "drought 
of summer " (Gen. 31 : 40 ; Ps. 32 : 4), and 
the land suffers (Deut. 28 : 23; Ps. 102 : 4), 
vegetation being preserved only by the 
dews (Hag. 1 : 11). (See Dew. ) 

Drown (Ex. 15 : 4 ; Amos 8:8; Heb. 11 : 
29). Drowning was a mode of capital pun- 
ishment in use among the Syrians, and was 
known to the Jews in the time of our Lord. 
To this he alludes in Matt. 18 : 6. 

Drunk. The first case of intoxication 
on record is that of Noah (Gen. 9 : 21). The 
sin of drunkenness is frequently and strongly 
condemned (Rom. 13:13 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 9, 10 ; 
Eph. 5:18; 1 Thess. 5:7, 8). The sin of 
drinking to excess seems to have been not 
uncommon among the Israelites. 

The word is used figuratively, when men 
are spoken of as being drunk with sorrow, 
and with the wine of God's wrath (Isa. 63 : 
G ; Jer. 51 : 57; Ezek. 23 : 33). To "add 
drunkenness to thirst" (Deut. 29:19, A.V.) 
is a proverbial expression, rendered in the 
Revised Version "to destroy the moist 
with the dry " — i. e. , the well- watered equally 
with the dry land, meaning that the effect 
of such walking in the imagination of their 
own hearts would be to destroy one and 
all. 

Drusil^'la, third and youngest daiighter 



of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12 : 1-4, 20-23). 
Felix, the Roman procurator of Judea, in- 
duced her to leave her husband, Azizus, 
the king of Emesa, and become his wife. 
She was present with Felix when Paul 
reasoned of "righteousness, temperance, 
and judgment to come" (Acts 24:24). She 
and her son perished in the eruption of 
Mount Vesuvius, A.D. 79. 

Duke, derived from the Latin dux, mean- 
ing "a leader;" Arabic, "a sheik." This 
word is used to denote the phylarch or 
chief of a tribe (Gen. 36:15-43; Ex. 15:15; 
1 Chr. 1 : 51-54). 

Dul'cimer (Heb. sumjohoniah), a musi- 
cal instrument mentioned in Dan. 3 : 5, 15, 
along with other instruments there named, 
as sounded before the golden image. It 
was not a Jewish instrument. In the mar- 
gin of the Revised Version it is styled the 
"bag-pipes." Luther translated it "lute," 
and Grotius the " crooked trumpet. " It is 
probable that it was introduced into Baby- 
lon by some Greek or Western- Asiatic 
musician. Some Rabbinical commentators 
render it by " organ, " the well-known instru- 
ment composed of a series of pipes, others 
by "lyre." The most probable interpreta- 
tion is that it was a bag-pipe similar to the 
zampagna of Southern Europe. 

Du^'mah — silence — (comp. Ps. 94 : 17), 
the fourth son of Ishmael ; also the tribe 
descended from him ; and hence also the 
region in Arabia which they inhabited 
(Gen. 25 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 30). 

There was also a town of this name in 
Judah (J osh. 15 : 52), which has been iden- 
tified with ed-Domeh, about 10 miles south- 
west of Hebron. 

The place mentioned in the "burden" 
of the prophet Isaiah (21 : 11) is Edom or 
Idumea. 

Dumb from natural infirmity (Ex. 4: 
11) ; not knowing what to say (Prov. 31 : 
8) ; unwillingness to speak (Ps. 39 : 9 ; Lev. 
10 : 3). Christ repeatedly restored the 
dumb (Matt. 9:32, 33; Luke 11:14; 
Matt. 12 : 22) to the use of speech. 

Dung. (1.) Used as manure (Luke 13: 
8); collected outside the city walls (Neh. 
2:13). Of sacrifices burnt outside the 
camp (Ex. 29:14; Lev. 4:11; 8:17; 

14 



DUNG-GATE 



206 



DWELLINGS 



Num. 19:5). To be "cast out as dung," 
a figurative expression (1 Kings 14 : 10 ; 
2 Kings 9:37; Jer. 8:2; Ps. 18:42), 
meaning to be rejected as unprofitable. 

(2.) Used as fuel, a substitute for fire- 
wood, which was with difficulty procured 
in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt (Ezek. 4 : 12- 
15), where cows' and camels' dung is used 
to the present day for this purpose. 

Dung-gate (Neh. 2 : 13), a gate of ancient 
Jerusalem, on the south-west quarter. 
"The gate outside of which lay the piles 
of sweepings and offsco\;rings of the 
streets," in the valley of Tophet. 

Dung-hill, to sit on a, was a sign of the 
deepest dejection (1 Sam. 2:8; Ps. 113 : 
7 ; Lam. 4 : 5). 

Dun'geon, different from the ordinary 
prison in being more severe as a place of 
punishment. Like the Roman inner 
prison (Acts 16 : 24), it consisted of a deep 
cell or cistern (Jer. 38 : 6). To be shut up 
in, a punishment common in Egypt (Gen. 
39 : 20 ; 40 : 3 ; 41 : 10 ; 42 : 19). It is not 
mentioned, however, in the law of Moses 
as a mode of punishment. Under the 
later kings imprisonment was frequently 
used as a punishment (2 Chron. 16 : 10 ; 
Jer. 20:2; 32:2; 33:1; 37:15), and it 
was customary after the Exile (Matt. 11 : 2 ; 
Luke 3 : 20 ; Acts 5 : 18, 21 ; Matt. 18 : 30). 

Du''ra — the circle — the i^lain near Baby- 
lon in which Nebuchadnezzar set up a 
golden image, mentioned in Dan. 3 : 1. 
The place still retains its ancient name. 
On one of its many mounds the pedestal 
of what must have been a colossal statue 
has been found. It has been sui^posed to 
be that of the golden image. 

Dust. Storms of sand and dust some- 
times overtake Eastern travellers. They 
are very dreadfial, many perishing under 
them. Jehovah threatens to bring on the 
land of Israel, as a punishment for forsak- 
ing him, a rain of "powder and dust" 
(Deut. 28 : 24). 

To cast dust on the head was a sign of 
mourning (Josh. 7:6); and to sit in dust, 
of extreme affliction (Isa. 47 : 1). " Dust " 
is used to denote the grave (Job 7 : 21). 
" To shake off the dust from one's feet " 
against another is to renounce all future 



intercourse with him (Matt. 10 : 14 ; Acts 
13:51). To "lick the dust" is a sign of 
abject submission (Ps. 72:9); and to 
throw dust at one is a sign of abhorrence 
(2 Sam. 16 : 13 ; comp. Acts 22 : 23). 

Dwarf, a lean or emaciated person (Lev. 
21 : 20). 

Dwell. Tents were in primitive times 
the common dwellings of men. Houses 
were afterwards built, the walls of which 
were frequently of mud (Job 24 : 16 ; Matt. 
6 : 19, 20) or of sun-dried bricks. 

God " dwells in light " (1 Tim. 6 : 16 ; 1 
John 1 : 7), in heaven (Ps. 123 : 1), in his 
church (Ps. 9 : 11 ; 1 John 4 : 12). Christ 
dwelt on earth in the days of his humilia- 
tion (John 1 : 14). He now dwells in the 
hearts of his people (Eph. 3 : 17-19). The 
Holy Spirit dwells in believers (1 Cor. 
3 : 16 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 14). We are exhorted to 
" let the word of God dwell in us richly " 
(Col. 3 : 16 ; Ps. 119 : 11). 

Bicell deep occurs only in Jer. 49 : 8, and 
refers to the custom of seeking refuge from 
impending danger, in retiring to the re- 
cesses of rocks and caverns, or to remote 
places in the desert. 

Dwellings. The materials used in 
buildings were commonly bricks, sometimes 
also stones (Lev. 14 : 40, 42), which were 
held together by cement (Jer. 43 : 9) or 
bitumen (Gen. 11 : 3). The exterior was 
usually whitewashed (Lev. 14 : 41 ; Ezek. 
13 : 10 ; Matt. 23 : 27). The beams were 
of sycamore (Isa. 9 : 10), or olive-wood, or 
cedar (1 Kings 7:2; Isa. 9 : 10). 

The form of Eastern dwellings differed in 
many respects from that of dwellings in 
Western lands. The larger houses were 
built in a quadrangle enclosing a court-yard 
(Luke 5 : 19 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 18 ; Neh. 8 : 16) 
surrounded by galleries, which formed the 
guest-chamber or reception-room for visi- 
tors. The flat roof, surrounded by a low 
parapet, was used for many domestic and 
social purposes. It was reached by steps 
from the court. In connection with it 
(2 Kings 23 : 12) was an upper room, used as 
a private chamber (2 Sam. 18 : 33 ; Dan. 6 : 
11), also as a bedroom (2 Kings 23 : 12), a 
sleeping a.partment for guests (2 Kings 4 : 
10), and as a sick-chamber (1 Kings 17 : 19). 



DYE 



207 



EAGLE 



The doors, sometimes of stone, swung on 
morticed pivots, and were generally fas- 
tened by wooden bolts. The houses of the 
more wealthy had a doorkeeper or a female 
porter (John 18:16; Acts 12:13). The 
windows generally opened into the court- 
yard, and were closed by a lattice (Judg. 
5 : 28). The interior rooms were set apart 
for the female portion of the household. 

The furniture of the room (2 Kings 4 : 
10) consisted of a couch furnished with 



pillows (Amos 6:4; Ezek. 13 : 10), and be- 
sides this only chairs and lanterns or lamp- 
stands (2 Kings 4 : 10). 

Dye. The art of dyeing is one of great 
antiquity, although no special mention is 
made of it in the Old Testament. The 
Hebrews probably learned it from the 
Egyptians (see Ex. 26:1; 28:5-8), who 
brought it to great perfection. In New 
Testament times Thyatira was famed for 
its dyers (Acts 16 : 14). (See Coloues.) 



E 



Eagle (Heb. nesher; properly the grif- 
fon vulture or great vulture, so called 
from its tearing its prey witn its beak), 




GKIFfON VULTURE. 

referred to for its swiftness of flight 
(Dent. 28 : 49 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 23), its mounting 
high in the air (Job 39:27), its strength 
(Ps. 103:5), its setting its nest in high 
places ( Jer. 49 : 16), and its power of vision 
(Job 39 : 26-30). 

This "ravenous bird" is a symbol of 
those nations whom God employs and 
sends forth to do a work of destruction, 
sweeping away whatever is decaying and 
putrescent (Matt. 24 : 28 ; Isa. 46 : 11 ; 
Ezek. 39:4; Deut. 28:49; Jer. 4:13; 



48 : 40). It is said that the eagle sheds his 
feathers in the beginning of siDring, and 
with fresh plumage assumes the appear- 
ance of youth. To this, allusion is made in 
Ps. 103 : 5 and Isa. 40 : 31. God's care over 
his people is likened to that of the eagle 
in training its young to fly (Ex. 19 : 4 ; Deut. 
32 : 11, 12). An interesting illustration is 
thus recorded by Sir Humphry Davy : — 
" I once saw a very interesting sight above 
the crags of Ben Nevis. Two parent 
eagles were teaching their offspring, two 
young birds, the manoeiivres of flight. 
They began by rising from the top of the 
mountain in the eye of the sun. It was 
about mid-day, and bright for the climate. 
They at first made small circles, and the 
young birds imitated them. They paused 
on their wings, waiting till they had made 
their flight, and then took a second and 
larger gyration, always rising toward the 
sun, and enlarging their circle of flight so 
as to make a gradually ascending spiral. 
The young ones still and slowly followed, 
apparently flying better as they mounted ; 
and they continued this sublime exercise, 
always rising till they became mere points 
in the air, and the young ones were lost, 
and afterwards their parents, to our aching 
sight." (See Isa. 40:31.) 

There have been observed in Palestine 
four distinct species of eagles — (1) the 
golden eagle {Aquila chrysaetos) ; (2) the 
spotted eagle {Aquila ncevia) ; (3) the com- 
mon species, the imperial eagle {Aquila 



EAR 



208 



EAST 



heliaca); and (4) the Circaetos gallicus, 
which preys on reptiles. 

The eagle was unclean by the Levitical 
law (Lev. 11 : 13 ; Deut. 14 : 12). 

Ear, used frequently in a figurative 
sense (Ps, 34:15). To "uncover the ear" 
is to show respect to a person (1 Sam. 20 : 2 
marg.). To have the " ear heavy, " or to have 
" uncircumcised ears " (Isa. 6 : 10), is to be 
inattentive and disobedient. To have the 
ear "bored" through with an awl was a 
sign of perpetual servitude (Ex. 21 : 6). 

Ear''ing, an Old English word (from the 
Latin aro, I plough), meaning "plough- 
ing. " It is used in the Authorized Version 
in Gen. 45 : 6 ; Ex. 34 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 12 ; 
Deut. 21 : 4 ; Isa. 30 : 24 ; but the Revised 
Version has rendered the original in these 
places by the ordinary word to plough or 
till. 

Ear'^nest. The Spirit is the earnest of 
the believer's destined inheritance (2 Cor. 
1 : 22 ; 5:5; Eph. 1 : 14). The word thus 
rendered is the same as that rendered 
"pledge" in Gen. 38:17-20; "indeed, 
the Hebrew word has simply passed into 
the Greek and Latin languages, probably 
through commercial dealings with the 
Phoenicians, the great trading people of 
ancient days. Originally it meant no more 
than a pledge ; but in common usage it came 
to denote that particular kind of pledge 
which is a part of the full price of an 
article paid in advance ; and as it is joined 
with the figure of a seal when applied to 
the Spirit, it seems to be used by Paul in 
this specific sense." The Spirit's gracious 
presence and working in believers is a fore- 
taste to them of the blessedness of heaven. 
God is graciously pleased to give not 
only pledges but foretastes of future 
blessedness. 

Ear''rings, rings properly for the ear 
(Gen. 35:4; Num. 31:51; Ezek. 16:12). 
In Gen. 24 : 47 the word means a nose- 
jewel, and is so rendered in the Revised 
Version. In Isa. 3:20 the Authorized 
Version has "ear-rings," and the Revised 
Version " amulets, " which more correctly 
represents the original word {lehashim), 
which means incantations ; charms — thus 
remedies against enchantment, worn either 



suspended from the neck or in the ears of 
females. Ear-rings were ornaments used 
by both sexes (Ex. 32 : 2). 

Earth. (1.) In the sense of soil or 
ground, the translation of the word ad- 
amah'. In Gen. 9:20 "husbandman" is 
literally "man of the ground or earth." 
Altars were to be built of earth (Ex. 20 : 
24). Naaman asked for two mules' burden 
of earth (2 Kings 5 : 17), under the super- 
stitious notion that Jehovah, like the gods 
of the heathen, could be acceptably wor- 
shipped only on his own soil. 

(2.) As the rendering of erets, it means 
the whole world (Gen. 1:2); the land as 
opposed to the sea (1 : 10). Urets also de- 
notes a country (21 : 32) ; a plot of ground 
(23 : 15) ; the ground on which a man stands 
(33 : 3) ; the inhabitants of the earth (6 : 
1 ; 11 : 1) ; all the world except Israel 
(2 Chr. 13:9). In the New Testament 
"the earth" denotes the land of Judea 
(Matt. 23 : 35) ; also things carnal in con- 
trast with things heavenly (John 3 : 31 ; 
Col. 3 : 1, 2). 

Earth''quake, mentioned among the ex- 
traordinary phenomena of Palestine (Ps. 
18 : 7 ; comp. Hab. 3:6; Nah. 1:5; Isa. 
5 : 25). 

The first earthquake in Palestine of 
which we have any record happened in 
the reign of Ahab (1 Kings 19:11, 12). 
Another took place in the days of Uzziah, 
king of Judah (Zech. 14:5). The most 
memorable earthquake taking place in 
New Testament times happened at the 
crucifixion of our Lord (Matt. 27 : 54). 
An earthquake at Philippi shook the 
prison in which Paul and Silas were im- 
prisoned (Acts 16 : 26). 

It is used figuratively as a token of the 
presence of the Lord ( Judg. 5 : 4 ; 2 Sam. 
22 : 8 ; Ps. 77 : 18 ; 97 : 4 ; 104 : 32). 

East. (1.) The orient [mizrah); the 
rising of the sun. Thus " the land of the 
east " is the country lying to the east of 
Syria, the Elymais (Zech. 8 : 7). 

(2. ) Properly what is in front of one, or 
a country that is before or in front of an- 
other ; the rendering of the word ktdem. 
In pointing out the qiiarters, a Hebrew 
alwavs looked with his face toward the 



EAST 



209 



EBENEZER 



east. The word kedem is used when the 
four quarters of the world are described 
(Gen. 13 : 14 ; 28 : 14) ; and niizrah when 
the east only is distinguished from the 
west (Josh. 11 : 3 ; Ps. 50 : 1 ; 103 : 12, etc.). 
In Gen. 25:6 "eastward" is literally 
"unto the land of kedem;" i.e., the lands 
lying east of Palestine — namety, Arabia, 
Mesopotamia, etc. 

East gate ( Jer. 19 : 2), properly the 
Potter's gate, the gate which led to the 
potter's field, in the valley of Hinnom. 

East, Children of the, the Arabs as a 
whole, known as the Nabateans or Kedar- 
enes, nomad tribes ( Judg. 6 : 3, 33 ; 7 : 12 ; 
8 : 10). 

East sea (Joel 2 : 20 ; Ezek. 47 : 18), the 
Dead Sea, which lay on the east side of 
the Holy Land. The Mediterranean, 
which lay on the west, was hence called 
the west sea (Num. 34 : 6). 

East wind, the wand coming from the 
east (Job 27 : 21 ; Isa. 27 : 8, etc.). Blight 
caused by this wind, " thin ears " (Gen. 
41:6); the withered "gourd" (Jonah 4: 
8). It was the cause and also the emblem 
of evil (Ezek. 17 : 10 ; 19 : 12 ; Hos. 13 : 15). 
In Palestine this wind blows from a burn- 
ing desert, and hence is destitute of moist- 
ure necessary for vegetation. 

East''er, originally a Saxon word [Eostre), 
denoting a goddess of the Saxons, in honour 
of whom sacrifices were offered about the 
time of the Passover. Hence the name 
came to be given to the festival of the Re- 
surrection of Christ, which occurred at the 
time of the Passover. In the early English 
versions this word was frequently used as 
the translation of the Greek pascha (the 
Passover). When the Authorized Ver- 
sion (1611) was formed, the word "pass- 
over " was used in all passages in which 
this word pascha occurred, except in Acts 
12 : 4. In the Revised "Version the proper 
word, " passover," is always used. 

Eating. The ancient Hebrews would 
not eat with the Egyptians (Gen. 43 : 32). 
In the time of our Lord they would not 
eat with Samaritans (John 4 : 9), and were 
astonished that he ate with publicans 
and sinners (Matt. 9 : 11). The Hebrews 
originally sat at table, but afterwards 



adopted the Persian and Chaldean prac- 
tice of reclining (Luke 7 : 36-50). Their 
principal meal was at noon (Gen. 43 : 16 ; 
1 Kings 20 : 16 ; Ruth 2 : 14 ; Luke 14 : 12). 
The word "eat " is used metaphorically in 
Jer. 15:16; Ezek. 3:1; Rev. 10:9. In 
John 6:53-58, "eating and drinking" 
means believing in Christ. Women were 
never present as guests at meals {q.v.). 

E^bal — stone. (1.) A mountain 3,076 
feet above the level of the sea, and 1,200 
feet above the level of the valley, on the 
north side of which stood the city of 
Shechem {q.v.). On this mountain six of 
the tribes (Deut. 27 : 12, 13) were appointed 
to take their stand and respond accord- 
ing to a prescribed form to the impreca- 
tions uttered in the valley, where the law 
was read by the Levites (11 : 29 ; 27 : 4, 
13). This mountain was also the site of 
the first great altar erected to Jehovah 
(Deut. 27 : 5-8 ; Josh. 8 : 30-35). After this 
the name of Ebal does not again occur in 
Jewish history. (See Gekizim.) 

(2.) A descendant of Eber (1 Chr. 1 : 22), 
called also Obal (Gen. 10 : 28). 

(3.) A descendant of Seir the Horite 
(Gen. 36 : 23). 

E'bed^ — slave — the father of Gaal, in 
whom the men of Shechem " put con- 
fidence " in their conspiracy against Abim- 
elech (Judg. 9 : 26, 28, 30, 31). 

E'bed-uielech — a servant of the king ; 
probably an official title — an Ethiopian, 
"one of the eunuchs which was in the 
king's house ; " i.e., in the palace of Zede- 
kiah, king of Judah. He interceded with 
the king in Jeremiah's behalf, and was the 
means of saving him from death by famine 
(Jer. 38 : 7-13 ; comp. 39 : 15-18). 

Eb''en-e 'zer — stone of h elp — the memorial 
stone set up by Samuel to commemorate 
the di\TLne assistance to Israel in their great 
battle against the Philistines, whom they 
totally routed (1 Sam. 7 : 7-12) at Aphek, 
in the neighbourhood of Mizpeh, in Benja- 
min, near the western entrance of the pass 
of Beth-horon. On this very battle-field, 
twenty years before, the Philistines routed 
the Israelites, "and slew of the army in the 
field about four thousand men " (4 : 1, 2; here, 
and at 5 : 1, called " Eben-ezer " by antici- 



EBER 



210 



EDAE 



pation). In this extremity the Israelites 
fetched the ark out of Shiloh and carried it 
into their camp. The Philistines a second 
time immediately attacked them, and smote 
them with a very great slaughter, ' ' for there 
fell of Israel thirty thousand footmen. And 
the ark of God was taken " (1 Sam. 4 : 10). 
And now in the same place the Philistines 
are vanquished, and the memorial stone is 
erected by Samuel {q.v.). The spot where 
the stone was erected was somewhere "be- 
tween Mizpeh and Shen." Some have 
identified it with the modern Beit Iksa, a 
conspicuous and prominent position, appa- 
rently answering all the necessary con- 
ditions ; others with Deir Ahdn, 3 miles east 
of 'Ain Shems. 

E^ber — beyond. (1.) The third post- 
diluvian patriarch after Shem (Gen. 10:24; 
11 : 14). He is regarded as the founder of 
the Hebrew race (10:21; Num. 24:24). 
In Luke 3 : 35 he is called Heber. 

(2. ) One of the seven heads of the families 
of the Gadites (1 Chr. 5 : 13). 

(3.) The oldest of the three sons of Elpaal 
the Benjamite (8 : 12), 

(4.) One of the heads of the families of 
Benjamites in Jerusalem (22). 

(5.) The head of the priestly family of 
Amokinthetimeof Zerubbabel(Neh.l2 : 20). 

Eb'ony, a black, hard wood, brought by 
the merchants from India to Tyre (Ezek. 
27 : 15). It is the heart-wood of the Dios- 
pyros cbenus, which grows in Ceylon and 
Southern India. 

Ebro^nah — passar/e — one of the stations 
of the Israelites in their wanderings (Num. 
33 : 34, 35). It was near Ezion-geber. 

Ecbat^ana (Ezra 6:2 marg.). (See 
ACHMETHA. ) 

Ecclesias^tes, the Greek rendering of the 
Hebrew Koheleth, which means ' ' Preacher. " 
The old and traditional view of the author- 
ship of this book attributes it to Solomon. 
This view can be satisfactorily maintained 
in the face of the opjDosition of modern criti- 
cism. The writer represents himself im- 
plicitly as Solomon (1 : 12). It has been ap- 
propriately styled The Confession of King 
Solomon. "The writer is a man who has 
sinned in giving way to selfishness and sens- 
uality, who has paid the penalty of that sin 



in satiety and weariness of life, but who has 
through all this been under the discipline 
of a divine education, and has learned from 
it the lesson which God meant to teach 
him." "The writer concludes by pointing 
out that the secret of a true life is that a 
man should consecrate the vigour of his 
youth to God." The key-note of the book 
is sounded in ch. 1 : 2 — 

" Vanity of vanities ! saith the Preacher, 
Vanity of vanities ! all is vanity ! " 

— i.e., all man's efforts to find happiness 
apart from God are without result. 

Eclipse of the sun alluded to in Amos 
8:9; Micah 3:6; Zech. 14:6; Joel 2: 
10. Eclipses were regarded as tokens of 
God's anger (Joel 3 : 15 ; Job 9 : 7). The 
darkness at the crucifixion has been as- 
cribed to an eclipse (Matt. 27 : 45) ; but on 
the other hand it is argued that the great 
intensity of darkness caused by an eclipse 
never lasts for more than six minutes, and 
this darkness lasted for three hours. More- 
over, at the time of the Passover the moon 
was full, and therefore there could not be 
an eclipse of the sun, which is caused by 
an interposition of the moon between the 
sun and the earth. 

Ed — ivitness — a word not found in the 
original Hebrew, nor in the LXX. and 
Vulgate, but added by the translators in 
the Authorized Version, also in the Re- 
vised Version, of Josh. 22 : 34. The words 
are literally rendered : " And the children 
of Reuben and the children of Gad named 
the altar. It is a witness between us that 
Jehovah is God." This great altar stood 
probably on the east side of the Jordan, in 
the land of Gilead, "over against the land 
of Canaan. " After the division of the Prom- 
ised Land, the tribes of Reuben and Gad 
and the half -tribe of Manasseh, on return- 
ing to their own settlements on the east of 
Jordan (Josh. 22 : 1-6), erected a great altar, 
which they affirmed, in answer to the chal- 
lenge of the other tribes, was not for sacri- 
fice, but only as a witness {'^Ed) or testimony 
to future generations that they still re- 
tained the same interest in the nation as 
the other tribes. 

E'dar — to^oer of the flock — a tow^er be- 



EDEN 



211 



EDOM 



tween Bethlehem and Hebron, near which 
Jacob first halted after leaving Bethlehem 
(Gen. 35 : 21). In Micah 4 : 8 the word is ren- 
dered ' ' tower of the flock " (marg. , ' ' Edar "), 
and is used as a designation of Bethlehem, 
which figuratively represents the royal line 
of David as sprung from Bethlehem. 

E''den — delight. (1.) The garden in 
which our first parents dwelt (Gen. 2 : 
8-17). No geographical question has been 
so much discussed as that bearing on its 
site. It has been placed in Armenia, in 
the region west of the Caspian Sea, in 
Media, near Damascus, in Palestine, in 
Southern Arabia, and in Babylonia. The 
site must undoubtedly be sought for some- 
where along the course of the great streams 
the Tigris and the Euphrates of Western 
Asia, in "the land of Shinar" or Baby- 
lonia. The region from about lat. 33° 30' 
to lat. 31°, which is a very rich and fertile 
tract, has been by the most competent 
aiithorities agreed on as the probable site 
of Eden. "It is a region where streams 
abound, w^here they divide and re-imite, 
where alone in the Mesopotamian tract can 
be found the phenomenon of a single river 
parting into four arms, each of which is or 
has been a river of consequence." 

Among almost all nations there are tra- 
ditions of the primitive innocence of our 
race in the garden of Eden. This was the 
"golden age" to which the Greeks looked 
back. Men then lived a "life free from 
care, and wdthout labour and sorrow. Old 
age was unknown ; the body never lost its 
vigour ; existence was a perpetual feast 
without a taint of evil. The earth brought 
forth spontaneously all things that were 
good in profuse abundance. " 

(2.) One of the markets whence the mer- 
chants of Tyre obtained richly embroidered 
stuffs (Ezek. 27 : 23) ; the same, probably, 
as that mentioned in 2 Kings 19 : 12, and 
Isa. 37 : 12, as the name of a region con- 
quered by the Assyrians. 

(3. ) Son of Joab, and one of the Levites 
who assisted in reforming the public wor- 
ship of the sanctuary in the time of Heze- 
kiah (2 Chr. 29 : 12). 

E'der— /oc^-. (1.) A city in the south of 
Judah, on the border of Idumea (Josh . 15 : 21). 



(2. ) The second of the three sons of Mushi, 
of the family of Merari, appointed to the 
Levitical ofiice (1 Chr. 23 : 23 ; 24 : 30). 

E'dom. (1.) The name of Esau [q.v.), 
Gen. 25 : 30 — "Eeed me, I pray thee, with 
that same red pottage [Heb. haadom, 
liaadoni — i.e., 'the red pottage, the red pot- 
tage '] Therefore was his name called 

Edom " — i.e., Red. 

(2.) Idumea (Isa. 34 : 5, 6 ; Ezek. 35 : 15). 
"The field of Edom" (Gen. 32:3), "the 
land of Edom " (Gen. 36 : 16), was moun- 
tainous (Obad. 8, 9, 19, 21). It was called 
the land, or "the mountain of Seir," the 
rough hills on the east side of the Arabah. 
It extended from the head of the Gulf of 
Akabah, the Elanitic gulf, to the foot of 
the Dead Sea (1 Kings 9 : 26), and contained, 
among other cities, the rock-hewn Sela 
(g.f.), generally known by the Greek name 
Petra (2 Kings 14 : 7). It is a wild and 
rugged region, traversed by fruitful valleys. 
Its old capital was Bozrah (Isa. 63 : 1). The 
early inhabitants of the land were Horites. 
They were destroyed by the Edomites 
(Deut. 2 : 12), between whom and the kings 
of Israel and Judah there was frequent 
war (2 Kings 8 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 17). 

At the time of the Exodus they churlishly 
refused permission to the Israelites to pass 
through their land (Num. 20 : 14-21), and 
ever afterwards maintained an attitude of 
hostility toward them. They were con- 
quered by David (2 Sam. 8 : 14 ; comp. 1 
Kings 9 : 26), and afterwards by Amaziah 
(2 Chr. 25:11, 12). But they regained 
again their independence, and in later 
years, during the decline of the Jewish 
kingdom (2 Kings 16 : 6 ; P. V. marg,, 
"Edomites"), made war against Israel. 
They took part with the Chaldeans when 
Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem, and 
afterwards they invaded and held posses- 
sion of the south of Palestine as far as 
Hebron. At length, however, Edom fell 
under the growing Chaldean power (Jer, 
27 : 3, 6). 

There are manj^ prophecies concerning 
Edom (Isa. 34:5, 6; Jer. 49:7-18; Ezek. 
25 : 13 ; 35 : 1-15 ; Joel 3 : 19 ; Amos 1 : 11 ; 
Obad. ; Mai. 1:3, 4) which have been re- 
markably fulfilled. The present desolate 



EDEEI 



212 



EGYPT 



condition of that land is a standing testi- 
mony to the inspiration of these prophecies. 
After an existence as a people for above 
seventeen hundred years, they have utterly 
disappeared, and their language even is for- 
gotten for ever. InPetra, "where kings kept 
their court, and where nobles assembled ; 
where manifest proofs of ancient opulence 
are concentrated ; where princely mau- 
soleums and temples retaining their exter- 
nal grandeur, but bereft of all their splen- 
dour, still look as if ' fresh from the chisel ' 
— even there no man dwells : it is given 
by lot to birds and beasts and reptiles ; it 
is a ' court for owls, ' and scarcely are they 
frayed from their ' lonely habitations ' by 
the tread of a solitary traveller from a far 
distant land, among deserted dwellings and 
desolated ruins." 

"Ed^rei— mighty ; strength. (1.) One of 
the chief towns of the kingdom of Bashan 
(Josh. 12 : 4, 5). Here Og was defeated 
by the Israelites, and the strength of the 
Amorites broken (Num. 21:33-35). It 
subsequently belonged to Manasseh, for a 
short time apparently, and afterwards be- 
came the abode of banditti and outlaws 
(Josh. 13 : 31). It has been identified with 
the modern Edra, which stands on a rocky 
promontory on the south-west edge of the 
Lejah (the Argob of the Hebrews, and 
Trachonitis of the Greeks). The ruins of 
Edr^a are the most extensive in the Hauran. 
They are 3 miles in circumference. A 
number of the ancient houses still remain ; 
the walls, roofs, and doors being all of 
stone. The wild region of which Edrei 
was the capital is thus described in its 
modern aspect: "Elevated about 20 feet 
above the plain, it is a labyrinth of clefts 
and crevasses in the rock, formed by vol- 
canic action ; and owing to its impenetrable 
condition, it has become a refuge for out- 
laws and turbulent characters, who make it 
a sort of Cave of Adullam...It is, in fact, an 
impregnable natural fortress, about 20 miles 
in length and 15 in breadth" (Porter's Syria, 
etc.). Beneath this wonderful city there is 
also a subterranean city, hollowed out prob- 
ably as a refuge for the population of the 
upper city in times of danger. 

(2.) A town of Naphtali (Josh. 10 : 37). 



Effectual call. See Call. 

Effectual prayer occurs in Authorized 
Version, James 5 : 16. The Revised Ver- 
sion renders appropriately: "The suppli- 
cation of a righteous man availeth much in 
its working" — i.e., "it moves the hand of 
Him who moves the world." 

Egg (Heb. beytsah, " whiteness "). Eggs 
deserted (Isa. 10 : 14), of a bird (Deut. 22 : 6), 
an ostrich (Job 39 : 14), the cockatrice (Isa. 
59 : 5). In Luke 11 : 12, an egg is contrasted 
with a scorpion, which is said to be very 
like an egg in its appearance, so much so 
as to be with difficulty at times distin- 
guished from it. In Job 6:6 ( " the white 
of an egg ") the word for egg [JiallamAith') 
occurs nowhere else. It has been trans- 
lated "purslain" (R.V. marg.), and the 
whole phrase " purslain-broth " — i.e., broth 
made of that herb, j)roverbial for its in- 
sipidity ; and hence an insipid discourse. 
Job applies this expression to the speech 
of Eliphaz as being insipid and dull. But 
the common rendering — "the white of an 
egg " — may be satisfactorily maintained. 

Eg'lah— a heifei — one of David's wives, 
and mother of Ithream (2 Sam. 3 : 5 ; 1 Chr. 
3 : 3). According to a Jewish tradition she 
was Michal. 

Eg^laim — two ponds — ^(Isa. 15 : 8), prob- 
ably En-eglaim of Ezek. 47 : 10. 

Eg^lon — the bullock; place of heifers. (1. ) 
Chieftain or king of one of the Moabite 
tribes ( Judg. 3 : 12-14). Having entered 
into an alliance with Ammon and Amalek, 
he overran the trans-Jordanic region, and 
then crossing the Jordan, seized on Jericho, 
the "city of palm trees," which had been 
by this time rebuilt, but not as a fortress. 
He made this city his capital, and kept 
Israel in subjection for eighteen years. 
The people at length "cried unto the 
Lord" in their distress, and he "raised 
them up a deliverer" in Ehud {q.v.), the 
son of Gera, a Benjamite. 

(2.) A city in Judah, near Lachish (Josh. 
15 : 39). It was destroyed by Joshua (10 : 
5, 6). It has been identified with Tell 
NejUch, 6 miles south of Tell Hesy. (See 
Lachish. ) 

E'gypt, the land of the Nile and the 
pyramids, the oldest kingdom of which 



ECxYPT 



213 



EGYPT 



we have any record, holds a place of great 
significance in Scripture. Its Hebrew 
name is Mizraim; a dual form, pointing to 
the two divisions of the country, Upper 
and Lower Egypt, or, as some think, the 
two strips of fertile land on the two sides 
of the Nile. The common Coptic name of 
the country is Kerne or Kam [i.e., "the 
black land "), with reference to the colour 
of the soil. It is called also "the land of 
Ham " (Ps. 105 : 23, 27 ; comp. 78 : 51), and 
" Rahab " (87 : 4 ; 89 : 10, etc.). The origin 
of the name "Egypt," first met with in 
its Greek form in Homer, is unknown. 
It is supposed to mean "the land of the 
Copts." 

Herodotus has called Egypt "the gift 
of the Nile." But for that river, it would 
have been a barren desert. From year to 
year, with wonderful regularity, the Nile 
begins to rise about the middle of July, 
attaining its greatest height in the end of 
September or beginning of October, when 
it begins, at first slowly, and afterwards 
more rapidly, to fall, till it reaches its 
lowest level in April or May. When at 
its height its waters spread over the whole 
valley, covering it with a black sediment 
which enriches the soil. This is soon 
covered with all manner of luxuriant 
crops. 

Egypt is a great oasis, extending from 
where the Nile issues from the granite 
rocks of the Eirst Cataract in a direct line 
to the Mediterranean, a distance of about 
600 miles. This is divided into two parts. 
(1.) The Delta (so called from its resem- 
bling in form the Greek letter delta, A) is a 
large triangular plain, extending along the 
Mediterranean coast for about 200 miles, 
and up the Nile for 100 miles. (2.) From 
this point of the Nile to the First Cataract, 
a distance of about 500 miles, is the Nile 
valley, which ranges in breadth from 10 to 
30 miles. The Delta and the Nile valley 
have together an area of about 9,600 square 
miles. Modern Egypt is, however, much 
more extensive. It is bounded on the 
north by the Mediterranean, on the south 
by Nubia, on the east by the Ped Sea, and 
on the west by the Great Desert. 

Egypt is of chief interest to us from its 



place in Bible history. It was colonized 
at a very early period by the descendants 
of Mizraim, the second son of Ham, who 
probably came from the east along the 
Persian Gulf, then across Northern Arabia 




THE NILE VALLEY. 



and the isthmus of Suez. It was an old, 
flourishing, and settled kingdom in the 
time of Abraham. "The first Egyptian 
monarchy had had its seat at Memphis 
ages before Jacob's day ; and the kings of 



EGYPT 



214 



EGYPT 




SPHINX AND PYRAMIDS. 



the Old Empire who flourished there had 
left monuments of their greatness which 
were old in the times of the patriarchs, and 
still astonish the world. Huge dikes like 
those of Holland were made by them to 
keep the Nile from flooding the cities, 
which themselves were built on artificial 
mounds raised high above the level of the 
annual inundations. The turquoise mines 
of the Sinai peninsula had been discovered, 
and were vigorously worked. The forced 
labour of tens of thousands had built the 
gigantic masses of the pyramids of lime- 
stone from the quarries of the neighbour- 
ing Arabian hills, cased with huge blocks 
of granite from Assouan at the First Cata- 
ract far up the river, wonderfully polished, 
and cut with an exactness which modern 
skill still envies."— Geikie's Hours, etc.,\\. 6. 
The Old Empire founded by Menes at 
length came to an end, and was succeeded 
by the Middle Empire, the seat of govern- 
ment being shi f ted from Memphis to Th ebes. 
After a short period the Hyksos or shep- 
herd-kings successfully invaded the land, 



and fixed their capital at Zoan [q.v.). The 
Hyksos were ultimately expelled by Aah- 
mes, or, as he is sometimes called, Amosis, 
the first king of the eighteenth dynastj^ of 
purely Egyptian kings. 

The nineteenth dynasty was founded by 
Seti I., the "king which knew not Joseph." 
He was succeeded by his son, the great 
Rameses II. (See Pharaoh.) 

In the year B.C. 343 the Persians under 
Cambyses conquered the country, and after 
them the Greeks (b.c. 332) under Alexander 
ruled over it, and Egypt became a Greek 
kingdom. For the si^ace of three hundred 
years the Ptolemies, the successors of Alex- 
ander, swayed the sceptre over the valley of 
the Nile, and the country flourished in all 
the arts of agriculture and commerce. After 
the battle of Actium in 30 A.D., Egypt be- 
came a Roman province, and on the division 
of the Roman empire (a.d. 337), it fell to the 
lot of Constantinople. In G38 a.d. it was 
subdued by the Moslems, and in 1517 by 
the Turks. It remains to this day nomin- 
ally a part of the Turkish empire. 



EGYPT 



215 



EHUD 



When Abraham and Sarah went down 
into Egypt (B.C. 1920) it was ruled by Hyksos 
monarchs, M^hoheld their court at Zoan, and 
the king then on the throne bore the Egyp- 
tian title of Pharaoh. The inhabitants 
spoke the Semitic language, so that Abra- 
ham could converse with them. The his- 
tory of Joseph iq.v.) begins a connection 
with Egypt full of momentous consequences 
for the descendants of the patriarch, Ja- 
cob and his family are at length brought 
down into Egypt, and have their dwellings 
in the land of Goshen {q.v.), where they 
"grew and multiplied exceedingly. " The 
sacred narrative (Ex. 1:8, 14, etc.) reveals 
the oppression and cruel bondage to w^hich 
the Hebrews were subjected, probably un- 
der Rameses II. (Sesostris of the Greeks), 
" Pharaoh of the oppression," and the won- 
derful interpositions of God in their behalf. 

Egypt is the "momimental land of the 
earth," "the land of wonders." Its natural 
features and its history are alike extraor- 
dinary. Its ruined cities and palaces and 




STONE WITH HIEROGLYPHICS. 
Found at the great temple of Kaniak. The inscription is 
read from right to left. The first leaf (first line) represents 
/, the second o, the bird 7(. The hand (second line) re- 
presents d. The sign below the hand /z. The next sign 
»«, that above the lion <?, the lion /, and the sign below the 
lion ^. The sign at the bottom indicates that the name of 
a land is denoted. The whole inscription is read Iiidha 
lifaUk. It is thousjht to denote the victory which Shishak, 
king of Egypt, gained over Rehoboam (i Kings 14:25,26). 

temples, its pyramids and its obelisks, and 
its hieroglyphics, which scholars can now 
read and interpret, make it, of all countries 



in the world, full of profound interest to the 
antiquary and to the student of the Bible, 
which receives numberless confirmations 
from the facts it now lays open to view. 

A number of remarkable clay tablets were 
recently discovered at Tell-el-Amarna in 
Upper Egypt. The clay from different 
parts of Palestine differs, so that it has been 
found possible by the clay alone to decide 
where the tablets come from, when the 
name of the writer is lost. The inscrip- 
tions a.re cuneiform, and in the Aramaic 
language, resembling Assyrian. The wri- 
ters are Phoenicians, Amorites, and Philis- 
tines, but in no instance Hittites, though 
Hittites are mentioned. The tablets con- 
sist of official despatches and letters, dating 
from B.C. 1480, addressed to the two Pha- 
raohs, Amen6phis III. and IV., the last 
of this dynasty, from the kings and gover- 
nors of Phoenicia and Palestine. There 
occur the names of three kings killed by 
Joshua — Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, 
Japhia, king of Lachish (Josh. 10:3), and 
Jabin, king of Hazor (11:1); also the Heb- 
rews {Ahiri) are said to have come from the 
desert. " These letters are the most import- 
ant historical records ever found in con- 
nection with the Bible. They most fully 
confirm the historical statements of the 
Book of Joshua, and prove the antiquity 
of civilization in Syria and Palestine." — 
Conder's Tell Amarna Tablets, page 6. 

The principal prophecies of Scripture re- 
garding Egypt are these, Isa. 19 ; Jer. 43 : 
8-13; 44:30; 46; Ezek. 29-32; and it might 
be easily shown that they have all been re- 
markably fulfilled. For example, the singu- 
lar disappearance of Noph {i.e., Memphis) 
is a fulfilment of Jer. 46:19; Ezek. 30:13. 

E^hud— union. (1. ) A descendant of Ben- 
jamin (1 Chr. 7 : 18)— his great grandson. 

(2. ) The son of Gera, of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin (Judg. 3 : 15). After the death of 
Othniel the people again fell into idolatry, 
and Eglon, the king of Moab, uniting his 
bands with those of the Ammonites and 
the Amalekites, crossed the Jordan and 
took the city of Jericho, and for eighteen 
years held that whole district in siibjection, 
exacting from it an annual tribute. At 
length Ehud, by a stratagem, put Eglon 



EKRON 



216 



ELAM 



to death with a two-edged dagger a cubit 
long, and routed the Moabites at the fords 
of the Jordan, putting 10,000 of them to 
death. Thenceforward the land, at least 
Benjamin, enjoyed rest "for fourscore 
years " ( Judg. 3 : 12-30). (See Quaeeies 
[2]. ) But in the south-west the Philistines 
reduced the Israelites to great straits (Judg. 
5 : 6). From this oppression Shamgar was 
raised up to be their deliverer. 

Ek''ron — emigration — the most northerly 
of the five towns belonging to the lords 
of the Philistines, about 11 miles north of 
Gath. It was assigned to Jvidah (Josh. 13 : 
3), and afterwards to Dan (19 : 43), but 
came again into the full possession of the 
Philistines (1 Sam. 5 : 10). It was the last 



place to which the Philistines carried the 
ark before they sent it back to .Israel 
(1 Sam. 5 : 10 ; 6 : 1-8). There was here a 
noted sanctuary of Baal-zebub (2 Kings 1 : 
2, 3, 6, 16). With the other cities of the 
Philistines it is denounced by the pro- 
phets ( Jer. 25 : 20 ; Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2 : 
4; Zech. 9:5, 7): "Ekron shall be rooted 
up." 

E^lah — terebinth or oak. (1. ) Valley of, 
where the Israelites were encamped when 
David killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17 : 2, 19). It 
was near Shochoh of Judah and Azekah (17 : 
1). It is the modern Wddy es-Sunt — i.e., 
"valley of the acacia." "The terebinths 
from which the valley of Elah takes its name 
still cling to their ancient soil. On the 




VALLEY OF ELAH (WADY ES-SUNt). 



west side of the valley, near Shochoh, there 
is a very large and ancient tree of this 
kind known as the 'terebinth of Wady 
Sur,' 55 feet in height, its trunk 17 feet in 
circumference, and the breadth of its shade 
no less than 75 feet. It marks the upper 
end of the Elah valley, and forms a noted 
object, being one of the largest terebinths 
in Palestine. " — Geikie's The HoJii Land, etc. 

(2. ) One of the Edomite chiefs or ' ' dukes " 
of Mount Seir (Gen. 36 : 41). 

(3.) The second of the three sons of 
Caleb, the son of Jephunneh (1 Chr, 4:15). 

(4.) The son and successor of Baasha, 
king of Israel (1 Kings 16 : 8-10). He was 
killed while drunk by Zimri, one of the 
captains of his chariots, and was the last 



king of the line of Baasha. Thus was ful- 
filled the prophecy of Jehu (6, 7, 11-14). 

(5. ) The father of Hoshea, the last king 
of Israel (2 Kings 15 : 30 ; 17 : 1). 

Elam— a(/e— the son of Shem (Gen. 10 : 
22), and the name of the country inhabited 
by his descendants (14 : 1, 9 ; Isa. 11 : 11 ; 
21 : 2, etc.) lying to the east of Babylonia, 
and extending to the shore of the Mediter- 
ranean, a distance in a direct line of about 
1,000 miles. The name Elam. is an Assyrian 
word meaning "high." "Mam was itself a 
translation of the Accadian Numma, under 
which the Accadians included the whole 
of the highlands which boimded the plain 
of Babylonia on its eastern side. It was 
the seat of an ancient monarchy which 



ELAMITE 



217 



ELDER 



rivalled in antiquity that of Chaldea itself, 
and was long a dangerous neighbour to the 
latter. It was finally overthrow^n, how- 
ever, by Assiir-bani-j)al, the Assyrian king, 
about B.C. 645. The native title of the 
country was Anzan or Ansan ; and the name 
of its capital, Susan or Shushan, seems to 
have signified ' the old town ' in the lan- 
guage of its inhabitants" (A. H. Sayce). 
This country was called by the Greeks 
Cissia or Susiana. It was a strong kingdom 
in the days of Abraham (Gen. 14 : 1-12). 
It was a "province " of Babylonia in the 
time of Belshazzar, and afterwards formed 
a part of the Medo-Persian empire. 

Elamite (Ezra 4 : 9), an original inhab- 
itant of the country of Elam, and a de- 
scendant of Shem (Gen. 10 : 22). 

The Elamites who were in Jerusalem at 
the feast of Pentecost (Acts 2 : 9) were 
probably descendants of the captive tribes 
who had settled in Elam. (Comp. Isa. 
11 : 11). 

El^asah — God made. (1.) One of the 
descendants of Judah, of the family of 
Hezron (1 Chr. 2 : 39, " Eleasah "). 

(2.) A descendant of king Saul (1 Chr. 
8 : 37 ; 9 : 43). 

(3.) The son of Shaphan, one of the two 
who were sent by Zedekiah to Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and also took charge of Jeremiah's 
letter to the captives in Babylon ( Jer. 29 : 3). 

E'lath— gfrore ; trees — (Deut. 2:8), also 
in plural form Eloth (1 Kings 9 : 26, etc.) ; 
called by the Greeks and Romans Elana ; 
a city of Idumea, on the east — i.e., the 
Elanitic — gulf, or the Gulf of Akabah, of 
the Red Sea. It is first mentioned in 
Deut. 2:8. It is also mentioned along 
with Ezion-geber in 1 Kings 9 : 26. It was 
within the limits of Solomon's dominion, 
but afterwards revolted. It was, however, 
recovered and held for a time imder king 
Uzziah (2 Kings 14 : 22). 

El-Beth'el— (?od of Bethel— the name of 
the place where Jacob had the vision of 
the ladder, and where he erected an altar 
(Gen. 31 : 13 ; 35 : 7). 

El''dad — ivhom God has loved — one of the 
seventy elders whom Moses appointed 
(Num. 11 : 26, 27) to administer justice 
among the people. He, with Medad, pro- 



phesied in the camp instead of going with 
the rest to the tabernacle, as Moses had 
commanded. This incident was announced 
to Moses by Joshua, who thought their 
conduct in this respect irregular. Moses 
replied, "Enviest thou for my sake? 
would God that all the Lord's people were 
prophets " (Num. 11 : 24-30 ; comp. Mark 
9 : 38 ; Luke 9 : 49). 

Elder, a name frequently used in the Old 
Testament as denoting a person clothed 
with authority, and entitled to respect and 
reverence (Gen. 50:7). It also denoted a 
political office (Num. 22 : 7). The " elders 
of Israel" held a rank among the people 
indicative of authority. Moses opened his 
commission to them (Ex. 3 : 16). They 
attended Moses on all important occasions. 
Seventy of them attended on him at the 
giving of the law (Ex. 24 : 1). Seventy 
also were selected from the whole number 
to bear with Moses the burden of the 
people (Num. 11 : 16, 17). The " elder " is 
the keystone of the social and political 
fabric wherever the patriarchal system 
exists. At the present day this is the case 
among the Arabs, where the sheik {i.e., 
"the old man ") is the highest authority in 
the tribe. The body of the "elders" of 
Israel were the representatives of the 
people from the very first, and were recog- 
nized as such by Moses. All down through 
the history of the Jews we find mention 
made of the elders as exercising authority 
among the people. They appear as gov- 
ernors (Deut. 31 : 28), as local magistrates 
(16 : 18), administering justice (19 : 12). They 
were men of extensive influence (1 Sam. 
30 : 26-31). In New Testament times they 
also appear taking an active part in public 
affairs (Matt. 16 : 21 ; 21 : 23 ; 26 : 59). 

The Jewish eldership was transferred 
from the old dispensation to the new. 
"The creation of the office of elder is no- 
where recorded in the New Testament, as 
in the case of deacons and apostles, because 
the latter offices were created to meet new 
and special emergencies, while the former 
was transmitted from the earliest times. 
In other words, the office of elder was the 
only jpermanent essential office of the church 
under either dispensation." 



ELEALEH 



218 



ELECTION 



The "elders" of the New Testament 
church were the "pastors" (Eph. 4:11), 
"bishops or overseers" (Acts 20:28), 
"leaders" and "rulers" (Heb. 13:7; 1 
Thess. 5 : 12) of the flock. Everywhere in 
the New Testament bishop and presbyter 
are titles given to one and the same officer 
of the Christian church. He who is called 
presbyter or elder on account of his age or 
gravity is also called bishop or overseer with 
reference to the duty that lay upon him 
(Titus 1:5-7; Acts 20 : 17-28 ; JPhil. 1:1). 

Elea^leh — God has ascended — a place in 
the pastoral country east of Jordan, in the 
tribe of Reuben (Num. 32 : 3, 37). It is not 
again mentioned till the time of Isaiah 
(15 : 4 ; 16 : 9) and Jeremiah (48 : 34). It is 
now an extensive ruin called el-A'al, about 
one mile north-east of Heshbon. 

Elea'zar — God has helped. (1. ) The 
third son of Aaron (Ex. 6 : 23). His wife's 
name was Putiel, who bore him Phinehas 
(Ex. 6 : 25). After the death of Nadab and 
Abihu (Lev. 10:12; Num. 3:4) he was 
appointed to the charge of the sanctuary 
(Num. 3:32). On Mount Hor he was 
clothed with the sacred vestments, which 
Moses took from off his brother Aaron and 
put upon him as successor to his father in 
the high priest's office, which he held for 
more than twenty years (Num. 20 : 25-29). 
He took part with Moses in numbering the 
people (26 : 3, 4), and assisted at the inaugu- 
ration of Joshua. He assisted in the dis- 
tribution of the land after the conquest 
(Josh. 14:1). The high -priesthood re- 
mained in his family till the time of Eli, 
into whose family it passed, till it was re- 
stored to the family of Eleazar in the per- 
son of Zadok (1 Sam. 2 : 25 ; comp. 1 Kings 
2:27). "And Eleazar the son of Aaron 
died ; and they buried him in a hill that 
pertained to Phinehas his son " (Josh. 
24:33). The word here rendered "hill" 
is Gibeah, the name of several towns in 
Palestine which were generally on or near 
a hill. The words may be more suitably 
rendered, "They buried him in Gibeah of 
Phinehas" — i.e., in the city of Phinehas, 
which has been identified, in accordance 
with Jewish and Samaritan traditions, 
with Kefr Ghuiveirah=''Awertah, about 7 



miles north of Shiloh, and a few miles 
south-east of Nablils. "His tomb is still 
shown there, overshadowed by venerable 
terebinths." Others, however, have iden- 
tified it with the village of Qaba or Gebena 
of Eusebius, the modern Khurbet Jibia, 5 
miles north of Guphna towards Nabltis. 

(2.) An inhabitant of Kirjath-jearim who 
was "sanctified" to take charge of the ark, 
although not allowed to touch it, while it 
remained in the house of his father Abina- 
dab (1 Sam. 7 : 1, 2 ; comp. Num. 3 : 31 ; 4 : 15). 

(3.) The son of Dodo the Ahohite, of the 
tribe of Benjamin, one of the three most 
eminent of David's thirty-seven heroes (1 
Chr. 11 : 12) who broke through the Philis- 
tine host and brought him water from the 
well of Bethlehem (2 Sam. 23 : 9, 16). 

(4.) A son of Phinehas associated with 
the priests in taking charge of the sacred 
vessels brought back to Jerusalem after the 
Exile (Ezra 8 : 33). 

(5.) A Levite of the family of Merari 
(1 Chr. 23 : 21, 22). 

Election of Grace. The Scripture 
speaks (1) of the election of individuals to 
office or to honour and privilege — e.g., Ab- 
raham, Jacob, Saul, David, Solomon, were 
all chosen by God for the positions they 
held ; so also were the apostles. (2) There 
is also an election of nations to special privi- 
leges — e.g. , the Hebrews (Deut. 7:6; Pom. 
9 : 4). (3) But in addition there is an elec- 
tion of individuals to eternal life (2 Thess. 
2:13; Eph. 1:4; 1 Pet. 1:2; John 13:18). 

The ground of this election to salvation 
is the good pleasure of God (Eph. 1:5, 11 ; 
Matt. 11 : 25, 26 ; John 15 : 16, 19). God 
claims the right so to do (Rom. 9 : 16, 21). 

It is not conditioned on faith or repent- 
ance, but is of sovereign grace (Rom. 11 : 4-6 ; 
Eph. 1 : 3-6). All that pertain to salvation, 
the means (Eph. 2 : 8 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 13) as well 
as the end, are of God (Acts 5 : 31 ; 2 Tim. 
2 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 30 ; Eph. 2 : 5, 10). Faith 
and repentance and all other graces are the 
exercises of a regenerated soul ; and regen- 
eration is God's work, a "new creature." 

Men are elected "to salvation," "to the 
adoption of sons," "to be holy and without 
blame before him in love " (2 Thess. 2 : 13 ; 
Gal. 4 : 4, 5 ; Eph. 1 : 4). 



ELECT 



219 



ELI 



The ultimate end of election is the praise 
of God's grace (Eph. 1 : 6, 12). (See Pee- 

DESTINATION. ) 

Elect lady, to whom the Second Epistle 
of John is addressed (2 John 1). Some 
think that the word rendered "lady" is a 
proper name, and thus that the expression 
should be " elect Kyria." 

El-elo^he-Is^rael— mif7^^2/ O'^e; God of 
Israel — the name which Jacob gave to the 
altar which he erected on the piece o± land 
where he pitched his tent before Shechem, 
and which he afterwards purchased from 
the sons of Hamor (Gen. 33 : 20). 

El^ements. In its primary sense, as de- 
noting the first principles or constituents of 
things, it is used in 2 Pet. 3 : 10 : "The ele- 
ments shall be dissolved." In a secondary 
sense it denotes the first principles of any 
art or science. In this sense it is used in 
Gal. 4:3, 9; Col. 2:8, 20, where the expres- 
sions, " elements of the world," "weak and 
beggarly elements," denote that state of re- 
ligious knowledge existing among the Jews 
before the coming of Christ — the rudiments 
of religious teaching. They are "of the 
world," because they are made up of types 
which appeal to the senses. They are" weak," 
because insufficient ; and "beggarly," or 
" poor, " because they are dry and barren, 
not being accompanied by an outpouring of 
spiritual gifts and graces, as the gospel is. 

El^'epliant, not found in Scrij)ture ex- 
cept indirectly in the original Greek word 
{elephantinos) translated "of ivory" in Rev. 
18 : 12, and in the Hebrew word {shenhah- 
htniy meaning "elephant's tooth") rendered 
"ivory" in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chr. 9:2L 

Elha^nan — v^hom God has graciously be- 
stowed. (1. ) A warrior of the time of David 
famed for his exploits. In the Authorized 
Version (2 Sam. 21 : 19) it is recorded that 
" Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, a Beth- 
lehemite, slew the brother of Goliath. " The 
Revised Version here rightly omits the words 
"the brother of." They were introduced 
in the Authorized Version to bring this 
passage into agreement with 1 Chr. 20 : 5, 
where it is said that he " slew Lahmi the 
brother of Goliath." Goliath the Gittitewas 
killed by David (1 Sam. 17). The exploit 
of Elhanan took place late in David's reign. 



(2. ) The son of Dodo, and one of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 24). 

E''li — ascent — the high priest when the 
ark was at Shiloh (1 Sam. 1 : 3, 9). He was 
the first of the line of Ithamar, Aaron's 
fourth son (1 Chr. 24 : 3 ; comp. 2 Sam. 8 : 17), 
who held that office. The office remained in 
his family till the time of Abiathar (1 Kings 
2 : 26, 27), whom Solomon deposed, and ap- 
pointed Zadok, of the family of Eleazar, in 
his stead (35), He acted also as a civil judge 
in Israel after the death of Samson (1 Sam. 
4 : 18), and judged Israel for forty years. 

His sons Hophni and Phinehas grossly 
misconducted themselves, to the great dis- 
gust of the people (1 Sam. 2 : 27-36). They 
were licentious reprobates. He failed to re- 
prove them so sternly as he ought to have 
done, and so brought iipon his house the 
judgment of God (2 : 22-33 ; 3 : 18). The 
Israelites proclaimed war against the Phil- 
istines, whose army was encamped at 
Aphek. The battle, fought a short way 
beyond Mizpeh, ended in the total defeat 
of Israel. Four thousand of them fell in 
"battle array." They now sought safety 
in having the "ark of the covenant of the 
Lord " among them. They fetched it from 
Shiloh, and Hophni and Phinehas accom- 
panied it. This was the first time since the 
settlement of Israel in Canaan that the ark 
had been removed from the sanctuary. The 
Philistines put themselves again in array 
against Israel, and in the battle which en- 
sued "Israel was smitten, and there was a 
very great slaughter. " The tidings of this 
great disaster were speedily conveyed to 
Shiloh, about 20 miles distant, by a mes- 
senger, a Benjamite from the army. There 
Eli sat outside the gate of the sanctuary 
by the wayside, anxiously waiting for tid- 
ings from the battle-field. The full extent 
of the national calamity was speedily made 
known to him: "Israel is fled before the 
Philistines, there has also been a great 
slaughter among the people, thy two sons 
Hophni and Phinehas are dead, and the 
ark of God is taken" (1 Sam. 4 : 12-18). When 
the old man, whose eyes were "stiffened" 
{i.e., fixed, as of a bHnd eye unaffected by 
the light) with age, heard this sad story 
of woe, he fell backward from off his seat 



ELI 



220 



ELIEZER 



and died, being ninety and eight years 
old. 

Eir— Heb. eli, "my God "—(Matt. 27: 
46), an exclamation used by Christ on the 
cross. Mark (15 : 34), as usual, gives the 
original Ararriaic form of the word, Eloi. 

Eli'ab — to xohom God is father. (1.) A 
Reubenite, son of Pallu (Num. 16 : 1, 12 ; 
26 : 8, 9 ; Deut. 11 : 6). 

(2. ) A son of Helon, and chief of the tribe 
of Zebulun at the time of the census in the 
wilderness (Num. 1:9; 2:7). 

(3.) The son of Jesse, and brother of 
David (1 Sam. 16 : 6). It was he who spoke 
contemptuously to David when he proposed 
to fight Goliath (1 Sam. 17 : 28). 

(4. ) One of the Gadite heroes who joined 
David in his stronghold in the wilderness 
(1 Chr. 12 : 9). 

Eli''ada — whom God has known. (1.) One 
of David's sons born after his establish- 
ment in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5 : 16). 

(2.) A mighty man of war, a Benjamite 
(2 Chr. 17 : 17). 

(3. ) An Aramite of Zobah, captain of a, 
marauding band that troubled Solomon 
(1 Kings 11 : 23). 

Eli'akim. — whom God will raise up. 
(1.) The son of Melea (Luke 3:30), and 
probably grandson of Nathan. 

(2.) The son of Abiud, of the posterity 
of Zerubbabel (Matt. 1 : 13). 

(3. ) The son of Hilkiah, who was sent to 
receive the message of the invading Assyr- 
ians and report it to Isaiah (2 Kings 18 : 
18 ; 19 : 2 ; Isa. 36 : 3 ; 37 : 2). In his office 
as governor of the palace of Hezekiah he 
succeeded Shebna (Isa. 22:15-26). He was 
a good man (Isa. 22:20; 2 Kings 18:37), 
and had a splendid and honourable career. 

(4.) The original name of Jehoiakim, 
king of Judah (2 Kings 23 : 34). He was 
the son of Josiah. 

HWam.— God's people. (1. ) The father of 
Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah (2 Sam. 11 :3). 
In 1 Chr. 3 : 5 his name is Ammiel. 

(2.) This name also occurs as that of a 
Gilonite, the son of Ahithophel, and one 
of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 34). 
Perhaps these two were the same person. 

Elizas, the Greek form of Elijah (Matt. 
11:14; 16:14, etc.), which the Revised 



Version has uniformly adopted in the New 
Testament. (See Elijah. ) 

Eli^ashib — whom God will restore. (1.) 
A priest, head of one of the courses of the 
priests of the time of David (1 Chr. 24 : 12). 

(2. ) A high priest in the time of Ezra and 
Nehemiah (Neh. 12 : 22, 23). He rebuilt the 
eastern city wall (3 : 1), his own mansion 
being in that quarter, on the ridge Ophel 
(3 : 20, 21). His indulgence of Tobiah the 
Ammonite provoked the indignation of 
Nehemiah (13 : 4, 7). 

Eli^athah — to xvhom God will come — one 
of the fourteen sons of the Levite Heman, 
and musician of the temple in the time of 
David (1 Chr. 25 : 4). 

Eli''dad — lohom God has loved — son of 
Chislon, and chief of the tribe of Benja- 
min ; one of those who were appointed to 
divide the Promised Land among the tribes 
(Num. 34 : 21). 

Eli^el — to ivhom God is might. (1.) A 
chief of Manasseh, on the east of Jordan 
(1 Chr. 5 : 24). 

(2.) A Gadite who joined David in the 
hold at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 11). 

(3. ) One of the overseers of the offerings 
in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31 : 13). 

Eli'ezer — God his help. (1.) "Of Damas- 
cus," the "steward" (R.V., "possessor") 
of Abraham's house (Gen. 15 : 2, 3). It was 
probably he who headed the embassy sent 
by Abraham to the old home of his family 
in Padan-aram to seek a wife for his son 
Isaac. The account of this embassy is 
given at length in Gen. 24. 

(2. ) The son of Becher, and grandson of 
Benjamin (1 Chr. 7 : 8). 

(3. ) One of the two sons of Moses, born 
during his sojourn in Midian (Ex. 18 : 4 ; 
1 Chr. 23 : 15, 17). He remained with his 
mother and brother Gershom wdth Jethro 
Avhen Moses returned to Egypt (Ex. 18 : 4). 
They were restored to Moses when Jethro 
heard of his departure out of Egypt. 

(4.) One of the priests who blew the trum- 
pet before the ark when it was brought to 
Jerusalem (1 Chr. 15 : 24). 

(5.) Son of Zichri, and chief of the Reu- 
benites under David (1 Chr. 27 : 16). 

(6.) A prophet in the time of Jehosha- 
phat (2 Chr. 20 : 37). 



ELIHU 



221 



ELIJAH 




THE PLACE OP ELIJAH'S SACRIFICE, CARIVIEL. 



Others of this name are mentioned Luke 
3 : 29 ; Ezra 8 : 16 : 10 : 18, 23, 31. 

Eli''hu — tvhose God is he. (1.) " The son 
of Barachel, a Buzite " (Job 32 : 2), one of 
Job's friends. When the debate between 
Job and his friends is brought to a close, 
Elihu for the first time makes his appear- 
ance, and delivers his opinion on the points 
at issue (Job 32-37). 

(2.) The son of Tohu, and grandfather of 
Elkanah (1 Sam. 1 : 1). He is called also 
Eliel (1 Chr. 6 : 34) and Eliab (6 : 27). 

(3. ) One of the captains of thousands of 
Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 
Chr. 12 : 20). 

(4.) One of the family of Obed-edom, 
who were appointed porters of the temple 
under David (1 Chr. 26 : 7). 



Eli^jah — whose God is Jehovah. (1.) 
"The Tishbite,'^ the "Elias" of the New 
Testament, is suddenly introduced to our 
notice in 1 Kings 17 : 1 as delivering a 
message from the Lord to Ahab. There 
is mention made of a town called Thisbe, 
south of Kadesh, but it is impossible to 
say whether this was the place referred to 
in the name given to the prophet. 

Having delivered his message to Ahab, 
he retired at the command of God to a 
hiding-place by the brook Cherith, beyond 
Jordan, where he was fed by ravens. 
Wlien the brook dried up God sent him to 
the widow of Zarephath, a city of Zidon, 
from whose scanty store he was supported 
for the space of two years. During this 
period the widow's son died, and was 

15 



ELIJAH 



222 



ELIJAH 



restored to life by Elijah (1 Kings 17 : 
2-24). 

During all these two years a famine pro- 
vailed in the land. At the close of this 
period of retirement and of preparation 
for his work (comp. Gal. 1 : 17, 18) Elijah 
met Obadiah, one of Ahab's officers, whom 
he had sent out to seek for pasturage for 
the cattle, and bade him go and tell his 
master that Elijah was there. The king 
came and met Elijah, and reproached him 
as the troubler of Israel. It was then pro- 
posed that sacrifices should be publicly 
offered, for the purpose of determining 
whether Baal or Jehovah were the true 
God. This was done on Carmel, with the 
result that the people fell on their faces, 
crying, " The Lord, he is the God." Thus 
was accomplished the great work of Elijah's 
ministry. The prophets of Baal were then 
put to death by the order of Elijah. Not 
one of them escaped. Then immediately 
followed rain, according to the word of 
Elijah, and in answer to his prayer (James 
5 : 18). 

Jezebel, enraged at the fate that had be- 
fallen her priests of Baal, threatened to 
put Elijah to death (1 Kings 19:1-13). 
He therefore fled in alarm to Beersheba, 
and thence went alone a day's journey 
into the wilderness, and sat down in de- 
spondency under a juniper tree. As he 
slept an angel touched him, and said unto 
him, " Arise and eat ; because the journey 
is too great for thee. " He arose and found 
a cake and a cruse of water. Having par- 
taken of the provision thus miraculously 
supplied, he went forward on his solitary 
way for forty days and forty nights to 
Horeb, the mount of God, where he took 
up his abode in a cave. Here the Lord 
appeared unto him and said, "What dost 
thou here, Elijah?" In answer to his 
despondent words God manifests to him 
his glory, and then directs him to return 
to Damascus and anbint Hazael king over 
Syria, and Jehu king over Israel, and 
Elisha to be prophet in his room (1 Kings 
19:13-21; comp. 2 Kings 8:7-15; 9: 
1-10). 

Some six years after this he warned 
Ahab and Jezebel of the violent deaths 



they would die (1 Kings 21: 19-24; 22 : 38). 
He also, four years afterwards, warned 
Ahaziah {q.v.), who had succeeded his 
father Ahab, of his approaching death (2 
Kings 1:1-16). (See Naboth.) During 
these intervals he probably withdrew to 
some quiet retirement, no one knew where. 
His interview with Ahaziah's messengers 
on the way to Ekron, and the account of 
the destruction of his captains with their 
fifties, suggest the idea that he may have 
been in retirement at this time on Mount 
Carmel. 

The time now drew near when he was to 
be taken up into heaven (2 Kings 2 : 1-12). 
He had a presentiment of what was await- 
ing him. He went down to Gilgal, where 
was a school of the prophets, and where his 
successor Elisha, whom he had anointed 
some years before, resided. Elisha was 
solemnized by the thought of his master's 
leaving him, and refused to be parted from 
him. "They two went on," and came to 
Bethel and Jericho, and crossed the Jor- 
dan, the waters of which were "divided 
hither and thither " when smitten with 
Elijah's mantle. Arrived at the borders of 
Gilead, which Elijah had left many years 
before, it "came to pass that while they 
went on and talked " they were suddenly 
separated by a chariot and horses of fire ; 
and " Elijah went up by a whirlwind into 
heaven," Elisha receiving his mantle, which 
fell from him as he ascended. 

No one of the old prophets is so fre- 
quently referred to in the New Testament. 
The priests and Levites said to the Bap- 
tist (John 1 : 25), " Why baptizest thou, if 
thou be not that Christ, nor Elias ?" Paul 
(Rom. 11 : 2) refers to an incident in his 
history to illustrate his argument that 
God had not cast away his people. James 
(5 : 17) finds in him an illustration of the 
power of prayer. (See also Luke 4 : 25 ; 
9 : 54. ) He was a type of John the Baptist 
in the sternness and power of his reproofs 
(Luke 9:8). He was the Elijah that 
"must first come" (Matt. 11:11, 14), the 
forerunner of our Lord announced by 
Malachi. Even outwardly the Baptist 
corresponded so closely to the earlier 
prophet that he might be styled a second 



ELIKA 



223 



ELIPHAZ 



Elijah. In him we see "the same con- 
nection with a wild and wilderness coun- 
try; the same long retirement in the 
desert ; the same sudden, startling en- 
trance on his work (1 Kings 17 : 1 ; Luke 
3:2); even the same dress — a hairy gar- 
ment, and a leathern girdle about the 
loins (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3 : 4)." 

How deeiD the impression was which 
Elijah made "on the mind of the nation 
may be judged from the fixed belief, which 
rested on the words of Malachi (4:5, 6), 
which many centuries after prevailed that 
he would again appear for the relief and 
restoration of the country. Each remark- 
able person as he arrives on the scene, be 
his habits and characteristics what they 
may — the stern John equally with his 
gentle Successor — is proclaimed to be 
Elijah (Matt. 11 : 13, 14 ; 16 : 14 ; 17 : 10 ; 
Mark 9 : 11 ; 15 : 35 ; Luke 9:7, 8 ; John 
1 : 21). His appearance in glory on the 
mount of transfiguration does not seem to 
have startled the disciples. They were ' sore 
afraid,' but not apparently surprised." 

(2.) The Elijah spoken of in 2 Chr. 21: 
12-15 is by some supposed to be a different 
person from the foregoing. He lived in 
the time of Jehoram, to whom he sent a 
letter of warning (comp. 1 Chr. 28 : 19 ; 
Jer. 36), and acted as a prophet in Judah ; 
while the Tishbite was a prophet of the 
northern kingdom. But there does not 
seem any necessity for concluding that the 
writer of this letter was some other Elijah 
than the Tishbite. It may be supposed 
either that Elijah anticipated the character 
of Jehoram, and so wrote the warning mes- 
sage, which was preserved in the schools 
of the prophets till Jehoram ascended the 
throne after the Tishbite's translation, or 
that the translation did not actually take 
place till after the accession of Jehoram to 
the throne (2 Chr. 21 : 12 ; 2 Kings 8 : 16). 
The events of 2 Kings 2 may not be re- 
corded in chronological order, and thus 
there may be room for the opinion that 
Elijah was still alive in the beginning of 
Jehoram's reign. 

Eli^ka — God is his rejecter — one of 
David's thirty-seven distinguished heroes 
(2 Sam. 23 : 25). 



Wlim— trees— (Ex. 15 : 27 ; Num. 33 : 9), 
the name of the second station where the 
Israelites encamped after crossing the Red 
Sea. It had ' ' twelve wells of water and 
threescore and ten palm trees." It has 
been identified with the Wddy Ghurundel, 
the most noted of the four wadies which 
descend from the range of et-Tih towards 
the sea. Here they probably remained 
some considerable time. The form of ex- 
pression in Ex. 16 : 1 seems to imply that 
the people proceeded in detachments or 
companies from Elim, and only for the 
first time were assembled as a complete 
host when they reached the wilderness of 
Sin {q.v.). 

Elim^elech — God his king — a man of the 
tribe of Judah, of the family of the Hez- 
ronites, and kinsman of Boaz, who dwelt 
in Bethlehem in the days of the judges. 
In consequence of a great dearth he, with 
his wife Naomi and his two sons, went to 
dwell in the land of Moab. There he and 
his sons died (Euth 1 : 23 ; 2 : 1, 3 ; 4 : 3, 9). 
Naomi afterwards returned to Palestine 
with her daughter Ruth. 

Elioe^nai — toward Jehovah are my eyes 
— the name of several men mentioned in 
the Old Testament (1 Chr. 7:8; 4:36; 
Ezra 10:22, 27). Among these was the 
eldest son of Neariah, son of Shemaiah, of 
the descendants of Zerubbabel. His family 
are the latest mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment (1 Chr. 3 : 23, 24). 

Eliph^alet^6^ocZ his deliverance — one of 
David's sons (2 Sam. 5 : 16) ; called also 
Eliphelet (1 Chr. 3 : 8). 

Eli^phaz — God his strength. (1.) One 
of Job's "three friends " who visited him 
in his affliction (4 : 1). He was a " Teman- 
ite" — i.e., a native of Teman, in Idumea. 
He first enters into debate with Job. His 
language is uniformly more delicate and 
gentle than that of the other two, although 
he imputes to Job special sins as the cause 
of his present sufferings. He states with 
remarkable force of language the infinite 
purity and majesty of God (4 : 12-21 ; 15 : 
12-16). 

(2. ) The son of Esau by his wife Adah, 
and father of several Edomitish tribes 
(Gen. 36 : 4, 10, 11, IG). 



ELIPHELEH 



224 



ELISHA 



Sli^pheleh — God will distinguish Mm — 
one of the porters appointed to play " on 
the Sheminith " on the occasion of the 
bringing up of the ark to the city of David 
(1 Chr. 15 : 18, 21). 

Eli^phelet — God his deliverance. (1.) 
One of David's distinguished warriors (2 
Sam. 23 : 34); called also Eliphal in 1 Chr. 
11 : 35. 

(2.) One of the sons of David born at 
Jerusalem (1 Chr. 3 : 6 ; 14 : 5) ; called Eli- 
palet in 1 Chr. 14 : 5. Also another of 
David's sons (1 Chr. 3:8); called Eliphalet 
in 2 Sam. 5 : 16 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 7. 

(3.) A descendant of king Saul through 
Jonathan (1 Chr. 8 : 39). 

Elis^abeth — God her oath — the mother 
of John the Baptist (Luke 1 : 5). She was 
a descendant of Aaron. She and her hus- 
band Zacharias {q.v.) " were both righteous 
before God " (Luke 1 : 5, 13). Mary's visit 
to Elisabeth is described in 1 : 39-63. 

Eli^sha — God his salvation — the son of 
Shaphat of Abel-meholah, who became the 
attendant and disciple of Elijah (1 Kings 
19 : 16-19). His name first occurs in the 
command given to Elijah to anoint him 
as his successor (1 Kings 19 : 16). This 
was the only one of the three commands 
then given to Elijah which he accom- 
plished. On his way from Sinai to Da- 
mascus he found Elisha at his native place 
engaged in the labours of the field, plough- 
ing with twelve yoke of oxen. He went 
over to him, threw over his shoulders 
his rough mantle, and at once adopted 
him as a son, and invested him with the 
prophetical office (comp. Luke 9 : 61, 62). 
Elisha accepted the call thus given (about 
four years before the death of Ahab), and 
for some seven or eight years became the 
close attendant on Elijah till he was parted 
from him and taken up into heaven. Dur- 
ing all these years we hear nothing of 
Elisha except in connection with the clos- 
ing scenes of Elijah's life. After Elijah, 
Elisha was accepted as the leader of the 
sons of the prophets, and became noted in 
Israel. He possessed, according to his own 
request, "a double portion" of Elijah's 
spirit (2 Kings 2:9); and for the long 
period of about sixty years (B.C. 892-832) 



held the office of "prophet in Israel" (2 
Kings 5 : 8). 

After Elijah's departure, Elisha returned 
to Jericho, and there healed the spring of 
water by casting salt into it (2 Kings 2 : 
21). We next find him at Bethel (2:23), 
where, with the sternness of his master, he 
cursed the youths who came out and scoffed 
at him as a prophet of God: " Go up, thou 
bald head." The judgment at once took 
effect, and God terribly visited the dishon- 
our done to his prophet as dishonour done 
to himself. We next read of his predicting 
a fall of rain when the army of Jehoram 
was faint from thirst (2 Kings 3 : 9-20) ; of 
the multiplying of the poor widow's cruse 
of oil (4 : 1-7) ; the miracle of restoring to 
life the son of the woman of Shunem (4 : 
18-37) ; the multiplication of the twenty 
loaves of new barley into a sufficient supply 
for an hundred men (4 : 42-44) ; of the cure 
of Naaman the Syrian of his leprosy (5 : 
1-27) ; of the punishment of Gehazi for his 
falsehood and his covetousness ; of the re- 
covery of the axe lost in the waters of the 
Jordan (6 : 1-7) ; of the miracle at Dothan, 
half-way on the road between Samaria and 
Jezreel ; of the siege of Samaria by the king 
of Syria, and of the terrible sufferings of 
the people in connection with it, and Eli- 
sha's prophecy as to the relief that would 
come (2 Kings 6 : 24-7 : 2). 

We then find Elisha at Damascus, to 
carry out the command given to his master 
to anoint Hazael king over Syria (2 Kings 
8-7-15); thereafter he directs one of the 
sons of the prophets to anoint Jehu, the 
son of Jehoshaphat, king of Israel, instead 
of Ahab. Thiis the three commands given 
to Elijah (9 : 1-10) were at length carried 
out. 

We do not again read of him till we find 
him on his death-bed in his own house 
(2 Kings 13:14-19). Joash, the grandson 
of Jehu, comes to mourn over his approach- 
ing departure, and utters the same Avords 
as those of Elisha when Elijah was taken 
away : " My father, my father ! the chariot 
of Israel, and the horsemen thereof. " 

Afterwards when a dead body is laid in 
Elisha's grave a year after his burial, no 
sooner does it touch the hallowed remains 



ELISHAH 



225 



EMBALMING 



than the man "revived, and stood up on 
his feet " (2 Kings 13 : 20-21). 

Eli^shah, the oldest of the four sons of 
Javan (Gen. 10:4), whose descendants 
peopled Greece. It has been supposed 
that Elishah's descendants peopled the Pelo- 
ponnesus, which was known by the name 
of Elis. This may be meant by " the isles 
of Elishah " (Ezek. 27 : 7). 

Eli^shama — lohom God hears. (1.) A 
prince of Benjamin, grandfather of Joshua 
(Num. 1:10;1 Chr. 7:26). (2.) One of 
David's sons (2 Sam. 5 : 16). (3.) Another 
of David's sons (1 Chr. 3 : 6). (4. ) A priest 
sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the people 
the law (2 Chr. 17 : 8). 

Eli^shaphat — tohom God has judged — 
one of the "captains of hundreds" asso- 
ciated with Jehoiada in the league to over- 
throw the usurpation of Athaliah (2 Chr. 
23 : 1). 

Eli'sheba— G^oc? is her oath— the daughter 
of Amminadab and the ■v\dfe of Aaron (Ex. 
6 : 23). 

Eli^shua — God his salvation — a son of 
David, 2 Sam. 5:15=EIishama, 1 Chr. 3:6. 

Elka'nali — God - acquired. (1.) The 
second son of Korah (Ex. 6 : 24), or, accord- 
ing to 1 Chr, 6 : 22, 23, more correctly his 
grandson. 

(2.) Another Levite of the line of Heman 
the singer, although he does not seem to 
have performed any of the usual Le%dtical 
offices. He was father of Samuel the pro- 
phet (1 Chr. 6 : 27, 34). He was "an Ephra- 
thite" (1 Sam. 1:1, 4, 8), but lived at 
Ramah, a man of wealth and high position. 
He had two wives, Hannah, who was the 
mother of Samuel, and Peninnah. 

"EVkosh— God ray hoio—th.e birth-place 
of Nahum the prophet (Nah. 1:1), It was 
probably situated in Galilee, but nothing 
definite is known of it, 

El^lasar — the oak or heap of Assyria — a 
territory in Asia of which Arioch was king 
(Gen, 14 : 1, 9). It is supposed that the 
old Chaldean town of Larsa was the me- 
tropolis of this kingdom, situated nearly 
half-way between Ur (now Mugheir) and 
Erech, on the left bank of the Euphrates, 
This town is represented by the mounds of 
Senkereh, a little to the east of Erech. 



Elm— Hos, 4 : 13 ; rendered "terebinth " 
in the Revised Version. It is the Fis- 
tacia terehinthus of Linn., a tree common 
in Palestine, long-lived, and therefore often 
employed for landmarks and in designating 
places (Gen. 35 : 4 ; Judg. 6 : 11, 19. Ren- 
dered "oak " in both A.V. and R.V.). (See 
Teil Teee.) 

El^nathan — zvhom God has given. (1,) 
An inhabitant of Jerusalem, the father of 
Nehushta, who was the mother of king Je- 
hoiachin (2 Kings 24 : 8), Probably the 
same who tried to prevent Jehoiakim from 
burning the roll of Jeremiah's prophecies 
( Jer, 26 : 22 ; 36 : 12). (2. ) Ezra 6 : 16. 

Elon — oak. (1.) A city of Dan (Josh. 
19:43). (2.) A Hittite, father of Bashe- 
math, Esau's wife (Gen. 26 : 34). (3.) One 
of the sons of Zebulun (Gen. 46 : 14). (4. ) 
The eleventh of the Hebrew judges. He 
held office for ten years (Judg. 12 : 11, 12). 
He is called the Zebulonite. 

Elpa''ran — oak of Paran — -a place on the 
edge of the wilderness bordering the terri- 
tory of the Horites (Gen. 14 : 6). This was 
the farthest point to which Chedorlaomer's 
expedition extended. It is identified with 
the modem desert of et-Tih. (See Paean.) 

El'^tekeh — God is its fear — a city in the 
tribe of Dan. It was a city of refuge and 
a Levitical city (Josh. 21 : 23). It has been 
identified with Beit-Likia, north-east of 
Latrum, 

Elul (Neh, 6 : 15), the name of the sixth 
month of the ecclesiastical year, and the 
tweKth of the civil year. It began with 
the new moon of our August and Septem- 
ber, and consisted of twenty -nine days. 

El''yinas — magician or sorcerer — the 
Arabic name of the Jew Bar-jesus, who 
mthstood Paul and Barnabas in Cyprus, 
He was miraculously struck with blindness 
(Acts 13 : 11), 

Embalm^ing, the process of preserving a 
body by means of aromatics (Gen. 50 : 2, 3, 
26). This art was practised by the Egyp- 
tians from the earliest times, and there 
brought to great perfection. This custom 
probably originated in the belief in the fu- 
ture reunion of the soul with the body. The 
process became more and more complicated, 
and to such perfection was it carried that 



EMBEOIDER 



226 



ENCAMP 



P« 



T 



bodies embalmed thousands of years ago 
are preserved to the present day in the num- 
berless mummies that have 
been discovered in Egypt. 

The embalming of Jacob 
and Joseph was according 
to the Egyptian custom, 
which was partially fol- 
lowed by the Jews (2 Chr. 
16 : 14), as in the case of 
king Asa, and of our Lord 
(John 19 : 39, 40 ; Luke 23 : 
56; 24:1). (See Pharaoh. ) 
Eni'broi''der. The art of 
embroidery was known to 
the Jews (Ex. 26 : 36 ; 35 : 35 ; 
38:23; Judg. 5:30; Ps.45: 
14). The skill of the women 
in this art was seen in the 
preparation of the sacerdo- 
tal robes of the high priest 
(Ex. 28). It seems that 
the art became hereditary 
in certain families (1 Chr. 
4 : 21). The Assyrians were 
also noted for their embroi- 
dered robes (Ezek. 27 : 24). 

Em^erald — Heb. nopheJc 
(Ex. 28:18; 39:11); i.e., 
the " glowing stone " — 
probably the carbuncle, 
a precious stone in the 
breastplate of the high priest. It is men- 
tioned (Rev. 21 : 19) as one of the founda- 
tions of the New Jerusalem. The name 
given to this stone in the New Testament 
Greek is smaragdos, which means "live 
coal," a name given by the ancients to 
several glowing red stones resembling live 
coals, particularly rubies and garnets. 

The modern emerald is a species of beryl 
of a greenish colour. 
Em^erod. See Hemorrhoids. 
E^mims — terrors — a warlike tribe of 
giants who were defeated by Chedorlaomer 
and his allies in the plain of Kiriathaim. 
In the time of Abraham they occupied the 
country east of Jordan, afterwards the 
land of the Moabites (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 
2 : 10). They were, like the Anakim, reck- 
oned among the Pephaim, and were con- 
quered by the Moabites, who gave them 



MUMMY CASE OP 
QUEEN NEFERT- 

ARI {see page S43)- 



the name of Emims — i.e., "terrible men" 
(Deut. 2 : 11). The Ammonites called them 
Zamzummims (2 : 20). 

Hmxaan^nel—Godivith -us— (Matt. 1 : 23). 
(See Immanuel.) 

Emma^us — hot baths — a village "three- 
score furlongs " from Jerusalem, where our 
Lord had an interview with two of his dis- 
ciples on the day of his resurrection (Luke 
24 : 13). This has been identified with the 
modern el-Kubeiheh, lying over 7 miles 
north-west of Jerusalem. This name, 
el-Kubeibeh, meaning "little dome," is 
derived from the remains of the Crusaders' 
church yet to be found there. Others 
have identified it with the modern Khurhet 
Khamasa — i.e., "the ruins of Khamasa" — 
about 8 miles south-west of Jerusalem, where 
there are ruins also of a Crusaders' church. 
Its site, however, has been much disputed. 

Em^mor — an ass — Acts 7:16. (See 
Hamor.) 

Encamp''. An encampment was the 
resting-place for a longer or shorter period 
of an army or company of travellers (Ex. 
13 : 20 ; 14 : 19 ; Josh. 10 : 5 ; 11 : 5). 

The manner in which the Israelites en- 
camped during their march through the 
wilderness is described in Niim. 2 and 3. 
The order of the encampment (see Camp) 
was preserved in the march (Num. 2 : 17), 
the signal for which was the blast of two 
silver trumpets. Detailed regulations affect- 
ing the camp for sanitary purposes are given 
(Lev. 4:11, 12; 6:11; 8:17; 10:4, 5; 
13:46; 14:3; Num. 12:14, 15; 31:19; 
Deut. 23 : 10, 12). 

Criminals were executed without the 
camp (Lev. 4 : 12 ; comp. John 19 : 17, 20), 
and there also the young bullock for a sin- 
offering was burnt (Lev. 24 : 14 ; comp. 
Heb. 13 : 12). 

In the subsequent history of Israel fre- 
quent mention is made of their encamp- 
ments in the time of war (Judg. 7 : 18 ; 1 
Sam. 13:2, 3, 16, 23; 17 : 3; 29 : 1 ; 30:9, 
24). The temple was sometimes called 
"the camp of the Lord" (2 Chr. 31:2, 
P. V. ; comp. Ps. 78 : 28). The multitudes 
who flocked to David are styled "a great 
host {i.e., "camp; "Heb. mahaneh), like the 
host of God" (1 Chr. 12:22)'. 



ENCHANTMENTS 



227 



ENGINES 



Enchant^ments. (1. ) The rendering of 
Hebrew latirn or leliatim, which means 
"something covered," "muffled vip ; " se- 
cret arts, tricks (Ex. 7 : 11, 22 ; 8:7, 18), 
by which the Egyptian magicians imposed 
on the credulity of Pharaoh. 

(2. ) The rendering of the Hebrew kesha- 
phim, "muttered spells" or "incantations," 
rendered "sorceries" in Isa. 47:9, 12 — i.e., 
the using of certain formulee \inder the be- 
lief that men could thus be bound. 

(3.) Hebrew lehashim, "charming," as of 
serpents ( Jer. 8 : 17 ; comp. Ps. 58 : 5). 

(4. ) Hebrew nehashim, the enchantments 
or omens used by Balaam (Num. 24 : 1) ; 
his endeavouring to gain omens favourable 
to his design. 

(5. ) Hebrew hebe7' (Isa. 47 : 9, 10), ' ' magical 
spells." All kinds of enchantments were 
condemned by the Mosaic law (Lev. 19 : 
26 ; Deut. 18 : 10-12). (See Divination.) 

End, in Heb. 13 : 7, is the rendering of 
the unusual Greek word ekbasin, meaning 
"outcome" — i.e., death. It occurs only 
elsewhere in 1 Cor. 10 : 13, where it is 
rendered "escape." 

En'dor— fountain of Dor: i.e., "of the 
age" — a place in the territory of Issachar 
(Josh. 17 : 11) near the scene of the great 
victory which was gained by Deborah and 
Barak over Sisera and Jabin (comp. Ps. 
83 : 9, 10). To Endor, Saul resorted to con- 
sult one reputed to be a witch on the eve 
of his last engagement with the Phihstines 
(1 Sam. 28 : 7). It is identified with the 
modern village of EndUr, "a dirty hamlet 
of some twenty houses, or rather huts, 
most of them falling to ruin," on the 
northern slope of Little Hermon, about 7 
miles from Jezreel. 

En-eg'laim— /owntam of ttvo calves — a 
place mentioned only in Ezek. 47 : 10. 
Somewhere near the Dead Sea. 

"En-gan^nim— fountain of gardens. (1.) 
A toAvn in the plains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 
34), north-west of Jerusalem, between 
Zanoah and Tappuah. It is the modern 
Umm Jtna. 

(2.) A city on the border of Machar 
(Josh. 19 : 21), allotted to the Gershonite 
Levites (21 : 29). It is identified with the 
modern Jentn, a large and prosperous town 



of about 4,000 inhabitants, situated 15 
miles south of IMount Tabor, through which 
the road from Jezreel to Samaria and Jeru- 
salem passes. When Ahaziah, king of 
Judah, attempted to escape from Jehu, he 
"fled by the way of the garden house" — 
i.e., by way of En-gannim. Here he was 
overtaken by Jehu and wounded in his 
chariot, and turned aside and fled to 
Megiddo, a distance of about 20 miles, to 
die there. 

"Enge^ di— fouyitain of the kid — a place in 
the wilderness of Judah (Josh. 15 : 62), on 
the western shore of the Dead Sea (Ezek. 
47 : 10), and nearly equidistant from both 
extremities. To the wilderness near this 
to%vn David fled for fear of Saul (Josh. 
15:62; 1 Sam. 23:29). It was at first 
called Hazezon-tamar (Gen. 14 : 7), a city 
of the Amorites. 

The ^'ineyards of Engedi were celebrated 
in Solomon's time (Cant. 1 : 4). It is the 
modern '^Ain Jidy. The "fountain" from 
which it derives its name rises on the 
mountain side about 600 feet above the 
sea, and in its rapid descent spreads luxuri- 
ance all around it. Along its banks the 
osher grows abundantly. That shrub is thus 
described by Porter : — "The stem is stout, 
measuring sometimes nearly a foot in 
diameter, and the plant grows to the height 
of 15 feet or more. It has a grayish bark 
and long oval leaves, which when broken 
off discharge a milky fluid. The fruit re- 
sembles an apple, and hangs in clusters of 
two or three. When ripe it is of a rich 
yellow colour, but on being pressed it ex- 
plodes like a puff-ball. It is chiefly filled 

with air This is the so-called 'apple of 

Sodom.'" — Through Samaria, etc. (See 
Apple.) 

En^gines. (1.) Heb. hishshalon — i.e., 
"invention" (as in Eccl. 7:29) — contriv- 
ances indicating ingenuity. In 2 Chr. 26 : 
15 it refers to inventions for the purpose 
of propelling missiles from the walls of a 
to'wn, such as stones (the Roman balista) 
and arrows (the catapidta). 

(2.) Heb. mechi koholU — i.e., the heating 
of that which is in front — a battering-ram 
(Ezek. 26 : 9), the use of which was common 
among the Egyptians and the Assyrians. 



ENGRAVER 



228 



EN-ROGEL 



Such an engine is mentioned in the reign 
of David (2 Sam. 20 : 15). 

Engra'ver — Heb. harash — (Ex. 35 : 35 ; 
38 : 23) means properly an artificer in wood, 
stone, or metal. The chief business of the 
engraver was cutting names or devices on 
rings and seals and signets (Ex. 28 : 11, 21, 
36 ; Gen. 38 : 18). 

Eii-hak''kore — fountain of the crier — the 
name of the spring in Lehi which burst 
forth in answer to Samson's prayer when 
he was exhausted with the slaughter of the 
Philistines ( Judg. 15 : 19). It has been 
identified with the spring '^Ayiln Kara, near 
Zoreah. 

Enmity, deep-rooted hatred. "I will 
put enmity between thee and the woman, 



between thy seed and her seed " (Gen. 3 : 
15). The friendship of the world is " enmity 
with God " (James 4 : 4 ; .1 John 2 : 15, 16). 
The "carnal mind" is "enmity against 
God " (Rom. 8 : 7). By the abrogation of 
the Mosaic institutes the "enmity" be- 
tween Jew and Gentile is removed. They 
are reconciled, are "made one" (Eph. 
2 : 15, 16). 

E'noch — initiated. (1.) The eldest son 
of Cain (Gen. 4 : 17), who built a city east 
of Eden in the land of Nod, and called it 
"after the name of his son Enoch." This 
is the first "city" mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. 

(2.) The son of Jared, and father of 
Methuselah (Gen. 5 : 21 ; Luke 3 : 37). His 




BIR EYUB. 



father was one hundred and 
years old when he was born. 



sixty-two 
After the 

birth of Methuselah, Enoch "walked with 
God three hundred years " (Gen. 5 : 22-24), 
when he was translated without tasting 
death. His whole life on earth was three 
hundred and sixty-five years. He was the 
"seventh from Adam" (Jude 14), as dis- 
tinguished from the son of Cain, the third 
from Adam. He is spoken of in the cata- 
logue of Old Testament worthies in the 
Epistle to the Hebrews (11 : 5). When he 
was translated, only Adam, so far as re- 
corded, had as yet died a natural death, and 
Noah was not yet born. Mention is made 
of Enoch's prophesying only in Jude 14. 

E^nos — man — the son of Seth, and 
grandson of Adam (Gen. 5 : 6-11 ; Lvike 



3 : 38). He lived nine hundred and five 
years. In his time "men began to call 
upon the name of the Lord " (Gen. 4 : 26), 
meaning either (1) then began men to call 
themselves by the name of the Lord (marg.) 
— i.e., to distinguish themselves thereby 
from idolaters ; or (2) then men in some 
public and earnest way began to call upon 
the Lord, indicating a time of spiritual 
revival. 

En-ro^gel — fountain of the treaders; i.e., 
" foot-fountain ;" also called the "fullers' 
fountain," because fullers here trod the 
clothes in water. It has been identified with 
the "fountain of the virgin" {q.v.), the 
modern '-4 in Ummel-Daraj. Others identify 
it, with perhaps more probability, with 
the Bir Eyitb, to the south of the Pool of 



EN-SHEMESH 



229 



EPENETUS 



Siloam, and below the junction of the valleys 
of Kidron and Hinnom. (See Fountain. ) 

It was at this fountain that Jonathan 
and Ahimaaz lay hid after the flight of 
David (2 Sam. 17 : 17) ; and here also 
Adonijah held the feast when he aspired 
to the throne of his father (1 Kings 1 : 9). 

The Bir EyHb, or "Joab's well," "is a 
singular work of ancient enterprise. The 
shaft sunk through the solid rock in the 

bed of the Kidron is 125 feet deep The 

water is pure and entirely sweet, quite 
different from that of Siloam ; which 
proves that there is no connection between 
them." — Thomson's Land and the Book. 

En-she^mesh — fountain of the sun— a, 
spring which formed one of the landmarks 
on the boundary between Judah and Ben- 
jamin (Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 17). It was be- 
tween the "ascent of Adummim" and the 
spring of En-rogel, and hence was on the 
east of Jerusalem and of the Mount of 
Olives. It is the modern "Ain-Haud — i.e., 
the "well of the apostles" — about a mile 
east of Bethany, the only spring on the road 
to Jericho. The sun shines on it the whole 
day long. 

En^'sign. (1.) Heb. ^oth, a military stand- 
ard, especially of a single tribe (Num. 2:2). 
Each separate tribe had its own ' ' sign " or 
"ensign." 

(2. ) Heb. nes, a lofty signal, as a column 
or high pole (Nmn. 21 : 8, 9) ; a standard 
or signal or flag placed on high mountains 
to point out to the people a place of rendez- 
vous on the irruption of an enemy (Isa. 5 : 
26; 11:12; 18:3; 62:10; Jer. 4:6, 21; 
Ps. 60 : 4). This was an occasional signal, 
and not a military standard. Elevation 
and conspicuity are implied in the word. 

(3.) The Hebrew word degel denotes the 
standard given to each of the four divisions 
of the host of the Israelites at the Exodus 
(Num. 1 : 52 ; 2 : 2 ; 10 : 14). In Cant. 2 : 4 
it is rendered "banner." We have no 
definite information as to the nature of 
these military standards. (See Banner.) 

Entertain. Entertainments, "feasts," 
were sometimes connected with a public fes- 
tival (Deut. 16 : 11, 14), and accompanied by 
offerings (1 Sam. 9 : 13), in token of alliances 
(Gen. 26 : 30) ; sometimes in connection with 



domestic or social events, as at the weaning 
of children (Gen. 21 : 8), at weddings (Gen. 
29:22; John 2:1), on birth-days (Matt. 
14 : 6), at the time of sheep-shearing (2 Sam. 
13 : 23), and of vintage (Judg. 9 : 27), and at 
funerals (2 Sam. 3 : 35 ; Jer. 16 : 7). 

The guests were invited by servants 
(Prov. 9:3; Matt. 22:3), who assigned 
them their respective places (1 Sam, 9 : 22 ; 
Luke 14 : 8 ; Mark 12 : 39). Like portions 
were sent by the master to each guest (1 
Sam. 1:4; 2 Sam. 6 : 19), except when 
special honour was intended, when the por- 
tion was increased (Gen. 43 : 34). 

The Israelites were forbidden to attend 
heathenish sacrificial entertainments (Ex. 
34 : 15), because these were in honour of 
false gods, and because at such feasts they 
would be liable to partake of unclean flesh 
(1 Cor. 10 : 28). 

In the entertainments common in apos- 
tolic times among the Gentiles were fre- 
quent "revellings," against which Chris- 
tians were warned (Pom. 13 : 13 ; Gal. 5 : 
21 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 3). (See Banquet.) 

Ep'aphras—ZofeZ?/— spoken of by Paul 
(Col. 1:7; 4:12) as "his dear fellow-ser- 
vant," and "a faithful minister of Christ." 
He was thus evidently with him at Pome 
when he wrote to the Colossians. He was 
probably the founder of the Colossian 
church. He is also mentioned in the 
Epistle to Philemon (23), where he is called 
by Paul his "fellow-prisoner." This name 
is a contracted form of Epaphroditus. 

Epaphrodi^tus — belonging to Aphrodite 
or Venus — the messenger who came from 
Philippi to the apostle when he was a 
prisoner at Rome (Phil. 2:25-30; 4:10-18). 
Paul mentions him in words of esteem and 
affection. On his return to Philippi he was 
the bearer of Paul's letter to the church 
there. 

Epe'^netus — commendable — a Christian 
at Rome to whom Paul sent his salutation 
(Rom. 16:5). He is spoken of as "the 
first fruits of Achaia" (R.V., "of Asia"— 
i.e., of proconsular Asia, which is probably 
the correct reading). As being the first 
convert in that region, he was peculiarly 
dear to the apostle. He calls him his 
"well beloved." 



EPHAH 



230 



EPHESIANS 



WplLOii— gloom. (1.) One of the five 
sons of Midian, and grandson of Abraham 
(Gen. 25 : 4). The city of Ephah, to which 
he gave his name, is mentioned Isa. 60 : 6, 
7. This city, with its surrounding terri- 
tory, formed part of Midian, on the east 
shore of the Dead Sea. It abounded in 
dromedaries and camels ( Judg. 6 : 5). 

(2. ) 1 Chr. 2:46, a concubine of Caleb. 

(3. ) 1 Chr. 2 : 47, a descendant of Judah. 

E^phah, a word of Egyptian origin, 
meaning measure; a grain measure con- 
taining "three seahs or ten omers," and 
equivalent to the bath for liquids (Ex. 16 : 
36; 1 Sam. 17:17; Zech. 5:6). The 
double ephah in Pro v. 20:10(marg., "an 
ephah and an ephah"), Deut. 25:14, means 
two ephahs, the one false and the other 
just. 

E'pher — a calf, (1.) One of the sons of 
Midian, who was Abraham's son by Ketu- 
rah (Gen. 25 : 4). 

(2. ) The head of one of the families of 
trans -Jordanic Manasseh who were carried 
captive by Tiglath-pileser (1 Chr. 5 : 24). 

E^phes-daxn^'iniin — boundary of blood — 
a place in the tribe of Judah where the 
Philistines encamped when David fought 
with Goliath (1 Sam. 17 : 1). It was prob- 
ably so called as having been the scene of 
frequent sanguinary conflicts between 
Israel and the Philistines. It is called 
Pas-dammim (1 Chr. 11 : 13). It has been 
identified with the modern Beit Fased — i.e., 
"house of bleeding" — near Shochoh (q.v.). 

Ephe''sians, Epistle to, was written by 
Paul at Rome about the same time as that 
to the Colossians, which in many points it 
resembles. 

Contents of. The Epistle to the Colos- 
sians is mainly polemical, designed to re- 
fute certain theosophic errors that had crept 
into the church there. That to the Ephe- 
sians does not seem to have originated in 
any special circumstances, but is simply a 
letter springing from Paul's love to the 
church there, and indicative of his earnest 
desire that they should be fully instructed 
in the profound doctrines of the gospel. 
It contains (1) the salutation (1 : 1, 2) ; (2) 
a general description of the blessings the 
gospel reveals — as to their source, means by 



which they are attained, purpose for which 
they are bestowed, and their final result, 
with a fervent prayer for the further spir- 
itual enrichment of the Ephesians (1 : 3-2 : 
11) ; (3) "a record of that marked change in 
spiritual position which the Gentile believ- 
ers now possessed, ending with an account 
of the writer's selection to and qualification 
for the apostolate of heathendom— a fact so 
considered as to keep them from being dis- 
pirited, and to lead him to pray for en- 
larged spiritual benefactions on his absent 
sympathizers " (2 : 12-3 : 21) ; (4) a chapter 
on unity as undisturbed by diversity of 
gifts (4 : 1-17) ; (5) special injunctions bear- 
ing on ordinary life (4 : 17-6 : 10) ; (6) the 
imagery of a spiritual warfare, mission of 
Tychicus, and valedictory blessing (6 : 11-24). 

Planting of the church at Ephesus. Paul's 
first and hurried visit for the space of three 
months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 
18 : 19-21. The work he began on this 
occasion was carried forward by ApoUos 
(24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla. On his 
second visit, early in the following year, he 
remained at Ephesus "three years," for he 
found it was the key to the western prov- 
inces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door 
and effectual " was opened to him (1 Cor. 
16 : 9), and the chiirch was established and 
strengthened by his assiduous labours there 
(Acts 20 : 20, 31). Erom Ephesus as a centre 
the gospel spread abroad ' ' almost through- 
out all Asia " (19 : 26). The word "mightily 
grew and prevailed " despite all the opposi- 
tion and persecution he encountered. 

On his last journey to Jerusalem the 
apostle landed at Miletus, and summoning 
together the elders of the church from 
Ephesus, delivered to them his remarkable 
farewell charge (Acts 20 : 18-35), expecting 
to see them no more. 

The following parallels between this 
epistle and the Milesian charge may be 
traced : — 

(1.) Acts 20 : 19 = Eph. 4 : 2. The phrase 
" lowliness of mind " occurs nowhere else. 

(2. ) Acts 20 : 27 = Eph. 1 : 11. The word 
"counsel," as denoting the divine plan, 
occurs only here and Heb. 6 : 17. 

(3. ) Acts 20 : 32 = Eph. 3 : 20. The divine 
ability. 



EPHESIANS 



231 



EPHESUS 



(4. ) Acts 20 :32 = Eph. 2 : 20. The build- 
ing upon the foundation. 

(5. ) Acts 20 : 32 = Eph. 1 : 14, 18. "The 
inheritance of the saints." 

Place and date of the icriting of the letter. 
It was evidently written from Rome dur- 
ing Paul's first imprisonment (3:1; 4:1; 
6 : 20), and probably soon after his arrival 
there, about the year 62, four years after 
he had jDarted with the Ephesian elders at 
Miletus. The subscription of this epistle 
is correct. 

There seems to have been no special occa- 
sion for the writing of this letter, as already 
noted. Paul's object was plainly not po- 
lemical. No errors had sprung up in the 
church which he sought to point out and 
refute. The object of the apostle is "to set 
forth the ground, the cause, and the aim and 
end of the church of the faithful in Christ. 
He speaks to the Ephesians as a type or 
sample of the church universal." The 
church's foundations, its course, and its 
end, are his theme. "Everywhere the 
foundation of the church is the tvill of the 
Father; the course of the church is by the 
satisfaction of the Son; the end of the 
church is the life in the Holy Spirit." In 
the Epistle to the Romans, Paul writes from 
the point of view of justification by the 
imputed righteousness of Christ ; here he 
writes from the point of view specially of 
union to the Redeemer, and hence of the 
oneness of the true church of Christ. 
" This is perhaps the profoundest book in 
existence." It is a book "which sounds 
the lowest depths of Christian doctrine, and 
scales the loftiest heights of Christian ex- 
perience;" and the fact that the apostle 
evidently expected the Ephesians to un- 
derstand it is an evidence of the "profi- 
ciency which Paul's converts had attained 
under his preaching at Ephesus." 

Relation between this epistle and that to the 
Colossians [q.v.). " The letters of the apostle 
are the fervent outburst of pastoral zeal 
and attachment, wnritten without reserve 
and in unaffected simplicity; sentiments 
come warm from the heart, wdthout the 
shaping out, pruning, and punctilious ar- 
rangement of a formal discourse. There is 
such a fresh and familiar transcription of 



feeling, so frequent an introduction of col- 
loquial idiom, and so much of conversa- 
tional frankness and vivacity, that the 
reader associates the image of the writer 
with every paragraph, and the ear seems 
to catch and recognize the very tones of 
living address." "Is it then any matter of 
amazement that one letter should resemble 
another, or that two written about the 
same time should have so much in com- 
mon and so much that is peculiar? The 
close relation as to style and subject be- 
tween the epistles to Colosse and Ephesus 
must strike every reader. Their precise 
relation to each other has given rise to 
much discussion. The great probability 
is that the epistle to Colosse was first 
written ; the parallel passages in Ephesians, 
which amount to about forty-two in num- 
ber, having the appearance of being ex- 
pansions from the epistle to Colosse. 



Compare 


with 


]pli. 1 : 7 Col. 1 : 14. 




, 1:10 


, 1 : 20. 




, 3:2 


, 1 : 25. 




, 5:19 


, 3 : 16. 




, 6:22 


, 4:8. 




, 1 : 19-2 : 5 


, 2 : 12, 13. 




, 4:2-4 


, 3 : 12-15. 




, 4:16 


, 2 : 19. 




, 4:32 


, 3 : 13. 




, 4:22-24 


, 3:9, 10. 




, 5:6-8 


, 3 : 6-8. 




, 5 : 15, 16 


, 4:5. 




, 6 : 19, 20 


, 4 : 3, 4. 




, 5 : 22-6 : 9 


, 3 : 18-4 : 1. 



" The style of this epistle is exceedingly 
animated, and corresponds with the state 
of the apostle's mind at the time of writing. 
Overjoyed with the account which their 
messenger had brought him of their faith 
and holiness (Eph. 1 : 15), and transported 
with the consideration of the unsearchable 
wisdom of God displayed in the work of 
man's redemption, and of his astonishing 
love towards the Gentiles in making them 
partakers through faith of all the benefits 
of Christ's death, he soars high in his senti- 
ments on those grand subjects, and gives 
his thoughts utterance in subHme and 
copious expression." 

Eph^esus, the capital of proconsular 
Asia, which was the western part of Asia 
Minor. It was colonized principally from 



EPHESUS 



232 



EPHOD 



Athens. In the time of the Romans it bore 
the title of "the first and greatest metro- 
polis of Asia." It was distinguished for 
the Temple of Diana {q.v.), who there had 
her chief shrine ; and for its theatre, which 
was the largest in the world, capable of 
containing 50,000 spectators. It was, like 
all ancient theatres, open to the sky. Here 
were exhibited the fights of wild beasts 
and of men with beasts. (Comp. 1 Cor. 4 : 
9; 9:24, 25; 15:32.) 

Many Jews took up their residence in 
this city, and here the seeds of the gospel 
were sown immediately after Pentecost 
(Acts 2:9; 6:9). At the close of his 
second missionary journey (about A.D. 51), 
when Paul was returning from Greece to 



Syria (18 : 18-21), he first visited this city. 
He remained, however, for only a short time, 
as he was hastening to keep the feast, prob- 
ably of Pentecost, at Jerusalem ; but he 
left Aquila and Priscilla behind him to 
carry on the work of spreading the gospel. 
During his third missionary journey 
Paul reached Ephesus from the "upper 
coasts" (Acts 19:1) — i.e., from the inland 
parts of Asia Minor — and tarried here for 
about three years ; and so successful and 
abundant were his labours that ' ' all they 
which dwelt in Asia heard the word of the 
Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks " (19 : 
10). Probably during this period the seven 
churches of the Apocalypse were founded, 
not by Paul's personal labours, but by 




RUINS OF THE THEATRE AT EPHESUS. 



missionaries whom he may have sent out 
from Ephesus, and by the influence of con- 
verts returning to their homes. 

On his return from his journey, Paul 
touched at Miletus, some 30 miles south of 
Ephesus (Acts 20 : 15), and sending for the 
presbyters of Ephesus to meet him there, 
he delivered to them that touching farewell 
charge which is recorded in Acts 20 : 18-35. 
Ephesus is not again mentioned till near 
the close of Paul's life, when he writes 
to Timothy exhorting him to "stay at 
Ephesus " (1 Tim. 1 : 3). 

Two of Paul's companions, Trophimus 
and Tychicus, were probably natives of 
Ephesus (Acts 20 : 4 ; 21 : 29 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 12). 
In his second epistle to Timothy, Paul speaks 
of Onesiphorus as having ' ' served him in 



many things " at Ephesus (2 Tim. 1 : 18). 
He also "sent Tychicus to Ephesus " (4 : 12), 
probably to attend to the interests of the 
church there. Ephesus is twice mentioned 
in the Apocalypse (1 : 11 ; 2:1). 

The apostle John, according to tradition, 
spent many years in Ephesus, where he 
died and was buried. 

A part of the site of this once famous 
city is now occupied by a small Turkish 
village, Ayasaluk, which is regarded as a 
corniption of the two Greek words, hagios 
theoJogos ; i.e., " the holy divine. " 

E^phod — something girt — a sacred vest- 
ment worn originally by the high priest 
(Ex. 28 : 4), afterwards by the ordinary 
priest (1 Sam. 22 : 18), and characteristic of 
his office (1 Sam. 2 : 18, 28 ; 14 ; 3). It was 



EPHPHATHA 



233 



EPHRAIM 



worn by Samuel, and also by David (2 Sam. 

6 : 14). It was made of fine linen, and con- 
sisted of two pieces, which hung from the 
neck, and covered both the back and front, 
above the tunic and outer garment (Ex. 
28 : 31). That of the high priest was em- 
broidered with divers colours. The two 
pieces were joined together over the shoul- 
ders (hence in Latin called superhumerale) 
by clasps or buckles of gold or precious 
stones, and fastened round the waist by a 
"curious girdle of gold, blue, purple, and 
fine twined linen " (28 : 6-12). 

The breastplate, with the Urim and 
Thummim, was attached to the ephod. 

Eph^phatha, the Greek form of a Syro- 
Chaldaic or Aramaic word, meaning '^ Be 
opened," uttered by Christ when healing 
the man who was deaf and dumb (Mark 

7 : 34). It is one of the characteristics of 
Mark that he uses the very Aramaic words 
which fell from our Lord's lips. (See 3 : 17 ," 
5:41; 7:11; 14:36; 15:34.) . 

Eph^raim — double fruitfulness ( " for God 
had made him fruitful in the land of his 
affliction "). The second son of Joseph, 
born in Egypt (Gen. 41 : 52 ; 46 : 20). The 
first incident recorded regarding him is his 
being placed, along with his brother Man- 
asseh, before their grandfather, Jacob, 
that he might bless them (48 : 10 ; comp. 
27 : 1). The intention of Joseph was that 
the right hand of the aged patriarch should 
be placed on the head of the elder of the 
two ; but Jacob set Ephraim the younger 
before his brother, " guiding his hand 
wittingly." Before Joseph's death, Eph- 
raim's family had reached the third genera- 
tion (Gen. 50 : 23). 

Eph'raiin,The tribe of, took precedence 
over that of Manasseh by virtue of Jacob's 
blessing (Gen. 41 : 52 ; 48 : 1). The descend- 
ants of Joseph formed two of the tribes of 
Israel, whereas each of the other sons of 
Jacob was the founder of only one tribe. 
Thus there were in reality thirteen tribes ; 
but the number twelve was preserved by 
excluding that of Levi when Ephraim and 
Manasseh are mentioned separately (Num. 
1 : 32-34 ; Josh. 17 : 14, 17 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 20). 

Territory of. At the time of the first 
census in the wilderness this tribe numbered 



40,500 (Num. 1 : 32, 33) ; forty years later, 
when about to take possession of the Pro- 
mised Land, it numbered only 32,500. 
During the march (see Camp) Ephraim's 
place was on the west side of the taber- 
nacle (Num. 2:18-24). When the spies 
were sent out to spy the land, " Oshea the 
son of Nun " of this tribe signalized himself. 

The boundaries of the portion of the land 
assigned to Ephraim are given in Josh. 
16 : 1-10. It included most of what was 
afterwards called Samaria as distinguished 
from Judea and Galilee. It thus lay in 
the centre of all traffic, from north to south, 
and from Jordan to the sea, and was about 
55 miles long and 30 broad. The taber- 
nacle and the ark were deposited within its 
limits at Shiloh, where it remained for 
four hundred years. During the time of 
the judges and the first stage of the mon- 
archy this tribe manifested a domineering 
and haughty and discontented spirit. 
"Eor more than five hundred years — a 
period equal to that which elapsed between 
the Norman Conquest and the War of 
the Roses — Ephraim, with its two depend- 
ent tribes of Manasseh and Benjamin, 
exercised undisputed pre-eminence. Joshua 
the first conqueror, Gideon the greatest of 
the judges, and Saul the first king, belonged 
to one or other of the three tribes. It was 
not till the close of the first period of 
Jewish history that God ' refused the taber- 
nacle of Joseph, and chose not the tribe 
of Ephraim but the tribe of Judah, even 
the Mount Zion which he loved ' (Ps. 78 : 
67, 68). When the ark was removed from 
Shiloh to Zion the power of Ephraim was 
humbled." 

Among the causes which operated to 
bring about the disruption of Israel was 
Ephraim's jealousy of the growing power 
of Judah. Erom the settlement of Canaan 
till the time of David and Solomon, Eph- 
raim had held the place of honour among 
the tribes. It occupied the central and 
fairest portions of the land, and had Shiloh 
and Shechem within its borders. But now 
when Jerusalem became the capital of the 
kingdom, and the centre of power and 
worship for the whole nation of Israel, 
Ephraim declined in influence. The dis- 



EPHRAIM 



234 



EPISTLES 



content came to a crisis by Rehoboani's 
refusal to grant certain redresses that were 
demanded (1 Kings 12). 

Eph^raim, Mount, the central mountain- 
ous district of Palestine occupied by the 
tribe of Ephraim (Josh. 17:15; 19:50; 
50 : 7), extending from Bethel to the plain 
of Jezreel. In Joshua's time (Josh. 17 : 18) 
these hills were densely wooded. They 
were intersected by well-watered, fertile 
valleys, referred to in Jer. 50 : 19. Joshua 
was buried at Timnath-heres among the 
mountains of Ephraim, on the north side of 
the hill of Gaash (Judg. 2 : 9). This region 
is also called the "mountains of Israel" 
(Josh. 11:21) and the "mountains of 
Samaria " (Jer. 31 : 5, 6 ; Amos 3 : 9). 

Eph^raim, Gate of, one of the gates of 
Jerusalem (2 Kings 14 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 23), 
on the side of the city looking toward 
Ephraim, the north side. 

Eph^raim, Wood of, a forest in which 
a fatal battle was fought between the army 
of David and that of Absalom, who was 
killed there (2 Sam. 18 : 6, 8). It lay on 
the east of Jordan, not far from Mahanaim, 
and was some part of the great forest of 
Gilead. 

Eph^raim in the wilderness (John 11 : 
54), a town to which our Lord retired with 
his disciples after he had raised Lazarus, 
and when the priests were conspiring 
against him. It lay in the wild, unculti- 
vated hill-country to the north-east of 
Jerusalem, between the central towns and 
the Jordan valley. 

Eph^rsLtaih^ruitful. (1.) The second 
wife of Caleb, the son of Hezron, mother 
of Hur, and grandmother of Caleb, who 
was one of those that were sent to spy the 
land (1 Chr. 2 : 19, 50). 

(2.) The ancient name of Bethlehem in 
Judah (Gen. 35 : 16, 19 ; 48 : 7). In Euth 
1:2 it is called " Bethlehem- Judah," but 
the inhabitants are called "Ephrathites ;" 
in Micah 5:2, " Bethlehem - Ephratah ; " 
in Matt. 2:6, "Bethlehem in the land of 
Judah." In Pa. 132 : 6 it is mentioned as 
the place where David spent his youth, 
and where he heard much of the ark, al- 
though he never saw it till he found it 
Ions' afterwards at Kirjath-jearim; i.e., the 



"city of the wood," or the "forest-town" 
(1 Sam. 7:1; comp. 2 Sam. 6 : 3,- 4). 

Sph'rathite, a citizen of Ephratah, the 
old name of Bethlehem (Ruth 1 : 2 ; 1 Sam. 
17 : 12), or Bethlehem- Judah. 

Eph^ron — faion-like. (1.) The son of 
Zohar a Hittite, the owner of the field and 
cave of Machpelah {q.v.), which Abraham 
bought for 400 shekels of silver (Gen. 23 : 
8-17 ; 25 : 9 ; 49 : 29, 30). 

(2.) A mountain range which formed one 
of the landmarks on the north boundary of 
the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15 : 9), probably 
the range on the west side of the Wddy 
Beit-Hanina. 

Epicure^ans, followers of Epicurus (who 
died at Athens B.C. 270), or adherents of 
the Epicurean philosophy (Acts 17:18). 
This philosophy was a system of atheism, 
and taught men to seek as their highest 
aim a pleasant and smooth life. They 
have been called the "Sadducees" of Greek 
paganism. They, with the Stoics, ridiculed 
the teaching of Paul (Acts 17 : 18). They 
appear to have been greatly esteemed at 
Athens. 

Epis'tles, the apostolic letters. The 
New Testament contains twenty-one in 
all. They are divided into two classes. 
(1.) PauVs Epistles, fourteen in number, 
including Hebrews. These are not ar- 
ranged in the New Testament in the order 
of time as to their composition, but rather 
according to the rank of the cities or places 
to which they were sent. Who arranged 
them after this manner is unknowTi. 
Paul's letters were, as a rule, dictated to 
an amanuensis — a fact which accounts for 
some of their peculiarities. He authenti- 
cated them, however, by adding a few 
words in his own hand at the close. (See 
Galatians, Epistle to.) 

The epistles to Timothy and Titus are 
styled the Pastoral Epistles. 

(2.) The Catholic or General Epistles, so 
called because they are not addressed to 
any particular church or city or individual, 
but to Christians in general, or to Chris- 
tians in several countries. Of these, three 
are written by John, two by Peter, and 
one each by James and Jude. 

It is an interesting and instructive fact 



ERASTUS 



235 



ESARHADDON 



that a large portion of the New Testament 
is taken up with epistles. The doctrines 
of Christianity are thus not set forth in any 
formal treatise, but mainly in a collection 
of letters, " The causes of this peculiarity 
are not far to seek. Christianity was the 
first great missionary rehgion. It was the 
first to break the bounds of race and aim 
at embracing all mankind. But this neces- 
sarily involved a change in the mode in 
which it was presented. The prophet of 
the Old Testament, if he had anything to 
communicate, either appeared in person 
or sent messengers to speak for him by 
word of moiTth. The one exception of any 
religious significance is the letter of Elijah 
to Jehoram in 2 Chr. 21. The narrow 
limits of Palestine made direct personal 
communication easy. But the case was 
different when the Christian Church came 
to consist of a number of scattered parts, 
stretching from Mesopotamia in the east to 
Rome or even Spain in the far west. It 
was only natural that the apostle by whom 
the greater number of these communities 
had been founded should seek to communi- 
cate with them by letter. He was enabled 
to do so by two things : first, the very 
general diffusion of the Greek language ; 
and secondly, the remarkable facilities of 
intercourse afforded at this particular time. 
The whole world was at peace, and held 
together by the organized rule of imperial 
Rome." — Dr. Sanday's Epistle to the Ro- 
mans: Introduction. 

"Ersi&'tviS— beloved. (1.) The "chamber- 
lain " of the city of Corinth (Rom. 16 : 23), 
and one of Paul's disciples. As treasurer of 
such a city he was a public officer of great 
dignity ; and his conversion to the gospel 
was accordingly a proof of the wonderful 
success of the apostle's labours. 

(2.) A companion of Paul at Ephesus, 
who was sent by him along with Timothy 
into Macedonia (Acts 19 : 22). Corinth 
was his usual place of abode (2 Tim. 4 : 20) ; 
but probably he may have been the same 
as the preceding. 

E'rech (LXX., '' Orech") — length, or 
Moon-town — one of the cities of Nimrod's 
kingdom in the plain of Shinar (Gen. 10 : 
10) ; the Orchoe of the Greeks and Romans. 



It was probably the city of the Archevites, 
who were transplanted to Samaria by As- 
napper (Ezra 4 : 9). It lay on the left 
bank of the Euphrates, about 120 miles 
south-east of Babylon, and is now repre- 
sented by the mounds and ruins of Warka. 
It appears to have been the necropolis of 
the Assyrian kings, as the whole region is 
strewed ^vith bricks and the remains of 
coffins. " Standing on the summit of the 
principal edifice, called the Buwarizza, a 
tower 200 feet square in the centre of the 
ruins, the beholder is struck with astonish- 
ment at the enormous accumulation of 
mounds and ancient relics at his feet. An 
irregular circle, nearly 6 miles in circum- 
ference, is defined by the traces of an 
earthen rampart, in some places 40 feet 
high." 

Esai^as, the Greek form for Isaiah, con- 
stantly used in the Authorized Version of 
the New Testament (Matt. 3:3; 4 : 14), 
but in the Revised Version always 
"Isaiah." 

E^sarhad^don — gift of fire — the son and 
successor of Sennacherib (2 Kings 19 : 37 ; 




ESARHADDON. 

(Fro?n Assyrian Sculpture in British Mnsetim.) 

Isa. 37 : 38). He ascended the throne 
about B.C. 681. Nothing further is re- 
corded of him in Scripture except that he 



ESAU 



236 



i^SDRAELON 



settled certain colonists in Samaria (Ezra 
4 : 2). But from the monuments it appears 
that he was the most powerful of all the 
Assyrian monarchs. He united Babylonia 
to his kingdom ; and was the only Assyrian 
king who actually reigned at Babylon, 
where he built a palace, the ruins of which 
remain to this day. The city had been 
almost destroyed by Sennacherib (b.c. 691), 
but he restored it to something of its 
former grandeur. During this period of 
his residence at Babylon, the last eleven 
years of his life, Manasseh, the king of 
Judah, was brought before him (2 Chr. 
33 : 11), and detained as a prisoner, but was 
afterwards restored to his throne. Erom 
B.C. 725 to 672 the Ethiopian dynasty 
ruled in Egypt ; but he expelled Tirhakah, 
and reduced that country to the condition 
of an Assyrian dependency, which it con- 
tinued to be till B.C. 660, when Psam- 
metichus, a Lybian, became master of the 
country, and began the Greek epoch of 
its history. 

He built many temples and palaces, the 
most magnificent of which was the south- 
west palace at NimrM, which is said to 
have been in its general design almost the 
same as Solomon's palace, only much larger 
(1 Kings 7 : 1-12). 

Esarhaddon died at Babylon (b.c, 668), 
and was succeeded by his eldest son Assur- 
bani-pal, during whose reign of forty-three 
years Assyrian literature and art reached 
their highest perfection. After the death of 
Assur-bani-pal, Assyria declined, and Baby- 
lon (B.C. 625) gained independence ; and 
Nabopolassar, in alliance with the Medes 
under Cyaxares, laid Nineveh in ruins 
(B.C. 607). Babylon now rose to supremacy, 
which she retained till B.C. 530. 

E^sau — hairy — Rebekah's first-born twin 
son (Gen. 25:25). The name of Edom — 
"red" — was also given to him from his 
conduct in connection with the red lentil 
"pottage" for which he sold his birthright 
(30, 31). The circumstances connected 
with his birth foreshadowed the enmity 
which afterwards subsisted between the 
twin brothers and the nations they founded 
(25 : 22, 23, 26). In process of time Jacob, 
following his natural bent, became a shep- 



herd; while Esau, a "son of the desert," 
devoted himself to the perilous and toil- 
some life of a huntsman. On a certain oc- 
casion, on returning from the chase, urged 
by the cravings of hunger, Esau sold his 
birthright to his brother Jacob, who there- 
by obtained the covenant blessing (Gen. 27 : 
28, 29, 36; Heb. 12:16, 17). He after- 
wards tried to regain what he had so reck- 
lessly parted with, but was defeated in his 
attempts through the stealth of his brother 
(Gen. 27 : 4, 34, 38). 

At the age of forty years, to the great 
grief of his parents, he married (Gen. 26 : 34, 
35) two Canaanitish maidens — Judith, the 
daughter of Beeri, and Bashemath, the 
daughter of Elon. When Jacob was sent 
away to Padan-aram, Esau tried to con- 
ciliate his parents (28 : 8, 9) by marrying 
his cousin Mahalath, the daughter of Ish- 
mael. This led him to cast in his lot with 
the Ishmaelite tribes ; and driving the 
Horites out of Mount Seir, he settled in 
that region. After some thirty years' so- 
journ in Padan-aram Jacob returned to 
Canaan, and was reconciled to Esau, who 
went forth to meet him (33:4). Twenty 
years after this, Isaac their father died, 
when the two brothers met, probably for 
the last time, beside his grave (35 : 29).. 
Esau now permanently left Canaan, and 
established himself as a powerful and 
wealthy chief in the land of Edom [q.v.). 

Long after this, when the descendants 
of Jacob came out of Egypt, the Edomites 
remembered the old quarrel between the 
brothers, and with fierce hatred they 
warred against Israel. 

Eschew, from old Erench eschever, "to 
flee from" (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 1 Pet. 
3 : 11). 

Esdrae^'lon, the Greek form of the He- 
brew "Jezreel," the name of the great 
plain (called by the natives Merj Ibn Amer; 
i.e., "the meadow of the son of Amer") 
which stretches across Central Palestine 
from the Jordan to the Mediterranean, 
separating the mountain ranges of Carmel 
and Samaria from those of Galilee, extend- 
ing about 14 miles from north to south, 
and 9 from east to west. It is drained 
by "that ancient river" Kishon, which 



ESEK 



237 



ESHTAOL 



flows Avestward to the Mediterranean. 
From the foot of Mount Tabor it branches 
out into three valleys, — that on the north 
passing between Tabor and Little Hermon 
( Judg. 4 : 14) ; that on the south between 
Mount Gilboa and En-gannim (2 Kings 
9 : 27) ; while the central portion, the 
"valley of Jezreel" proper, runs into the 
Jordan valley (which is about 1,000 feet 
lower than Esdraelon) by Bethshean. 
Here Gideon gained his great victory over 
the Midianites (Judg. 7 : 1-25). Here also 
Barak defeated Sisera, and Saul's army 
was defeated bj^ the Philistines, and king 
Josiah, while fighting in disguise against 



Necho, king of Egypt, was slain (2 Chr, 
35 : 20-27 ; 2 Kings 23-29). This plain has 
been well called the "battle-field of Pales- 
tine." " It has been a chosen place for en- 
campment in every contest carried on in 
this country, from the days of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of the Assyrians, in the history 
of whose wars with Arphaxad it is men- 
tioned as the Great Plain of Esdraelon, 
until the disastrous march of Napoleon 
Bonaparte from Egypt into Syria. Jews, 
Gentiles, Saracens, Crusaders, Frenchmen, 
Egyptians, Persians, Druses, Turks, and 
Arabs, warriors out of every nation which 
is under heaven, have pitched their tents 




^r'St JO S D A N 



PLAIN OF 

in the plain, and have beheld the various 
banners of their nations wet with the dews 
of Tabor and Hermon " (Dr. Clark). 

E'^sek — quarrel — a well which Isaac's 
herdsmen dug in the valley of Gerar, and 
so called because the herdsmen of Gerar 
quarrelled with them for its possession 
(Gen. 26 : 20). 

Esh^ba^al — man of Baal — the fourth son 
of king Saul (1 Chr. 8 : 33 ; 9 : 39). He is 
also called Ish-bosheth {q.v.) — 2 Sam. 2 : 8. 

Esh'col — hunch of grapes. (1.) A young 
Amoritish chief who joined Abraham in 
the recovery of Lot from the hands of 
Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 13, 24). 

(2. ) A valley in which the spies obtained 
a fine cluster of grapes (Num. 13 : 23, 24 ; 
"the brook Eshcol," A.V. ; "the valley 
of Eshcol," R.V.), which they took back 
with them to the camp of Israel as a speci- 



ESDRAELON. 

men of the fruits of the Promised Land. 
On their way back they explored the 
route which led into the south (the Negeb) 
by the western edge of the mountains at 
Telilat el-'Anab — i.e., " grape - mounds " — 
near Beersheba. "In one of these exten- 
sive valleys — perhaps in Wddy Hanein, 
where miles of grape-mounds even now 
meet the eye — they cut the gigantic clusters 
of grapes, and gathered the pomegranates 
and figs, to show how goodly was the land 
which the Lord had promised for their in- 
heritance. "—Palmer's Desert of the Exodus. 

Es^hean, a place in the mountains of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 52), supposed to be the ruin 
es-Simia, near Dumah, south of Hebron. 

Esh'taol— narrow pass or recess— a, town 
(Josh. 15 : 33) iii the low country, the She- 
phelak of Judah. It was allotted to the 
tribe of Dan (Josh. 19 : 41), and was one 

16 



ESHTEMOA 



238 



ESTHER 



of their strongholds. Here Samson spent 
his boyhood, and first began to show his 
mighty strength ; and here he was buried 
in the burying-place of Manoah his father 
(Judg. 13:25; 16:31; 18:2, 8, 11, 12). 
It is identified with the modern YesMia, 
on a hill 2 miles east of Zorah. Others, 
however, identify it with Kustiil, east of 
Kir j ath- j earim, 

Eshtemo^a — obedience — a town in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. 21 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 
6 : 57), which was allotted, with the land 
round it, to the priests. It was fre- 
quented by David and his followers during 
their wanderings ; and he sent presents of 
the spoil of the Amalekites to his friends 
there (1 Sam. 30 : 28). It is identified with 
es-Semil'a, a village about 3^ miles east of 
Socoh, and 7 or 8 miles south of Hebron, 
around which there are ancient remains of 
the ruined city. It is the centre of the 
" south country " or Negeb. It is also 
called " Eshtemoh " (Josh. 15 : 50). 

Espouse^ (2 Sam. 3 : 14), to betroth. 
The espousal was a ceremony of betroth- 
ing, a formal agreement between the 
parties then coming under obligation for 
the purpose of marriage. Espousals are 
in the East frequently contracted years 
before the marriage is celebrated. It is 
referred to as figuratively illustrating the 
relations between God and his people (Jer. 
2:2; Matt. 1:18; 2 Cor. 11:2). (See 
Betroth. ) 

Esse^nes, a Jewish mystical sect some- 
what resembling the Pharisees. They 
affected great purity. They originated 
about B.C. 100, and disappeared from his- 
tory after the destruction of Jerusalem. 
They are not directly mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, although they may be referred to 
in Matt. 19 : 11, 12, Col. 2 : 8, 18, 23. 

Es^ther, the queen of Ahasuerus, and 
heroine of the book that bears her name. 
She was a Jewess named Hadas'sah (the 
myrtle), but when she entered the royal 
harem she received the name by which 
she henceforth became known (Esther 2 : 
7). It is a Syro- Arabian modification of 
the Persian word satdrah, which means a 
star. She was the daughter of Abihail, a 
Benjamite. Her family did not avail 



themselves of the permission granted by 
Cyrus to the exiles to return to Jerusalem ; 
and she resided with her cousin Mordecai, 
who held some ofiice in the household of 
the Persian king at ' ' Shushan in the pal- 
ace. " Ahasuerus having divorced Vashti, 
chose Esther to be his wife. Soon after 
this he gave Haman the Agagite, his prime 
minister, power and authority to kill and 
extirpate all the Jews throughout the 
Persian empire. By the interposition of 
Esther this terrible catastrophe was 
averted. Haman was hanged on the gal- 
lows he had intended for Mordecai (Esther 
7); and the Jews established an annual 
feast— the feast of Purim {q.v.)—in memory 
of their wonderful deliverance. This took 
place about fifty-two years after the Re- 
turn — the year of the great battles of 
Platsea and Mycale (b.c. 479). 

Esther appears in the Bible as a " woman 
of deep piety, faith, courage, patriotism, 
and caution, combined ■with resolution ; a 
dutiful daughter to her adopted father, 
docile and obedient to his counsels, and 
anxious to share the king's favour with 
him for the good of the Jemsh people. 
There must have been a singular grace and 
charm in her aspect and manners, since ' she 
obtained favour in the sight of aU that 
looked upon her ' (Esther 2 : 15). That she 
was raised up as an instrument in the hand 
of God to avert the destruction of the Jew- 
ish people, and to afford them protection 
and forward their wealth and peace in their 
captivity, is also manifest from the Scrip- 
ture account. " 

Es'ther, Book of. The authorship of 
this book is unknown. It must have been 
obviously written after the death of Ahas- 
uerus (the Xerxes of the Greeks), which 
took place B.C. 465. The minute and par- 
ticular account also given of many histori- 
cal details makes it probable that the 
writer was contemporary with Mordecai 
and Esther. Hence we may conclude that 
the book was written probably about B.C. 
444-434, and that the author was one of 
the Jews of the dispersion. 

This book is more purely historical than 
any other book of Scripture; and it has 
this remarkable peculiarity that the name 



ETAM 



239 



ETHAM 



of God does not occur in it from first to 
last in any form. It has, however, been 
well observed that "though the name of 
God be not in it, his finger is. " The book 
wonderfully exhibits the providential gov- 
ernment of God. 

E^tam — eyrie. ;(1.) A village of the tribe 
of Simeon (1 Chr. 4 : 32). Into some cleft 
("top," A. v.; R.V., "cleft") of a rock 
here Samson retired after his slaughter of 
the Philistines ( Judg. 15 : 8, 11). It was a 
natural stronghold. It has been identified 
with Beit 'Atab, west of Bethlehem, near 
Zorah and Eshtaol. On the crest of a 
rocky knoU, under the village, is a long 
tunnel, which may be the " cleft" in which 
Samson hid. 

(2.) A city of Judah, fortified by Reho- 
boam (2 Chr. 11 : 6). It was near Bethle- 
hem and Tekoah, and some distance ap- 
parently to the north of (1). It seems to 
have been in the district called Nephtoah 
(or Netophah), where were the sources of 
the water from which Solomon's gardens 
and pleasure-grounds and pools, as well as 
Bethlehem and the temple, were supplied. 
It is now '^Ain 'Atdn, at the head of the 
Wddy Urtds, a fountain sending forth a 
copious supply of pure water. 

Eter^nal life. This expression occurs 
in the Old Testament only in Dan. 12 : 2 
(R.V., " everlasting hfe"). 

It occurs frequently in the New Testa- 
ment (Matt. 7 : 14 ; 18 : 8, 9 ; Luke 10 : 28 ; 
comp. 18 : 18). It comprises the whole 
future of the redeemed (Luke 16:9), and 
is opposed to " eternal punishment" (Matt. 
19 : 29 ; 25 : 46). It is the final reward and 
glory into which the children of God 
enter (1 Tim. 6 : 12, 19 ; Eom. 6 : 22 ; Gal. 
6:8; 1 Tim. 1:16; Rom. 5:21); their 
Sabbath of rest (Heb. 4:9; comp. 12 : 22). 

The newness of Hfe which the believer 
derives from Christ (Rom. 6:4) is the 
very essence of salvation, and hence the 
life of glory or the eternal life must also be 
theirs (Rom. 6 : 8 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 11, 12 ; Rom. 
5 : 17, 21 ; 8 : 30 ; Eph. 2 : 5, 6). It is the 
"gift of God in Jesus Christ our Lord" 
(Rom. 6 : 23). The life the faithful have 
here on earth (John 3 : 36 ; 5 : 24 ; 6 : 47, 
53-58) is inseparably connected with the 



eternal life beyond — the endless life of the 
future, the happy future of the saints in 
heaven (Matt. 19 : 16, 29 ; 25 : 46). 

Eter^nal death. The miserable fate of 
the wicked in hell (Matt. 25:46; Mark 
3:29; Heb. 6:2; 2 Thess. 1:9; Matt. 
18 : 8 ; 25 : 41 ; Jude 7). The Scripture as 
clearly teaches the unending duration of 
the penal sufferings of the lost as the "ever- 
lasting life," the "eternal life" of the 
righteous. The same Greek words in the 
New Testament {aion, aidnios, aidios) are 
used to express (1) the eternal existence of 
God (1 Tim. 1:17; Rom. 1:20; 16:26); 
(2) of Christ (Rev. 1:18); (3) of the Holy 
Ghost (Heb. 9:14); and (4) the eternal 
duration of the sufferings of the lost (Matt. 
25 : 46 ; Jude 6). 

Their condition after casting off the 
mortal body is spoken of in these expres- 
sive words : " Eire that shall not be 
quenched "(Mark 9 : 45, 46), "fire unquench- 
able" (Luke 3 : 17), " the worm that never 
dies," the "bottomless pit" (Rev. 9:1), 
" the smoke of their torment ascending up 
for ever and ever" (Rev. 14 : 10, 11). 

The idea that the " second death" (Rev. 
20:14) is in the case of the wicked their 
absolute destruction, their annihilation, has 
not the slightest support from Scripture, 
which always represents their future as 
one of conscious suffering enduring for ever. 

The supposition that God will iiltimately 
secure the repentance and restoration of all 
sinners is equally unscriptural. There is 
not the slightest trace in all the Scriptures 
of any such restoration. Sufferings of 
themselves have no tendency to purify the 
soul from sin or impart spiritual life. The 
atoning death of Christ and the sanctify- 
ing power of the Holy Spirit are the only 
means of divine appointment for bringing 
men to repentance. Now in the case of 
them that perish these means have been 
rejected, and "there remaineth no more 
sacrifice for sins" (Heb. 10 : 26, 27). 

E^tham, perhaps the Coptic word atiom, 
meaning "boundary of the sea," a place 
or rather district " in the edge of the 
wilderness"— t.e., of the desert to the east 
of the present Suez Canal — where the 
Israelites made their third encampment 



ETHAN 



240 



EUODIAS 



(Ex. 13 : 20 ; Num. 33 : 6). The camp was 
probably a little to the west of the modern 
town of Ismailia. Here the Israelites were 
commanded to change their route (Ex. 14 : 2), 
and ' ' turn " towards the south, and encamp 
before Pi-hahiroth. (See Exodus ; Pithom. ) 

Wfha.n—firm. (1.) "The Ezrahite," 
distinguished for his wisdom (1 Kings 4 : 
31). He is named as the author of the 89th 
Psalm. He was of the tribe of Levi. 

(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari, 
one of the leaders of the temple music (1 
Chr. 6 : 44 ; 15 : 17, 19). He was probably 
the same as Jeduthun. He is supposed by 
some to be the same also as (1). 

Eth^anim, the month of gifts, i.e., of 
vintage offerings ; called Tisri after the 
Exile ; corresponding to part of September 
and October. It was the first month of 
the civil year, and the seventh of the 
sacred year (1 Kings 8 : 2). 

Eth-ba^al — toith Baal — a king of Sidon 
(B.C. 940-908), father of Jezebel, who was 
the wife of Ahab (1 Kings 16 : 31). He is 
said to have been also a priest of Astarte, 
whose worship was closely allied to that of 
Baal, and this may account for his daugh- 
ter's zeal in promoting idolatry in Israel. 
This marriage of Ahab was most fatal to 
both Israel and Judah. Dido, the founder 
of Carthage, was his granddaughter. 

Ethio''pia — country of burnt faces ; the 
Greek word by which the Hebrew Gush is 
rendered (Gen. 2 : 13 ; 2 Kings 19 : 9 ; Esther 
1:1; Job 28:19; Ps. 68:31; 87:4)— a 
country which lay to the south of Egypt, 
beginning at Syene on the Eirst Cataract 
(Ezek. 29:10; 30:6), and extending to 
beyond the confluence of the White and 
Blue Nile. It corresponds generally with 
what is now known as the Soudan [i.e., 
the land of the blacks). This country was 
known to the Hebrews, and is described in 
Isa. 18 : 1 ; Zeph. 3 : 10. They carried on 
some commercial intercourse with it (Isa. 
45 : 14). 

Its inhabitants were descendants of 
Ham (Gen. 10 : 6 ; Jer. 13 : 23 ; Isa. 18 : 2, 
"scattered and peeled," A.V. ; but in 
R.V., "tall and smooth"). Herodotus, 
the Greek historian, describes them as 
"the tallest and handsomest of men." 



They are frequently represented on Egyp- 
tian monuments, and they are all of the 
type of the true negro. As might be ex- 
I)ected, the history of this country is inter- 
woven with that of Egypt. 

Ethiopia is spoken of in prophecy (Ps. 
68 : 31 ; 87 : 4 ; Isa. 45 : 14 ; Ezek. 30 : 4-9 ; 
Dan. 11:43; Nah. 3:8-10; Hab. 3:7; 
Zeph. 2 : 12). 

Ethio^pian eunuch, the chief officer or 
prime minister of state of Candace {q.v.), 
queen of Ethiopia. He was converted to 
Christianity through the instrumentality of 
Philip (Acts 8 : 27). The northern portion 
of Ethiopia formed the kingdom of Meroe, 
which for a long period was ruled over by 
queens, and it was probably from this 
kingdom that the eunuch came. 

Ethio'pian woman, the wife of Moses 
(Num. 12 : 1). It is supposed that Zip- 
porah, Moses' first wife (Ex. 2 : 21), was 
now dead. His marriage of this "woman" 
descended from Ham gave offence to Aaron 
and Miriam. 

Eu^nuch, literally bed-keeper or chamber- 
lain, and not necessarily in all cases one 
who was mutilated, although the practice 
of employing such mutilated persons in 
Oriental courts was common (2 Kings 
9:32; Esther 2:3). The law of Moses 
excluded them from the congregation 
(Deut. 23 : 1). They were common also 
among the Greeks and Romans. It is 
said that even to-day there are some in 
Rome who are employed in singing so- 
prano in the Sistine Chapel. 

Three classes of eunuchs are mentioned 
in Matt. 19 : 12. 

^nnVce— happily conquering— thenxotheT 
of Timothy, a believing Jewess, but mar- 
ried to a Greek (Acts 16 : 1). She trained 
her son from his childhood in the know- 
ledge of the Scriptures (2 Tim. 3 : 15). 
She was distinguished by her "unfeigned 
faith." 

Euo^dias — a good journey — a female 
member of the church at Philippi. She 
was one who laboured much with Paul in 
the gospel. He exhorts her to be of one 
mind with Syntyche (Phil. 4:2). From 
this it seems they had been at variance 
with each other. 



EUPHRATES 



241 



EUROCLYDON 



Euphra^tes. Hebrew, Perdth; Assyrian, 
Purcttj Persian cuneiform, Ufratush,whence 
Greek Euphrates, meaning "sweet water." 
The Assyrian name means "the stream," or 
"the great stream. " It is gener- 
ally called in the Bible simply 
"the river" (Ex. 23 : 31), or "the 
great river" (Deut. 1 : 7). 

The Euphrates is first men- 
tioned in Gen. 2 : 14 as one of the 
rivers of Paradise. It is next 
mentioned in connection with 
the covenant which God entered 
intowith Abraham (15 :18),when 
he promised to his descendants 
the land from the river of Egypt 
to the river Eui^hrates (comp. 
Deut. 11:24; Josh.l:4), a covenant 
promise afterwards fulfilled in 
the extended conquests of David 
(2 Sam. 8:2-14; 1 Chr. 18:3; 
1 Kings 4 : 24). It was then the 
boundary of the kingdom to the 
north-east. In the ancient his- 
tory of Assyria, and Babylon , and 
Egypt many events are recorded 
in which mention is made of the 
" great river." Just as the Nile 
represented in prophecy the 
power of Egypt, so the Euphra- 
tes represented the Assyrian 
power (Isa. 8:7; Jer. 2:18). 

It is by far the largest and 
most important of all the rivers 
of Western Asia. From its 
source in the Armenian moun- 
tains to the Persian Gulf, into 
which it empties itself, it has a 
course of about 1,700 miles. It 
has two sources— (1) the Frat or 
Kara su {i.e., "the black river"), 
which rises 25 miles north-east 
of Erzeroum; and(2)theil£wrac?- 
chai {i.e., "the river of desire"), 
which rises near Ararat, on the 
northern slope of Ala tagh. At 
Kebban Maden, 400 miles from 
the source of the former, and 270 from that 
of the latter, they meet and form the ma- 
jestic stream, which is at length joined by 
the Tigris at Koornah, after which it is 
called Shat-el-Arab,wh.ich. runs in a deep and 



broad stream for above 140 miles to the sea. 
It is estimated that the alluvium brought 
down by these rivers encroaches on the sea 
at the rate of about one mile in thirty years. 



IM^laiia- 




MAP SHOWING COURSE OF EUPHRATES. 

Euroc'lydon — south-east hilloio — the 
name of the wind which blew in the Ad- 
riatic Gulf, and which struck the ship in 
which Paul was wrecked on the coast of 
Malta (Acts 27:14; R.V., "Euraquilo," 



EUTYCHUS 



242 



EXAMPLE 



i.e., north-east wind). It is called a 
" tempestuous wind," i.e., as literally ren- 
dered, a " typhonic wind," or a typhoon. 
It is the modern Gregalia or Levanter. 
(Comp. Jonah 1:4.) 

Hn'tychus— fortunate— {Acts 20 : 9-12), 
a young man of Troas who fell through 
drowsiness from the open window of the 
third floor of the house where Paul was 
preaching, and was " taken up dead." 
The lattice -work of the window being 
open to admit the air, the lad fell out and 
down to the court below. Paul restored 
him to Hfe again. (Comp. 1 Kings 17 : 21 ; 
2 Kings 4:34.) 

Evan'gelist, a "publisher of glad tid- 
ings ; " a missionary preacher of the gospel 
(Eph. 4:11). This title is applied to 
Philip (Acts 21 : 8), who appears to have 
gone from city to city preaching the word 
(8:4, 40). Judging from the case of 
Philip, evangelists had neither the author- 
ity of an apostle, nor the gift of prophecy, 
nor the responsibility of pastoral super- 
vision over a portion of the flock. They 
were itinerant preachers, having it as their 
special function to carry the gospel to 
places where it was previously unknown. 
The writers of the four Gospels are known 
as the Evangelists. 

Eve — life; living — the name given by 
Adam to his wife (Gen. 3 : 20 ; 4 : 1). The 
account of her creation is given in Gen. 2 : 
21, 22. The Creator, by declaring that it 
was not good for man to be alone, and by 
creating for him a suitable companion, gave 
sanction to monogamy. The commentator 
Matthew Henry says: "This companion 
was taken from his side to signify that 
she was to be dear unto him as his own 
flesh. Not from his head, lest she should 
rule over him ; nor from his feet, lest he 
should tyrannize over her ; but from his 
side, to denote that species of equality which 
is to subsist in the marriage state." And 
again, "That wife that is of God's making 
by special grace, and of God's bringing by 
special providence, is likely to prove a help- 
meet to her husband. " Through the subtle 
temptation of the serpent she violated the 
commandment of God by taking of the for- 
bidden fruit, which she gave also tmto her 



husband (1 Tim. 2 : 13-15 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 3). 
When she gave birth to her first son, she 
said, "I have gotten a man from the Lord" 
(R.Y., "I have gotten a man with the help 
of the Lord, " Gen. 4 : 1). Thus she welcomed 
Cain, as some think, as if he had been the 
Promised One, the " Seed of the woman." 

E^vening, the period following sunset 
with which the Jewish day began (Gen. 
1:5; Mark 13 : 35). The Hebrews reckoned 
two evenings of each day, as appears from 
Ex. 16:12; 30:8; 12:6 (marg.); Lev. 23:5 
(marg. E,. V., "between the two evenings"). 
The "first evening" was that period when 
the sun was verging towards setting, and 
the "second evening" the moment of ac- 
tual sunset. 

The word " evenings " in Jer. 5 : 6 should 
be "deserts" (marg. R.V.). 

Everlasting = eternal, applied to God 
(Gen. 21:33; Deut. 33:27; Ps. 41:13; 
90:2). We also read of the "everlasting 
hills" (Gen. 49:26) ; an "everlasting priest- 
hood" (Ex. 40:15; Num. 25:13). (See 
Eternal.) 

Evil eye (Prov. 23 : 6), figuratively, the 
envious or covetous. (Comp. Deut. 15 : 9 ; 
Matt. 20:15.) 

E''vil-iner'odach—ilf erorfacA's man— the 
son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar, king 
of Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 27 ; Jer. 52 : 31, 34). 
He seems to have reigned but two years 
(B.C. 561-559). Influenced probably by 
Daniel, he showed kindness to Jehoiachin, 
who had been a prisoner in Babylon for 
thirty-seven years. He released him, and 
"spoke kindly to him." He was mur- 
dered by Nergal-sharezer=Neriglissar, his 
brother-in-law, who succeeded him (Jer. 
39 : 3, 13). 

Evil-speaking is expressly forbidden 
(Titus 3:2; James 4 : 11), and severe pun- 
ishments are denounced against it (1 Cor. 
5:11; 6:10). It is spoken of also with 
abhorrence (Ps. 15 : 3 ; Prov. 18 : 6, 7), and 
is foreign to the whole Christian character 
and the example of Christ. 

Example, of Christ (1 Pet. 2 : 21 ; John 
13 : 15) ; of pastors to their flocks (Phil. 3: 
17; 2Thess.3:9; lTim.4:12; lPet.5:3); 
of the Jews as a warning (Heb. 4 : 11) ; of the 
prophets as suffering afiliction (James 5 : 10). 



EXECUTIONER 



243 



EXODUS 



Execu'tioner (Mark 6 : 27). Instead of 
the Greek word, Mark here uses a Latin 
word, speculator, which literally means "a 
scout," "a spy," and at length came to de- 
note one of the armed bodyguard of the 
emperor. Herod Antipas, in imitation of 
the emperor, had in attendance on him a 
company of speculatores. They were some- 
times employed as executioners, but this 
was a mere accident of their office. (See 
Mark, Gospel of. ) 

Exercise, bodily (1 Tim. 4 : 8). An as- 
cetic mortification of the flesh and denial 
of personal gratification (comp. Col. 2 : 23) 
to which some sects of the Jews, especially 
the Essenes, attached importance. 

Exile. (1.) Of the kingdom of Israel. In 
the time of Pekah, Tiglath-pileser II. car- 
ried away captive into Assyria (2 Kings 
15 : 29 ; comp. Isa. 10 : 5, 6) a part of the in- 
habitants of Galilee and of Gilead (b.c. 
741). 

After the destruction of Samaria (b.c. 
720) by Shalmaneser and Sargon {q.v.), 
there was a general deportation of the 
Israelites into Mesopotamia and Media 
(2 Kings 17 : 6 ; 18 : 9 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 26). (See 
IsEAEL, Kingdom of.) 

(2.) Of the kingdom of the two tribes — 
the kingdom of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar, 
in the fourth year of Jehoiakim ( Jer. 25 : 1), 
invaded Judah, and carried away some 
royal youths, including Daniel and his 
companions (B.C. 606), together with the 
sacred vessels of the temple (2 Chr. 36 : 7 ; 
Dan. 1 : 2). In B.C. 598 (Jer. 52 : 28 ; 2 Kings 
24 : 12), in the beginning of Jehoiachin's 
reign (2 Kings 24 : 8), Nebuchadnezzar car- 
ried away captive 3,023 eminent Jews, in- 
cluding the king (2 Chr. 36 : 10), with his 
family and officers (2 Kings 24 : 12), and a 
large number of warriors (16), with very 
many persons of note (14), and artisans (16), 
leaving behind only those who were poor 
and helpless. This was the first general 
deportation to Babylon. 

In B.C. 588, after the revolt of Zedekiah 
{q.v.), there was a second general deporta- 
tion of Jews by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. .52 : 
29 ; 2 Kings 25 : 8), including 832 more of 
the principal men of the kingdom. He 
carried away also the rest of the sacred 



vessels (2 Chr. 36 : 18). From this period, 
when the temple was destroyed (2 Kings 
25 : 9), to the comiolete restoration, B.C. 517 
(Ezra 6 : 15), is the period of the "seventy 
years." 

In B.C. 582 occurred the last and final de- 
portation. The entire number Nebuchad- 
nezzar carried captive was 14,000 heads of 
families with their wives and children and 
dependants (Jer. 52 : 30 ; 43 : 5-7 ; 2 Chr. 
36 : 20, etc. ). Thus the exiles formed a very 
considerable community in Babylon. 

When Cyrus granted permission to the 
Jews to return to their own land (Ezra 1:5; 
7 : 13), only a comparatively small number 
at first availed themselves of the privilege. 
It cannot be questioned that many belong- 
ing to the kingdom of Israel ultimately 
joined the Jews under Ezra, Zerubbabel, and 
Nehemiah, and returned along with them 
to Jerusalem (Jer. 50 : 4, 5, 17-20, 33-35). 

Large numbers had, however, settled in 
the land of Babylon, and formed numer- 
ous colonies in different parts of the king- 
dom. Their descendants very probably 
have spread far into Eastern lands and 
become absorbed in the general population. 
(See Judah, Kingdom of ; Captivity.) 

Ex^odus, the great deliverance wrought 
for the children of Israel when they were 
brought out of the land of Egypt with "a 
mighty hand and a stretched oiit arm " (Ex. 
12 : 51 ; Deut. 26 : 8 ; Ps. 114 ; 136), about 
B.C. 1490, and four himdred and eighty 
years (1 Kings 6:1) before the building of 
Solomon's temple. 

The time of their sojourning in Egypt 
was, according to Ex. 12 : 40, the space of 
four hundred and thirty years. In the 
LXX., the words are, "The sojourning of 
the children of Israel which they sojourned 
in Egypt and in the land of Canaan was 
four hvmdred and thirty years ; " and the 
Samaritan version reads, " The sojourning 
of the children of Israel and of their fathers 
which they sojourned in the land of Canaan 
and in the land of Egypt was four hundred 
and thirty years. " In Gen. 15 : 13-16, the 
period is prophetically given (in round 
numbers) as four hundred years. This 
passage is quoted by Stephen in his defence 
before the council (Acts 7:6). 



EXODUS 



244 



EXODUS 



The chronology of the "sojourning" is 
variously estimated. Those who adopt the 
longer term reckon thus : — 

Years. 
From the descent of Jacob into Egypt to the 

death of Joseph 71 

From the death of Joseph to the birth of 

Moses 278 

From the birth of Moses to his flight into 

Midian 40 

From the flight of Moses to his return into 

Egypt 40 

From the return of Moses to the Exodus 1 

430 

Others contend for the shorter period of 
two hundred and fifteen years, holding 
that the period of four hundred and thirty 
years comprehends the years from the en- 
trance of Abraham into Canaan (see LXX. 
and Samaritan) to the descent of Jacob 
into Egypt. They reckon thus : — 

Years. 
From Abraham's arrival in Canaan to Isaac's 

birth 25 

From Isaac's birth to that of his twin sons 

Esau and Jacob 60 

From Jacob's birth to the going down into 

Egypt 130 

215 
From Jacob's going down into Egypt to the 

death of Joseph 71 

From death of Joseph to the birth of Moses. . 64 
From birth of Moses to the Exodus 80 

In all.... 430 

During the forty years of Moses' sojourn 
in the land of Midian, the Hebrews in 
Egypt were being gradually prepared for 
the great national crisis which was ap- 
proaching. The iplagues that successively 
fell upon the land loosened the bonds by 
which Pharaoh held them in slavery, and 
at length he was eager that they should 
depart. But the Hebrews must now also 
be ready to go. They were poor ; for gen- 
erations they had laboured for the Egyp- 
tians without wages. They asked gifts 
from their neighbours around them (Ex. 
12 : 35), and these were readily bestowed. 
And then, as the first step towards their 
independent national organization, they 
observed the feast of the Passover, which 
was now instituted as a perpetual memorial. 



The blood of the paschal lamb was duly 
sprinkled on the door-posts and lintels of 
all their houses, and they were all within, 
waiting the next movement in the working 
out of God's plan. At length the last stroke 
fell on the land of Egypt. "It came to 
pass, that at midnight Jehovah smote all 
the firstborn in the land of Egypt.'' Pha- 
raoh rose up in the night, and called for 
Moses and Aaron by night, and said, 
"Rise up, get you forth from among my 
people, both ye and the children of Israel ; 
and go, serve Jehovah, as ye have said. 
And take your flocks and your herds, as ye 
have said, and be gone ; and bless me also. ' 
Thus was Pharaoh {q.v.) completely hum- 
bled and broken down. These words he 
spoke to Moses and Aaron ' ' seem to gleam 
through the tears of the humbled king, as 
he lamented his son snatched from him by 
so sudden a death, and tremble with a sense 
of the helplessness which -his proud soul at 
last felt when the avenging hand of God 
had visited even his palace. " 

The terror-stricken Egyptians now urged 
the instant departure of the Hebrews. In 
the midst of the Passover feast, before the 
dawn of the 15th day of the month Abib 
(our April nearly), which was to be to them 
henceforth the beginning of the year, as it 
was the commencement of a new epoch in 
their history, every family, with all that 
appertained to it, was ready for the march, 
which instantly began under the leadership 
of the heads of tribes with their various sub- 
divisions. They moved onward, increasing 
as they went forward from all the districts 
of Goshen, over the whole of which they 
were scattered, to the common centre. 
Three or four days perhaps elapsed before 
the whole body of the people were assem- 
bled at Rameses, and ready to set out un- 
der their leader Moses (Ex. 12 : 37 ; Num. 
33 : 3). This city was at that time the resi- 
dence of the Egyptian court, and here the 
interviews between Moses and Pharaoh had 
taken place. 

Erom Rameses they journeyed to Suc- 
coth (Ex. 12 : 37), which has been identified 
with Tel-Defneh, to the south-east of Rame- 
ses. Their third station was Etham {q.v.) 
— 13 : 20 — " in the edge of the wilderness," 



EXODUS 



245 



EXQPUS 



identified by some with el-Kantara, on the 
line of the Suez Canal, some 11 miles east 
of Tel-Defneh. Here they were commanded 
"to turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, 
between Migdol and the sea" — i.e., to 
change their route from east to due south. 
The Lord now assumed the direction of 
their march in the pillar of cloud by day 
and of fire by night. They were then led 
along the west shore of the Red Sea till 
they came to an extensive camping-ground 
' ' before Pi-hahiroth, " about 40 miles from 
Etham. This distance from Etham may 
have taken three days to traverse, for the 
number of camping-places by no means in- 
dicates the number of days spent on the 
journey: e.g., it took fully a month to 
travel from Rameses to the wilderness of 
Sin (Ex. 16 : 1), yet reference is made to 
only six camping-places during all that 
time- The exact spot of their encampment 
before they crossed the Red Sea cannot be 
deterrained. It was probably somewhere 
near the present site of Suez. 

Under the direction of God the children 
of Israel went " forward " from the camp 
"before Pi-hahiroth," and the sea opened 
a pathway for them, so that they crossed 
to the farther shore in safety. The Egyp- 
tian host pursued after them, and, attempt- 
ing to follow through the sea, were over- 
whelmed in its returning waters, and thus 
the whole military force of the Egyptians 
perished. They "sank Hke lead in the 
mighty waters " (Ex. 15 : 1-19 ; comp. Ps. 
77 : 16-19). 

Having reached the eastern shore of the 
sea, perhaps a little way to the north of 
^Aylin Musa ("the springs of Moses"), 
there they encami^ed and rested probably 
for a day. Here Miriam and the other 
women sang the triumphal song recorded 
in Ex. 15 : 1-21. 

From 'Ayun Musa they went on for three 
days through a part of the barren ' ' wilder- 
ness of Shur" (22), called also the "wilder- 
ness of Etham " (Num. 33 : 8 ; comp. Ex. 
13 : 20), without finding water. On the last 
of these days they came to Marah (q.v.), 
where the "bitter" water was by a miracle 
made drinkable. 

Their next camping-place was Elim {q.v. ), 



where were twelve springs of water and a 
grove of "threescore and ten "palm trees 
(Ex. 15 : 27). 

After a time the children of Israel ' ' took 
their journey from Elim," and encamped 
by the Red Sea (Num. 33 : 10), and thence 
removed to the "wilderness of Sin " (to be 
distinguished from the wilderness of Zin, 
20 : 1), where they again encamped. Here, 
probably the modern el-Markha, the sup- 
ply of bread they had brought with them 
out of Egypt failed. They began to "mur- 
mur" for want of bread. God "heard 
their murmurings" and gave them quails 
and manna, "bread from heaven" (Ex. 
16 : 4-36). Moses directed that an omer of 
manna should be put aside and preserved 
as a perpetual memorial of God's goodness. 
They now turned inland, and after three 
encamj)ments came to the rich and fertile 
valley of Rephidim, in the Wady Feiran. 
Here they found no water, and again mur- 
mured against Moses. Directed by God, 
Moses prociired a miraculous supply of 
water from the "rock in Horeb," one of 
the hills of the Sinai group (17 : 1-7) ; and 
shortly afterwards the children of Israel 
here fought their first battle with the 
Amalekites, whom they smote with the 
edge of the sword. 

Erom the eastern extremity of the WMy 
Eeiran the line of march now probably led 
through the Wady esh-Sheikh and the Wady 
Solaf, meeting in the Wady er-Rahah, "the 
enclosed plain in front of the magnificent 
cliffs of Ras Sufsafeh." Here they en- 
camped for more than a year (Num. 1:1; 
10 : 11) before Sinai [q.v.). 

The different encampments of the chil- 
dren of Israel, from the time of their leav- 
ing Egypt till they reached the Promised 
Land, are mentioned in Ex. 12 : 37-19 ; 
Num. 10-21 ; 33 ; Dent. 1, 2, 10. 

It is worthy of notice that there are un- 
mistakable evidences that the Egj^Dtians 
had a tradition of a great exodus from their 
country, which could be none other than the 
exodus of the Hebrews. (See Map, p. 198.) 

Ex^odus, Book of. Exodus is the name 
given in the LXX. to the second book of 
the Pentateuch {q.v.). It means "depar- 
ture" or "outgoing." This name was 



EXORCIST 



246 



EZEKIEL 



adopted in the Latin translation, and thence 
passed into other languages. The Hebrews 
called it by the first words, according to 
their custom, Ve-eleh shemdth {i.e., "and 
these are the names "). 

It contains — (1.) An account of the in- 
crease and growth of the Israelites in Egyj^t 
(ch, 1), (2.) Preparations for their depart- 
ure out of Egypt (2-12:36). (3.) Their 
journey ings from Egypt to Sinai (12 : 37- 
19 : 2). (4.) The giving of the law and the 
establishment of the institutions by which 
the organization of the people was com- 
pleted — the theocracy, "a kingdom of 
priests and an holy nation " (19 : 3-ch. 40). 

The time comprised in this book, from 
the death of Joseph to the erection of the 
tabernacle in the wilderness, is about one 
hundred and forty-five years, on the sup- 
position that the four hundred and thirty 
years (12 : 40) are to be computed from the 
time of the promises made to Abraham 
(Gal. 3 : 17). 

The authorship of this book, as well as of 
that of the other books of the Pentateuch, 
is to be ascribed to Moses. The unanimous 
voice of tradition and all internal evidences 
abundantly support this opinion. 

Exor^cist (Acts 19 : 13). " In that scep- 
tical and therefore superstitious age pro- 
fessional exorcists abounded. Many of 
these professional exorcists were disreput- 
able Jews, like Simon in Samaria and 
Elymas in Cyprus (8:9; 13:6)." Other 
references to exorcism as practised by the 
Jews are found in Matt. 12 : 27 ; Mark 9 : 
38 ; Luke 9 : 49, 50. It would seem that it 
was an opinion among the Jews that mira- 
cles might be wrought by invoking the 
divine name. Thus also these "vagabond 
Jews" pretended that they could expel 
daemons. 

The power of casting out devils was con- 
ferred by Christ on his apostles (Matt. 10 : 
8), and on the seventy (Luke 10:17-19), 
and was exercised by believers after his 
ascension (Mark 16 : 17 ; Acts 16 : 18) ; but 
this power was never spoken of as exor- 
cism. 

Expia'tion. Guilt is said to be expiated 
when it is visited with punishment falling 
on a substitute. Expiation is made for our 



sins when they are punished not in our- 
selves but in another who consents to stand 
in our room. It is that by which recon- 
ciliation is effected. Sin is thus said to be 
"covered" by vicarious satisfaction. 

The cover or lid of the ark is termed in 
the LXX. hilasterion, that which covered 
or shut out the claims and demands of the 
law against the sins of God's people, where- 
by he became ' ' propitious " to them. 

The idea of vicarious expiation runs 
through the whole Old Testament system 
of sacrifices. (See Pkopitiation. ) 

Eye (Heb. 'ain, meaning "flowing"), 
applied ( 1 ) to a fountain, frequently ; 
(2) to colour (Num. 11:7; E-.V., "appear- 
ance," marg. " eye ") ; (3) the face (Ex. 10: 
5, 15 ; Num. 22 : 5, 11), in Num. 14 : 14, 
"face to face" (R.V. marg., "eye to eye"). 
"Between the eyes" — i.e., the forehead 
(Ex. 13 : 9, 16). 

The expression (Pro v. 23:31), "when it 
giveth his colour in the cup," is literally, 
"when it giveth out [or showeth] its eye." 
The beads or bubbles of wine are thus 
spoken of. "To set the eyes " on any one 
is to view him with favour (Gen. 44 : 21 ; 
Job 24 : 23 ; Jer. 39 : 12). This word is used 
figuratively in the expressions an "evil 
eye" (Matt. 20:15), a "bountiful eye" 
(Prov. 22:9), " haughty eyes " (6:17 marg.), 
"wanton eyes" (Isa. 3:16), "eyes full of 
adultery" (2 Pet. 2:14), "the lust of the 
eyes " (1 John 2 : 16). Christians are warned 
against "eye-service" (Eph. 6:6; Col. 3: 
22). Men were sometimes punished by 
having their eyes put out (1 Sam. 11:2; 
Samson, Judg. 16 : 21 ; Zedekiah, 2 Kings 
25 : 7). 

The custom of painting the eyes is alluded 
to in 2 Kings 9 : 30, R. V. ; Jer. 4 : 30 ; Ezek. 
23 : 40, a custom which still prevails exten- 
sively among Eastern women. 

Ezeki^as, Grecized form of Hezekiah 
(Matt. 1 : 9, 10). 

Eze^kiel — God loill strengthen. (1.) 1 Chr. 
24:16, "Jehezekel." 

(2.) One of the great prophets, the son of 
Buzi the priest (Ezek. 1 : 3). He was one 
of the Jewish exiles who settled at Tel- 
Abib, on the banks of the Chebar, "in the 
land of the Chaldeans. " He was probably 



EZEKIEL 



247 



EZION-GEBER 



carried away captive with Jehoiachin (1:2; 
2 Kings 24:14-16) about B.C. 599. His 
prophetic call came to him "in the fifth 
year of Jehoiachin's captivity " (B.C. 594), 
He had a house in the place of his exile, where 
he lost his wife, in the ninth year of his 
exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke 
(Ezek. 8:1; 24 : 18). He held a prominent 
place among the exiles, and was frequently 
consulted by the elders (8:1; 11 : 25 ; 14 : 1 ; 
20 : 1). His ministry extended over twenty- 
three years (29 : 17), B.C. 595-573, during part 
of which he was contemporary with Daniel 
(14 : 14 ; 28 : 3) and Jeremiah, and probably 
also with Obadiah, The time and manner 
of his death are unknown. His reputed 
tomb is pointed out in the neighbourhood 
of Bagdad, at a place called Keffil. 

Eze'kiel, Book of, consists mainly of 
three groups of prophecies. After an ac- 
count of his call to the prophetical office 
(1-3:21), Ezekiel (1) utters words of de- 
nunciation against the Jews (3 : 22-24), 
warning them of the certain destruction of 
Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of 
the false prophets (4 : 1-3). The symbolical 
acts, by which the extremities to which 
Jerusalem would be reduced are described 
in ch. 4, 5, show his intimate acquaintance 
with the Levitical legislation. (See Ex. 
22:30; Deut. 14:21; Lev. 5 : 2 ; 7:18,24; 
17:15; 19:7; 22:8, etc.) 

(2.) Prophecies against various surround- 
ing nations : against the Ammonites (Ezek. 
25 : 1-7), the Moabites (8-11), the Edomites 
(12-14), the Philistines (15-17), Tyre and 
Sidon (26-28), and against Egypt (29-32). 

(3.) Prophecies delivered after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar : 
the triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom 
of God on earth (Ezek. 33-39) ; Messianic 
times, and the establishment and pros- 
perity of the kingdom of God (40 ; 48). 

The closing visions of this book are re- 
ferred to in the book of Revelation (Ezek. 
38=Rev. 20:8; Ezek. 47:l-8=Ilev. 22: 
1, 2). Other references to this book are also 
found in the New Testament. (Comp. Rom. 
2 : 24 with Ezek. 36 : 2 ; Rom. 10 : 5, Gal. 
3 : 12 with Ezek. 20 : 11 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 4 with 
Ezek. 12:22.) 

It may be noted that Daniel, fourteen 



years after his deportation from Jerusalem, 
is mentioned by Ezekiel (14 : 14) along with 
Noah and Job as distinguished for his right- 
eousness, and some five years later he is 
spoken of as pre-eminent for his wisdom 
(28 : 3). 

Ezekiel's prophecies are characterized by 
symbolical and allegorical representations, 
"unfolding a rich series of majestic visions 
and of colossal symbols." There are a great 
many also of "symbolical actions embody- 
ing vivid conceptions on the part of the 
prophet "(4: 1-4; 5:1-4; 12:3-6; 24:3-5; 
37 : 16, etc. ). " The mode of representation, 
in which symbols and allegories occupy a 
prominent place, gives a dark, mysterious 
character to the prophecies of Ezekiel. 
They are obscure and enigmatical. A 
cloudy mystery overhangs them which it 
is almost impossible to penetrate. Jerome 
calls the book 'a labyrinth of the mysteries 
of God. ' It was because of this obscurity 
that the Jews forbade any one to read it 
till he had attained the age of thirty. " 

Ezekiel is singular in the freqiiency with 
which he refers to the Pentateuch {e.g., 
Ezek. 27; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11,34; 47:13, 
etc. ). He shows also an acquaintance with 
the writings of Hosea (Ezek. 37 : 22), Isaiah 
(Ezek. 8 : 12 ; 29 : 6), and especially with 
those of Jeremiah, his older contemporary 
( Jer. 24 : 7, 9 ; 48 : 37). 

Ez^el — a separation — (1 Sam. 20 : 19), a 
stone, or heap of stones, in the neighbour- 
hood of Saul's residence, the scene of the 
parting of David and Jonathan (42). The 
margin of the Authorized Version reads, 
"The stone that sheweth the way," in this 
rendering following the Targum. 

Wzer — treasure. (1.) One of the sons of 
Seir, the native princes, "dukes," of Mount 
Hor (Gen. 36:21, 27). (2.) 1 Chr. 7:21; 
(3. ) 4 : 4. (4. ) One of the Gadite champions 
who repaired to David at Ziklag (12 : 9). 
(5.) A Levite (Neh. 3:19). (6.) A priest 
(12 : 42). 

E^zion-ge'toer — the gianfs backbone (so 
called from the head of a mountain which 
runs out into the sea) — an ancient city and 
harbour at the north-east end of the Elan- 
itic branch of the Red Sea, the Gulf of 
Akabah, near Elath or Eloth (Num. 33 : 35 ; 



EZRA 



248 



EZRA 



Deut. 2 : 8). Here Solomon built ships — 
"Tarshish ships," like those trading from 
TyretoTarshishand the west— which traded 
with Ophir (1 Kings 9 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 17) ; 
and here also Jehoshaphat's fleet was ship- 
wrecked (1 Kings 22 : 48 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 36). 
It became a populous town, many of the 
Jews settling in it (2 Kings 16 : 6, " Elath "). 
It is supposed that anciently the north end 
of the gulf flowed further into the country 
than now, as far as '^Ain el-Ghudydn, which 
is 10 miles up the dry bed of the Arabah, 
and that Ezion-geber may have been there. 

Ez'ra — help. (1.) A priest among those 
that returned to Jerusalem under Zerub- 
babel (Neh. 12 : 1). 

(2.) The "scribe" who led the second 
body of exiles that returned from Babylon 
to Jerusalem B.C. 459, and author of the 
book of Scripture which bears his name. 
He was the son, or perhaps grandson, of 
Seraiah (2 Kings 25 : 18-21), and a lineal 
descendant of Phinehas, the son of Aaron 
(Ezra 7 : 1-5). All we know of his personal 
history is contained in the last four chap- 
ters of his book, and in Neh. 8 and 12 : 26. 

In the seventh year of the reign of Artax- 
erxes Longimanus (see Daeius), he ob- 
tained leave to go up to Jerusalem and to 
take with him a company of Israelites 
(Ezra 8), Artaxerxes manifested great in- 
terest in Ezra's undertaking, granting him 
"all his request," and loading him with 
gifts for the house of God. Ezra assembled 
the band of exiles, probably about 5,000 in 
all, who were prepared to go up with him 
to Jerusalem, on the banks of the Ahava, 
where they rested for three days, and were 
put into order for their march across the 
desert, which was completed in four months. 
His proceedings at Jerusalem on his arrival 
there are recorded in his book. 

He was "a ready scribe in the law of 
Moses," who "had prepared his heart to 
seek the law of the Lord and to do it, and 
to teach in Israel statutes and judgments." 
"He is," says Professor Binnie, "the first 
well-defined example of an order of men 
who have never since ceased in the church ; 
men of sacred erudition, who devote their 
lives to the study of the Holy Scriptures, 
in order that they may be in a condition 



to interpret them for the instruction and 
edification of the church. It is significant 
that the earliest mention of the pulpit oc- 
curs in the history of Ezra's ministry (Neh. 
8 : 4). He was much more of a teacher than 
a priest. We learn from the account of his 
labours in the book of Nehemiah that he 
was careful to have the whole people in- 
structed in the law of Moses ; and there is 
no reason to reject the constant tradition 
of the Jews which connects his name with 
the collecting and editing of the Old Testa- 
ment canon. The final completion of the 
canon may have been, and probably was, 
the work of a later generation ; but Ezra 
seems to have put it much into the shape 
in which it is still found in the Hebrew 
Bible. When it is added that the com- 
plete organization of the synagogue dates 
from this period, it will be seen that the 
age was emphatically one of Biblical 
study" {The Psalms: their History, etc.). 

Eor about fourteen years — i.e., till B.C. 
445 — we have no record of what went on in 
Jerusalem after Ezra had set in order the 
ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the nation. 
In that year another distinguished person- 
age — Nehemiah — appears on the scene. 
After the ruined wall of the city had been 
built by Nehemiah, there was a great 
gathering of the people at J^usalem pre- 
paratory to the dedication of the wall. 
On the appointed day the whole popula- 
tion assembled, and the law was read aloud 
to them by Ezra and his assistants (Neh. 
8 : 3). The remarkable scene is described 
in detail. There was a great religious 
awakening. Eor successive days they held 
solemn assemblies, confessing their sins 
and offering up solemn sacrifices. They 
kept also the feast of Tabernacles with 
great solemnity and joyous enthusiasm, 
and then renewed their national covenant 
to be the Lord's. Abuses were rectified, 
and arrangements for the temple service 
completed, and now nothing remained but 
the dedication of the walls of the city 
(Neh. 12). 

Ez^ra, Book of. This book is the re- 
cord of events occurring at the close of the 
Babylonian exile. It was at one time in- 
cluded in Nehemiah, the Jews regarding 



EZRAHITE 



249 



FAIRS 



them as one volume. The two are still 
distinguished in the Vulgate version as I. 
and II. Esdras. It consists of two prin- 
cipal divisions : — 

(1.) The liistory of the first return of 
exiles, in the first year of Cyrus (B.C. 536), 
till the completion and dedication of the 
new temple, in the sixth year of Darius 
Hystaspes (b.c. 515) — ch. 1-6. From the 
close of the sixth to the opening of the 
seventh chapter there is a blank in the his- 
tory of about sixty years. 

(2.) The history of the second return 
under Ezra, in the seventh year of Artax- 
erxes Longimanus, and of the events that 
took place at Jerusalem after Ezra's arrival 
there (7-10). 

The book thus contains memorabilia con- 
nected with the Jews, from the decree of 



Cyrus (B.C. 536) to the reformation by 
Ezra (B.C. 456), extending over a period of 
about eighty years. 

There is no quotation from this book in 
the New Testament, but there never has 
been any doubt about its being canonical. 

Ezra was probably the author of this 
book, at least of the greater part of it 
(comp. 7 : 27, 28 ; 8:1, etc.), as he was also 
of the Books of Chronicles, the close of 
which forms the opening passage of Ezra. 

Ez^rahite, a title given to Ethan (1 
Kings 4 : 31 ; Ps. 89, title) and Heman (Ps. 
88, title). They were both sons of Zerah 
(1 Chr. 2 : 6). 

Ez^ri — help of Jehovah — the son of Che- 
lub. He superintended, under David, 
those who " did the work of the field for 
tillage" (1 Chr. 27:26). 



Fable, applied in the New Testament to 
the traditions and speculations — "cun- 
ningly devised fables " — of the Jews on re- 
ligious questions (1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; 2 
Tim. 4:4; Titus 1 : 14 ; 2 Pet. 1 : 16). In 
such passages the word means anything 
false and unreal. 

But the word is used as almost equiva- 
lent to parable. Thus we have (1) the 
fable of Jotham, in which the trees are 
spoken of as choosing a king (Judg. 
9 : 8-15) ; and (2) that of the cedars of 
Lebanon and the thistle as Jehoash's 
answer to Ajnaziah (2 Kings 14 : 9). 

Face means simply presence, as when 
it is recorded that Adam and Eve hid 
themselves from the "face [R.V., 'pres- 
ence'] of the Lord God" (Gen. 3:8; 
comp. Ex. 33 : 14, 1.5, where the same 
Hebrew word is rendered " presence "). 
The "light of God's countenance" is his 
favour (Ps. 44:3; Dan. 9:17). "Face" 
signifies also anger, justice, severity (Gen. 
16 : 6, 8 ; Ex. 2 : 15 ; Ps. 68 : 1 ; Rev. 6 : IC). 
To " provoke God to his face" (Isa. 65 : 3) 
is to sin against him openly. 

The Jews prayed with their faces toward 



the temple and Jerusalem (1 Kings 8 : 38, 
44, 48 ; Dan. 6 : 10). To " see God's face " 
is to have access to him and to enjoy his 
favour (Ps. 17:15; 27:8). This is the 
privilege of holy angels (Matt. 18 : 10 ; 
Luke 1 : 19). The " face of Jesus Christ " 
(2 Cor. 4:6) is the ofl&ce and person of 
Christ, the revealer of the glory of God 
(John 1 : 14, 18). 

Fair Havens, a harbour in the south of 
Crete, some 5 miles to the east of which 
was the town of Lasea (Acts 27 : 8). Here 
the ship of Alexandria in which Paul and 
his companions sailed was detained a con- 
siderable time waiting for a favourable 
wind. Contrary to Paul's advice, the 
master of the ship determined to prosecute 
the voyage, as the harbour was deemed 
incommodious for ^^^ntering in (9-12). The 
result was that, after a stormy voyage, the 
vessel was finally wrecked on the coast of 
Malta (27 : 40-44). 

Fairs (Heb. ""izabhonim), found seven 
times in Ezek. 27, and nowhere else. The 
Authorized "Version renders the word thus 
in all these instances, except in verse 33, 
where "wares" is used. The Revised 



FAITH 



250 



FAITH 



Version uniformly renders by "wares," 
which is the correct rendering of the 
Hebrew word. It never means " fairs " 
in the modern sense of the word. 

Faith. Faith is in general the persua- 
sion of the mind that a certain statement 
is true (Phil. 1 : 27 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 13). Its 
primary idea is trust. A thing is true, 
and therefore worthy of trust. It admits 
of many degrees up to full assurance of 
faith, in accordance with the evidence on 
which it rests. 

Faith is the result of teaching (Rom. 
10 : 14-17). Knowledge is an essential 
element in all faith, and is sometimes 
spoken of as an equivalent to faith (John 
10 : 38 ; 1 John 2 : 3). Yet the two are dis- 
tinguished in this respect, that faith in- 
cludes in it assent, which is an act of the 
will in addition to the act of the under- 
standing. Assent to the truth is of the 
essence of faith, and the ultimate ground 
on which our assent to any revealed truth 
rests is the veracity of God. 

Historical faith is the apprehension of 
and assent to certain statements which are 
regarded as mere facts of history. 

Temporary faith is that state of mind 
which is awakened in men [e.g., Felix) by 
the exhibition of the truth and by the in- 
fluence of religiovis sympathy, or by what 
is sometimes styled the common operation 
of the Holy Spirit. 

Saving faith is so called because it has 
eternal life inseparably connected with it. 
It cannot be better defined than in the 
words of the Assembly's Shorter Cate- 
chism : " Faith in Jesus Christ is a saving 
grace, whereby we receive and rest upon 
him alone for salvation, as he is offered to 
us in the gospel." 

The object of saving faith is the whole 
revealed Word of God. Faith accepts and 
believes it as the very truth most sure. 
But the special act of faith which unites to 
Christ has as its object the person and the 
work of the Lord Jesus Christ (John 7 : 38 ; 
Acts 16 : 31). This is the specific act of 
faith by which a sinner is justified before 
God (Rom. 3:22, 25; Gal. 2:16; Phil. 
3:9; John 3 : 16-36 ; Acts 10 : 43 ; 16 : 31). 
In this act of faith the believer appro- 



priates and rests on Christ alone as Media- 
tor in all his ofl&ces. 

This assent to or belief in the truth re- 
ceived upon the divine testimony has always 
associated with it a deep sense of sin, a 
distinct view of Christ, a consenting will, 
and a loving heart, together with a reliance 
on, a trusting in, or resting in Christ. 
It is that state of mind in which a poor 
sinner, conscious of his sin, flees from his 
guilty self to Christ his Saviour, and rolls 
over the burden of all his sins on him. It 
consists chiefly, not in the assent given to 
the testimony of God in his Word, but 
in embracing with fiducial reliance and 
trust the one only Saviour whom God re- 
veals. This trust and reliance is of the 
essence of faith. By faith the believer 
directly and immediately appropriates 
Christ as his own. Faith in its direct act 
makes Christ ours. It is not a work 
which God graciously accepts instead of 
perfect obedience, but is only the hand by 
which we take hold of the person and 
work of our Redeemer as the only ground 
of our salvation. 

Saving faith is a moral act, as it proceeds 
from a renewed will, and a renewed will is 
necessary to believing assent to the truth 
of God (1 Cor. 2 : 14 ; 2 Cor. 4 : 4). Faith, 
therefore, has its seat in the moral part of 
our nature fully as much as in the intel- 
lectual. The mind must first be enlight- 
ened by divine teaching (John 6 : 44 ; Acts 
13 : 48 ; 2 Cor. 4:6; Eph. 1 : 17, 18) before 
it can discern the things of the Spirit. 

Faith is necessary to our salvation (Mark 
16 : 16), not because there is any merit in 
it, but simply because it is the sinner's 
taking the place assigned him by God — his 
falling in with what God is doing. 

The loarrant or ground of faith is the 
divine testimony — not the reasonableness 
of what God says, but the simple fact that 
he says it. Faith rests immediately on, 
"Thus saith the Lord." But in order to 
this faith the veracity, sincerity, and truth 
of God must be owned and appreciated, to- 
gether with his unchangeableness. God's 
word encourages and emboldens the sinner 
personally to transact with Christ as God's 
gift, to close with him, embrace him, give 



FAITHFUL 



251 



FALL 



himself to Christ, and take Christ as his. 
That word comes with power, for it is the 
word of God who has revealed himself in 
his works, and especially in the cross. 
God is to be believed for his word's sake, 
but also for his name's sake. 

Faith in Christ secures for the believer 
freedom from condemnation, or justifica- 
tion before God ; a participation in the 
life that is in Christ — the divine life (John 
14 : 19 ; Rom. 6 : 4-10 ; Eph. 4 : 15, 16, etc. ) ; 
"peace with God " (Rom. 5:1); and sanc- 
tification (Acts 26 : 18 ; Gal. 5:6; Acts 
15 : 9). 

All who thus believe in Christ will cer- 
tainly be saved (John 6 : 37, 40 ; 10 : 27, 28 ; 
Rom. 8:1); they shall not perish, but have 
everlasting life. (See Assueance. ) 

Faithful, as a designation of Christians, 
means full of faith, trustful, and not 
simply trustworthy (Acts 10 : 45 ; 16 : 1 ; 2 
Cor. 6:15; Col. 1:2; 1 Tim. 4:3, 12; 
5 : 16 ; 6 : 2 ; Titus 1:6; Eph. 1 : 1 ; 1 Cor. 
4:17, etc.). 

It is used a,lso of God's word or covenant 
as true and to be trusted (Ps. 119 : 86 ; 138 ; 
Isa. 25:1; 1 Tim. 1:15; Rev. 21:5; 
22:6, etc.). 

Fall of man, an expression probably 
borrowed from the Apocryphal Book of 
Wisdom, to express the fact of the revolt 
of our first parents from God, and the con- 
sequent sin and misery in which they and 
all their posterity were involved. 

The history of the Fall is recorded in 
Gen. 2 and 3. That history is to be liter- 
ally interjDreted. It records facts which 
underlie the whole system of revealed 
truth. It is referred to by our Lord and 
his apostles not only as being true, but as 
furnishing the ground of all God's subse- 
quent dispensations and dealings with the 
children of men. The record of Adam's 
temptation and fall must be taken as a 
true historical account, if we are to under- 
stand the Bible at all as a revelation of 
God's purpose of mercy. 

The effects of this first sin upon our first 
parents themselves were (1) " shame, a 
sense of degradation and pollution; (2) 
dread of the displeasure of God, or a sense 
of guilt, and the consequent desire to hide 



from his presence. These effects were un- 
avoidable. They prove the loss not only 
of innocence but of original righteousness, 
and, with it, of the favour and fellowship of 
God. The state therefore to which Adam 
was reduced by his disobedience, so far as 
his subjective condition is concerned, was 
analogous to that of the fallen angels. 
He was entirely and absolutely ruined" 
(Hodge's Theology). 

But the unbelief and disobedience of our 
first parents brought not only on them- 
selves this misery and ruin, it entailed also 
the same sad consequences on aU their de- 
scendants. (1.) The guilt — i.e., hability to 
punishment— of that sin comes by imputa- 
tion upon all men, because all were repre- 
sented by Adam in the covenant of works 
iq.v.). 

(2.) Hence, also, all his descendants in- 
herit a corrupt nature. In all by nature 
there is an inherent and prevailing tend- 
ency to sin. This universal depravity is 
taught by universal experience. All men 
sin as soon as they are capable of moral 
actions. The testimony of the Scriptures 
to the same effect is most abundant (Rom. 
1; 2; 3:1-19, etc.). 

(3.) This innate depravity is total: we 
are by nature "dead in trespasses and sins," 
and must be "born again" before we can 
enter into the kingdom (John 3 : 7, etc. ). 

(4. ) Resulting from this ' ' corruption of 
our whole nature" is our absolute moral 
inability to change our nature or to obey 
the law of. God. 

Commenting on John 9 : 3, Ryle well re- 
marks : "A deep and instructive prin- 
ciple lies in these words. They surely 
throw some light on that great question — 
the origin of evil. God has thought fit to 
allow evil to exist in order that he may 
have a platform for showing his mercy, 
grace, and compassion. If man had never 
fallen there would have been no oppor- 
tunity of showing divine mercy. But by 
permitting evil, mysterious as it seems, 
God's works of grace, mercy, and wisdom 
in saving sinners have been wonderfully 
manifested to all his creatures. The re- 
deeming of the church of elect sinners is 
the means of ' showing to principalities 



FALLOW 



252 



FAMINE 



and powers the manifold wisdom of God ' 
(Eph. 3 : 10). Without the Fall we should 
have known nothing of the Cross and the 
Gospel." 

On the monuments of Egypt are found 
representations of a deity in human form, 
piercing with a spear the head of a serpent. 
This is regarded as an illustration of the 
wide dissemination of the tradition of the 
Fall. The story of the "golden age," 
which gives place to the "iron age" — the 
age of purity and innocence, which is fol- 
lowed by a time when man becomes a prey 
to sin and misery, as represented in the 
mythology of Greece and Rome, has also 
been regarded as a tradition of the Fall. 

Fallow-deer— Deut. 14 : 5 (R. V., " wild 
goat"); 1 Kings 4 : 23 (R.V., "roebucks "). 
This animal, called in Hebrew yalimUr, 
from a word meaning "to be red," is gen- 
erally regarded as the common fallow-deer 




FALLOW-DEER. 

— the Cervus dama — which is said to be 
found very generally over Western and 
Southern Asia. It is called "fallow" from 
its pale-red or yellow colour. Some inter- 
preters, however, regard the name as desig- 
nating the hvihsile— Antelope bubalus (the 
"wild cow" of North Africa)— which is 
about the size of a stag, like the harte- 
beest of South Africa. A species of deer 
has been found at Mount Carmel which is 
called yahmUr by the Arabs. It is said 
to be very similar to the European roe- 
buck. 
Fallow-ground. The expression ' ' Break 



up your fallow ground " (Hos. 10 : 12 ; Jer. 
4:3) means, "Do not sow your seed among 
thorns" — i.e., break off all your evil habits ; 
clear your hearts of weeds, in order that 
they may be prepared for the seed of right- 
eousness. Land was allowed to lie fallow 
that it might become more fruitful; but 
when in this condition, it soon became 
overgrown with thorns and weeds. The 
cultivator of the soil was careful to ' ' break 
up" his fallow ground — i.e., to clear the 
field of weeds — before sowing seed in it. 
So says the prophet, " Break off your evil 
ways — repent of your sins — cease to do evil, 
and then the good seed of the word will 
have room to grow and bear fruit. " 

Familiar spirit. Sorcerers or necro- 
mancers, who professed to call up the dead 
to answer questions, were said to have a 
"familiar spirit" (Deut. 18:11; 2 Kings 
21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6; Lev. 19:31; 20:6; Isa. 
8 : 19 ; 29 : 4). Such a person was called by 
the Hebrews an 'o6, which properly means 
a leathern bottle ; for sorcerers were re- 
garded as vessels containing the inspiring 
dcemon. This Hebrew word was equiv- 
alent to the pytho of the Greeks, and was 
used to denote both the person and the 
spirit which possessed him (Lev, 20 : 27 ; 
1 Sam. 28:8; comp. Acts 16:16). The 
word "familiar" is from the Latin famili- 
aris, meaning a "household servant," and 
was intended to express the idea that sor- 
cerers had spirits as their servants ready 
to obey their commands. 

Fam'ine. The first mentioned in Scrip- 
ture was so grievous as to compel Abraham 
to go down to the land of Egypt (Gen. 
26 : 1). Another is mentioned as having 
occurred in the days of Isaac, causing him 
to go to Gerar (Gen. 26 : 1, 17). But the 
most remarkable of all was that which 
arose in Egypt in the days of Joseph, 
which lasted for seven years (Gen. 41-45). 

Famines were sent as an effect of God's 
anger against a guilty people (2 Kings 
8:1, 2 ; Amos 8 : 11 ; Deut. 28 : 22-42 ; 2 
Sam. 21 : 1 ; 2 Kings 6 : 25-28 ; 25 : 3 ; Jer. 
14 : 15 ; 19 : 9 ; 42 : 17, etc.). A famine was 
predicted by Agabus (Acts 11 : 28). Jose- 
phus makes mention of the famine which 
occurred A.D. 45. Helena, queen of Adia- 



FAN 



253 



FAST 



bene, being at Jerusalem at that time, 
procured corn from Alexandria and figs 
from Cyprus for its poor inhabitants. 

Fan, a winnowing shovel by which grain 
was thrown up against the wind that it 
might be cleansed from broken straw and 
chaff (Isa. 30 : 24 ; Jer. 15 : 7 ; Matt. 3 : 12). 
(See Agkicultuke. ) 

Farm (Matt. 22 : 5). Every Hebrew 
had a certain portion of land assigned to 
him as a possession (Num. 26 : 33-56). In 
Egypt the lands all belonged to the king, 
and the husbandmen were obliged to give 
him a fifth part of the produce ; so in Pal- 
estine Jehovah was the sole possessor of 
the soil, and the people held it by direct 
tenure from him. By the enactment of 
Moses, the Hebrews paid a tithe of the 
produce to Jehovah, which was assigned 
to the priesthood. Military service when 
required was also to be rendered by every 
Hebrew at his own expense. The occupa- 
tion of a husbandman was held in high 
honour (1 Sam. 11 : 5-7 ; 1 Kings 19 : 19 ; 
2 Chr. 26 : 10). (See Laijd Laws ; Tithe. ) 

Farthing. (1.) Matt. 10:29; Luke 
12:6. Greek assarion — i.e., a small as, 
which was a Roman coin equal to a tenth 




ASSARION. 

(From a spechneii in the British Museinn.) 

of a denarius or drachma, nearly equal to a 
halfpenny of our money. 

(2.) Matt. 5:26; Mark 12:42 (Gr. Tcod- 
Tantes), the quadrant, the fourth of an as. 




KODRANTES. 

(From DeSaulcy's " Nutnismatique Juddique.") 

equal to two leipta, mites. The Upton 
(mite) was the very smallest copper coin. 



Fast. The sole fast required by the law 
of Moses was that of the great Day of 
Atonement {q.v.) — Lev. 23:26-32. It is 
called " the fast" (Acts 27 : 9). 

The only other mention of a periodical 
fast in the Old Testament is in Zech. 
7 : 1-7 ; 8 : 19, from which it appears that 
during their captivity the Jews observed 
four annual fasts. 

(1.) The fast of the fourth month, kept 
on the seventeenth day of Tammuz, the 
anniversary of the capture of Jerusalem 
by the Chaldeans ; to commemorate also 
the incident recorded Ex. 32 : 19. (Comp. 
Jer. 52: 6, 7.) 

(2.) The fast of the fifth month, kept on 
the ninth of Ab (comp. Num. 14 : 27), to 
commemorate the burning of the city and 
temple (Jer. 52 : 12, 13). 

(3. ) The fast of the seventh month, kept 
on the third of Tisri (comp. 2 Kings 25), 
the anniversary of the murder of Gedaliah 
(Jer. 41 : 1, 2). 

(4.) The fast of the tenth month (comp. 
Jer. 52 : 4 ; Ezek. 33 : 21 ; 2 Kings 25 : 1), 
to commemorate the beginning of the siege 
of the holy city by Nebuchadnezzar. 

There was in addition to these the fast 
appointed by Esther (4 : 16). 

Public national fasts on account of sin 
or to supplicate divine favour were some- 
times held. (L) 1 Sam. 7:6; (2.) 2 Chr. 
20 : 3 ; (3.) Jer. 36 : 6-10 ; (4.) Neh. 9 : 1. 

There were also local fasts. (1.) Judg. 
20:26; (2.) 2 Sam. 1:12; (3.) 1 Sam. 
31:13; (4.) 1 Kings 21:9-12; (5.) Ezra 
8:21-23; (6. ) Jonah 3 : 5-9. 

There are many instances of private 
occasional fasting (1 Sam. 1:7; 2Q : 34 ; 
2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16; 1 Kings 21:27; 
Ezra 10 : 6 ; Neh. 1:4; Dan. 10 : 2, 3). Moses 
fasted forty days (Ex. 24 : 18 ; 34 : 28), and 
so |lso did Elijah (1 Kings 19 : 8). Our 
Lord fasted forty days in the wilderness 
(Matt. 4 : 2). 

In the lapse of time the practice of fast- 
ing was lamentably abused (Isa. 58 : 4 ; 
Jer. 14:12; Zech. 7:5). Our Lord re- 
buked the Pharisees for their hypocritical 
pretences in fasting (Matt. 6 : 16). He him- 
self appointed no fast. The early Chris- 
tians, however, observed the ordinary fasts 



FAT 



254 



FEAST 



according to the law of their fathers (Acts 
13 : 3 ; 14 : 23 ; 2 Cor. 6 : 5). 

Fat (Heb. heleh) denotes the richest part 
of the animal, or the fattest of the flock, in 
the account of Abel's sacrifice (Gen. 4 : 4). 
It sometimes denotes the best of any pro- 
duction (Gen. 45:18; Num. 18:12; Ps. 
81 : 16 ; 147 : 14). The fat of sacrifices was to 
be burned (Lev. 3 : 9-11 ;4:8;7:3;8:25; 
Num. 18 : 17. Comp. Ex. 29 : 13-22 ; Lev. 
3 : 3-5). 

It is used figuratively for a dull, stupid 
state of mind (Ps. 17 : 10). 

In Joel 2 : 24 the word is equivalent to 
"vat," a vessel. The Hebrew word here 
thus rendered is elsewhere rendered "wine- 
fat" and "press-fat" (Hag. 2:16; Isa. 
63 : 2). 

Father, a name applied (1) to any an- 
cestor (Deut. 1 : 11 ; 1 Kings 15 : 11 ; Matt. 
3:9; 23:30, etc.); and (2) as a title of 
respect to a chief, ruler, or elder, etc. 
(Judg. 17:10; 18:19; 1 Sam. 10:12; 
2 Kings 2 : 12 ; Matt. 23 : 9, etc.). (3) The 
author or beginner of anything is also so 
called; e.g., Jabal and Jubal (Gen. 4:20, 
21 ; comp. Job 38 : 28). 

Applied to God (Ex. 4 : 22 ; Deut. 32 : 6 ; 
2 Sam. 7 : 14 ; Ps. 89 : 27, 28, etc.). (1.) As 
denoting his covenant relation to the Jews 
(Jer. 31 : 9; Isa. 63 : 16 ; 64 : 8 ; John 8 : 41, 
etc.). 

(2.) Believers are called God's "sons" 
(John 1:12; Rom. 8:16; Matt. 6:4, 8, 
15, 18; 10:20, 29). They also call him 
" Father " (Eom. 1 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 3 ; 2 Cor. 
1:2; Gal. 1 : 4). 

Fathom (Acts 27 : 28. Gr. orguia, from 
orego, "I stretch," and hence denoting the 
distance between the extremities of the 
fingers of the two hands when the arms 
are fully stretched out), a span of six feet. 

Fatling. (1. ) A fatted animal for slaugh- 
ter (2 Sam. 6 : 13 ; Isa. 11 : 6 ; Ezek. 3d*: 18. 
Comp. Matt. 22 : 4, where the word used 
in the original, sitistos, means literally 
"corn-fed;" i.e., stalled, fat). (2.) Ps. 
66:15 (Heb. meah, meaning "marrowy," 
"fat," a species of sheep). (3.) 1 Sam. 
15 : 9 (Heb. mishneh, meaning "the second," 
and hence probably "cattle of a second 
qualit}^," or lambs of the second birth — 



i.e., autumnal lambs — and therefore of less 
value). 
Fear of the Lord, the, is in the Old 

Testament used as a designation of true 
piety (Prov. 1:7; Job 28 : 28 ; Ps. 19 : 9). 
It is a fear conjoined with love and hope, 
and is therefore not a slavish dread, but 
rather filial reverence. (Comp. Deut. 32 : 
6; Hos. 11:1; Isa. 1:2; 63:16; 64:8.) 
God is called "the Fear of Isaac" (Gen. 
31 : 42, 53) — i.e., the God whom Isaac 
feared. 

A holy fear is enjoined also in the New 
Testament as a preventive of carelessness 
in religion, and as an incentive to peni- 
tence (Matt. 10:28; 2 Cor. 5:11; 7:1; 
Phil. 2 : 12 ; Eph. 5 : 21 ; Heb. 12 : 28, 
29). 

Feast, as a mark of hospitality (Gen. 
19:3; 2 Sam. 3:20; 2 Kings 6:23); on 
occasions of domestic joy (Luke 15 : 23 ; 
Gen. 21:8); on birthdays (Gen. 40:20; 
Job 1:4; Matt. 14 : 6) ; and on the occa- 
sion of a marriage (Judg. 14 : 10 ; Gen. 
29 : 22). 

Feasting was a part of the observances 
connected with the offering up of sacrifices 
(Deut. 12:6, 7; 1 Sam. 9:19; 16:3, 5), 
and with the annual festivals (Deut. 16 : 11). 
"It was one of the designs of the greater 
solemnities, which required the attendance 
of the people at the sacred tent, that the 
oneness of the nation might be maintained 
and cemented together, by statedly con- 
gregating in one place, and with one soul 
taking part in the same religious services. 
But that oneness was primarily and chiefly 
a religious and not merely a political one ; 
the people were not merely to meet as 
among themselves, but with Jehovah, and 
to present themselves before him as one 
body ; the meeting was in its own nature 
a binding of themselves in fellowship with 
Jehovah ; so that it was not politics and 
commerce that had here to do, but the 
soul of the Mosaic dispensation, the foun- 
dation of the religious and political exist- 
ence of Israel, the covenant with Jehovah. 
To keep the people's consciousness alive to 
this, to revive, strengthen, and perpetuate 
it, nothing could be so well adapted as 
these annual feasts." (See Festivals.) 



FELIX 



255 



FERRET 



Fe^lix— happy— the Roman procurator of 
Judea before whom Paul "reasoned" (Acts 
24 : 25). He appears to have expected a 
bribe from Paul, and therefore had several 
interviews with him. The "worthy deeds " 
referred to in 24 : 2 was his clearing the 
country of banditti and impostors. 

At the end of a two years' term, Porcius 
Festus was appointed in the room of Felix 
(a.d. 55), who proceeded to Rome, and was 
there accused of cruelty and malversation 
of office by the Jews of Csesarea. The 
accusation was rendered nugatory by the 
influence of his brother Pallas with Nero. 
(See Josephus, Ant. xx. 8, 9.) 

Drusilla, the daughter of Herod Agrippa, 
having been induced by Felix to desert her 
husband, the king of Emesa, became his 
adulterous companion. She was seated 
beside him when Paul " reasoned " before 
the judge. When Felix gave place to Fes- 
tus, being "willing to do the Jews a pleas- 
ure," he left Paul bound. 

Fellowship. (1.) With God— consisting 
in the knowledge of his will (Job 22 : 21 ; 
John 17 : 3) ; agreement with his designs 
(Amos 3:2); mutual affection (Rom. 8 : 
38, 39) ; enjoyment of his presence (Ps. 
4 : G) ; conformity to his image (1 John 
2:6; 1:6); and participation of his felicity 
(1 John 1 : 3, 4 ; Eph. 3 : 14-21). 

(2.) Of saints with one another — in duties 
(Rom. 12 : 6 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 1 ; 1 Thess. 5 : 17, 
18); in ordinances (Heb. 10:24; 
Acts 2 : 46) ; in grace, love, joy, 
etc. (Mai. 3 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 8:4); 
mutual interest, sp)iritual and 
temporal (Rom. 12 : 4, 13 ; Heb. 
13:16); in sufferings (Rom. 15: 
1,2; Gal. 6:1,2; Rom. 12:15); 
and in glory (Rev. 7 : 9). 

Fence (Heb. gader) — Num. 
22 : 24 (R. V. ). Fences were con- 
structions of unmortared stones, to protect 
gardens, vineyards, sheepfolds, etc. From 
various causes they were apt to bulge out 
and fall (Ps. 62 : 3). In Ps. 80 : 12, R. V. 
(see Isa. 5 : 5), the psalmist says, " Why 
hast thou broken down her fences ? " Ser- 
pents delight to lurk in the crevices of 
such fences (Eccl. 10 : 8 ; comp. Amos 5 : 
19). 



Fenced cities. There were in Pales- 
tine (1) cities, (2) unwalled villages, and 
(3) villages witli castles or towers (1 Chr. 
27 : 25). Cities, so called, had walls, and 
were thus fenced. The fortifications con- 
sisted of one or two walls, on which were 
towers or parapets at regular intervals 
(2 Chr. 32 : 5 ; Jer. 31 : 38). Around ancient 
Jerusalem were three walls, on one of which 
were ninety towers, on the second fourteen, 
and on the third sixty. The tower of 
Hananeel, near the north-east comer of 
the city wall, is frequently referred to 
(Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Zech. 14:10). The 
gateways of such cities were also fortified 
(Neh. 2:8; 3 : 3, 6 ; Judg. 16:2, 3; 1 Sam. 
23 : 7). 

The Hebrews found many fenced cities 
when they entered the Promised Land 
(Num. 13 : 28 ; 32 : 17, 34-42 ; Josh. 11 : 12, 
13 ; Judg. 1 : 27-33), and we may estimate 
the strength of some of these cities from 
the fact that they were long held in pos- 
session by the Canaanites. The Jebusites, 
e.g., were enabled to hold possession of 
Jerusalem till the time of David (2 Sam. 5 : 
6, 7 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 5). 

Several of the kings of Israel and Judah 
distinguished themselves as fortifiers or 
"builders " of cities. 

Fer^ret— Lev.ll : 30 (R.V.," gecko ")-one 
of the unclean creeping things. It was per- 
haps the Lacerta gecko which was intended 




by the Hebrew word (andJcah', a cry, 
' ' mourning, " the creature which groans) 
here used— i. e. , the ' ' fan-footed " lizard, 
the gecko which makes a mournful wail. 
The LXX. translate it by a word mean- 
ing "shrew-mouse, "of which there are three 
species in Palestine. The Rabbinical writers 
regard it as the hedgehog. The translation 
of the Revised Version is to be preferred. 



FERRY 



256 



FIELD 



Per'ry boat (2 Sam. 19 : 18), some kind 
of boat for crossing the river which the 
men of Judah placed at the service of the 
king. Floats or rafts for this purpose were 
in use from remote times (Isa. 18 : 2). 

Fes'tivals, Religious. There were 
daily (Lev. 23), weekly, monthly, and 
yearly festivals, and great stress was laid 
on the regular observance of them in every 
particular (Num. 28 : 1-8 ; Ex. 29 : 38-42 ; 
Lev. 6 : 8-23 ; Ex. 30 : 7-9 ; 27 : 20). 

(1.) The septenary festivals were — 

(a) The weekly Sabbath (Lev. 23 : 1-3 ; 
Ex. 19 : 3-30 ; 20 : 8-11 ; 31 : 12, etc.). 

(6) The seventh new moon, or the feast 
of Trumpets (Num. 28 : 11-15 ; 29 : 1-6). 

(c) The Sabbatical year (Ex. 23 : 10, 11 ; 
Lev. 25 : 2-7). 

{d) The year of jubilee (Lev. 23-35 ; 25 : 
8-16 ; 27 : 16-25). 

(2.) The great feasts were — 

(a) The Passover. (6) The feast of 
Pentecost, or of weeks, (c) The feast of 
Tabernacles, or of ingathering. 

On each of these occasions every male 
Israelite was commanded "to appear before 
the Lord" (Deut. 27:7; Neh. 8:9-12). 
The attendance of women was voluntary. 
(Comp. Luke 2:41; 1 Sam. 1:7; 2:19.) 
The promise that God would protect their 
homes (Ex. 34 : 23, 24) while all the males 
were absent in Jerusalem at these feasts 
was always fulfilled. " During the whole 
period between Moses and Christ we never 
read of an enemy invading the land at the 
time of the three festivals. The first in- 
stance on record is thirty-three years after 
they had withdrawn from themselves the 
divine protection by imbruing their hands 
in the Saviour's blood, when Cestius, the 
Roman general, slew fifty of the people of 
Lydda while all the rest had gone up to 
the feast of Tabernacles, a.d. 66." 

These festivals, besides their religious 
purpose, had an important bearing on the 
maintenance among the people of the feel- 
ing of a national unity. The times fixed 
for their observance were arranged so as to 
interfere as little as possible with the in- 
dustry of the people. The Passover was 
kept just before the harvest commenced, 
Pentecost at the conclusion of the corn ' 



harvest and before the vintage, the feast 
of Tabernacles after all the fruiter of the 
ground had been gathered in. 

(3. ) The Day of Atonement, the tenth day 
of the seventh month (Lev. 16 : 1, 34 ; 23 : 
26-32 ; Num. 29 : 7-11). (See Atonement, 
Day op. ) 

Of the post-Exilian festivals reference is 
made to the feast of Dedication (John 10 : 
22). This feast was appointed by Judas 
Maccabaeus in commemoration of the puri- 
fication of the temple after it had been 
polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes. The 
"feast of Purim " {q.v. ), Esther 9 : 24-32, was 
also instituted after the Exile. (See Feast. ) 

Fes^tus, Por'^cius, the successor of Felix 
(a.d. 60) as procurator of Judea (Acts 24 : 
27). A few weeks after he had entered on 
his ofiice the case of Paxil, then a prisoner 
at Caesarea, was reported to him. The 
"next day," after he had gone down to 
Caesarea, he heard Paul defend himself in 
the presence of Herod Agrippa II. and his 
sister Bernice, and not finding in him any- 
thing worthy of death or of bonds, would 
have set him free had he not appealed unto 
Caesar (Acts 25 : 11, 12). In consequence 
of this appeal Paul was sent to Rome. 
Festus, after being in office less than two 
years, died in Judaea. (See Ageippa.) 

Fe^ver (Deut. 28:22; Matt. 8:14; Mark 
1 : 30 ; John 4 : 52 ; Acts 28 : 8), a burning 
heat, as the word so rendered denotes, 
which attends all febrile attacks. In all 
Eastern countries such diseases are very 
common. Peter's wife's mother is said to 
have suffered from a "great fever" (Luke 
4 : 38) — an instance of Luke's professional 
exactitude in describing disease. He adopts 
here the technical medical distinction, as 
in those times fevers were divided into the 
"great "and the "less." 

Field (Heb. sadih), a cultivated field, but 
unenclosed. It is applied to any cultivated 
ground or pasture (Gen. 29 : 2 ; 31 : 4 ; 34 : 7), 
or tillage (Gen. 37 : 7 ; 47 : 24). It is also 
applied to woodland (Ps. 132 : 6) or moun- 
tain top (Judg. 9:32, 36 ; 2 Sam. 1:21). 
It denotes sometimes a cultivated region 
as opposed to the wilderness (Gen. 33 : 19 ; 
36 : 35). Un walled villages or scattered 
houses are spoken of as "in the fields" 



FIG 



257 



rm 



(Deut. 28 : 3, 16 ; Lev. 25 : 31 ; Mark 6 : 36, 
56). The "open field" is a place remote 
from a house (Gen. 4:8; Lev. 14:7, 53; 
17 : 5). Cultivated land of any extent was 
called a field (Gen. 23 : 13, 17 ; 41 : 8 ; Lev. 
27 : 16 ; Euth 4:5; Neh. 12 : 29). 

Fig. First mentioned in Gen. 3 : 7. The 
fig-tree is mentioned (Deut. 8 : 8) as one of 
the valuable products of Palestine. It was 
a sign of peace and prosperity (1 Kings 
4 : 25 ; Micah 4:4; Zech. 3 : 10). Figs were 
used medicinally (2 Kings 20:7), and 




BRANCH OF FIG-TREE. 

pressed together and formed into "cakes " 
as articles of diet (1 Sam. 30 : 12 ; Jer. 
24 : 2). 

Our Lord's cursing the fig-tree near Beth- 
any (Mark 11 : 13) has occasioned much per- 
plexity from the circumstance, as mentioned 
by the evangelist, that "the time of figs 
was not yet. " The explanation of the words, 
however, lies in the simple fact that the 
fruit of the fig-tree appears before the leaves, 
and hence that if the tree produced leaves 
it ought also to have had fruit. It ought 
to have had fruit if it had been true to its 



" pretensions," in showing its leaves at this 
particular season. " This tree, so to speak, 
vaunted itself to be in advance of all the 
other trees, challenged the passer-by that 
he should come and refresh himself with its 
fruit. Yet when the Loi-d accepted its 
challenge and drew near, it proved to be 
but as the others, — without fruit as they ; 
for indeed, as the evangelist observes, the 
time of figs had not yet arrived. Its fault, 
if one may use the word, lay in its preten- 
sions, in its making a show to run before 
the rest when it did not so indeed " (Trench, 
Miracles). 

The fig-tree of Palestine {Ficus carica) 
produces two and sometimes three crops of 
figs in a year — (1) the bikkiirdh, or "early- 
ripe fig " (Micah 7:1; Isa. 28 : 4 ; Hos. 9 : 
10, K,.V.), which is ripe about the end of 
June, dropping off as soon as it is ripe 
(Nah. 3:12); (2) the kernius, or "summer 
fig," then begins to be formed, and is ripe 
about August ; and (3) the pag (plural 
"green figs," Cant. 2:13; Gr. olynthos, 
Pev. 6:13, "the untimely fig"), or "win- 
ter fig," which ripens in sheltered spots in 
spring. 

Fillets — Heb. hashuktm, plur., joinings 
(Ex. 27 : 17 ; 38 : 17, 28)— the rods by which 
the tops of the columns around the taber- 
nacle court were joined together, and from 
which the curtains were suspended (Ex. 
27 : 10, 11 ; 36 : 38). 

In Jer. 52 : 21 the rendering of a dif- 
ferent M^ord, hzlt, meaning a "thread," and 
designating a measuring-line of 12 cubits 
in length for the circumference of the copper 
pillars of Solomon's temple. 

Finer, a worker in silver and gold (Pro v. 
25 : 4). In Judg. 17 : 4 the word [tsoreph) is 
rendered "founder," and in Isa. 41:7 
"goldsmith." 

Fining pot, a crucible, melting - pot 
(Prov. 17 : 3 ; 27 : 21). 

Fir, the uniform rendering in the Author- 
ized Version (marg. R.V., "cypress") of 
berdsh (2 Sam. 6 : 5 ; 1 Kings 5 : 8, 10 ; 6 : 15, 
34; 9:11, etc.), a lofty tree (Isa. 55:13) 
growing on Lebanon (37 : 34). Its wood 
was used in making musical instruments 
and doors of houses, and for ceilings (2 Chr. 
3 : 5), the decks of ships (Ezek. 27:5), floor- 



FIRE 



258 



FIRKIN 



ings and spear-shafts (Nah. 2:3, R,V.). 
The true fir {abies) is not found in Pales- 
tine, but the pine tree, of which there are 
four species, is common. 

The precise kind of tree meant by the 
"green fir tree "(Hos. 14:8) is uncertain. 
Some regard it as the sherbin tree, a cypress 
resembling the cedar ; others, the Aleppo 
or maritime pine [Piniis hcdepensis), which 
resembles the Scotch fir ; while others 
think that the " stone-pine " [Pinus pinea) 
is probably meant. (See Pine.) 

Fire. (1.) For sacred purposes. The 
sacrifices were consumed by fire (Gen. 8 : 
20). The ever-burning fire on the altar was 
first kindled from heaven (Lev. 6:9, 13 ; 
9 : 24), and afterwards rekindled at the 
dedication of Solomon's temple (2 Chr. 7 : 
1, 3). The expressions " fire from heaven " 
and "fire of the Lord" generally denote 
lightning, but sometimes also the fire of 
the altar was so called (Ex. 29 : 18 ; Lev. 
1 : 9 ; 2 : 3 ; 3 : 5, 9). 

Fire for a sacred purpose obtained other- 
wise than from the altar was called ' ' strange 
fire " (Lev. 10 : 1, 2 ; Num. 3 : 4). 

The victims slain for sin offerings were 
afterwards consumed by fire outside the 
camp (Lev. 4 : 12, 21 ; 6 : 30 ; 16 : 27 ; Heb. 
13 : 11). 

(2. ) For domestic purposes, such as baking, 
cooking, warmth, etc. ( Jer. 36 : 22 ; Mark 
14 : 54 ; John 18 : 18). But on Sabbath no 
fire for any domestic purpose was to be 
kindled (Ex. 35 : 3 ; Num. 15 : 32-36). 

(3. ) Punishment of death by fire was in- 
flicted on such as were guilty of certain 
forms of unchastity and incest (Lev. 20 : 
14 ; 21 : 9). The burning of captives in 
war was not unknown among the Jews (2 
Sam. 12 : 31 ; Jer. 29 : 22). The bodies of 
infamous persons who were executed were 
also sometimes burned (Josh. 7 : 25 ; 2 Kings 
23 : 16). 

(4.) In war, fire was used in the destruc- 
tion of cities — as Jericho (Josh. 6 : 24), Ai 
(8 : 19), Hazor (11 : 11), Laish ( Judg. 18 : 27), 
etc. The war-chariots of the Canaanites 
were burnt (Josh. 11 : 6, 9, 13). The Israel- 
ites burned the images (2 Kings 10 : 26 ; 
R.V., "pillars") of the house of Baal. 
These objects of worship seem to have 



been of the nature of obelisks, and were 
sometimes evidently made of wood. 

Torches were sometimes carried by the 
soldiers in battle (Judg. 7 : 16). 

(5.) Figu7xitively, fire is a symbol of Jeho- 
vah's presence and the instrument of his 
power (Ex. 14 : 19 ; Num. 11 : 1, 3 ; Judg. 
13 : 20 ; 1 Kings 18 : 38 ; 2 Kings 1 : 10, 12 ; 
2:11; Isa. 6:4; Ezek. 1:4; Rev. 1:14, 
etc. ). 

God's word is also likened unto fire (Jer. 
23 : 29). It is referred to as an emblem of 
severe trials or misfortunes (Zech. 12 : 6 ; 
Luke 12 : 49 ; 1 Cor. 3 : 13, 15 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 7), 
and of eternal punishment (Matt. 5 : 22 ; 
Mark 9 : 44 ; Rev. 14 : 10 ; 21 : 8). 

The influence of the Holy Ghost is lik- 
ened unto fire (Matt. 3 : 11). His descent 
was denoted by the appearance of tongues 
as of fire (Acts 2 : 3). 

Fire-brand, Isa. 7 : 4, Amos 4 : 11, 
Zech. 3 : 2, denotes the burnt end of a 
stick (Heb. ^'dd) ; in Judg. 15 : 4, a lamp or 
torch, a flambeau (Heb. lappid) ; in Prov. 
26 : 18 (comp. Eph. 6 : 16), burning darts or 
arrows (Heb. zikktm). 

Fire-pan (Ex. 27 : 3 ; 38 : 3), one of the 
vessels of the temple service (rendered 
"snuff -dish" Ex. 25:38; 37:23; and 
"censer" Lev. 10:1; 16:12). It was 
probably a metallic cinder-basin used for 
the purpose of carrying live coal for burn- 
ing incense, and of carr5nng away the snuff 
in trimming the lamps. 

Fir'kin. Used only in John 2:6; the 
Attic amphora, equivalent to the Hebrew 




AMPHORA. 

(From Pompeii.) 



bath {q.v.), a measure for liquids containing 
about 8| gallons. 



FIRMAMENT 



259 



FIRST-FRUITS 



Fir^mament, from the Yvilgabtefirmamen- 
tum, which is used as the translation of the 
Hebrew reiki'' a. This word means simply 
"expansion." It denotes the space or ex- 
panse like an arch appearing immediately 
above us. They Avho rendered rdkf a hjfir- 
mamentum regarded it as a solid body. The 
language of Scripture is not scientific but 
popular, and hence we read of the sun ris- 
ing and setting, and so also here the use of 
this particular word. It is plain that it 
was used to denote solidity as well as ex- 
pansion. It formed a division between the 
waters above and the waters below (Gen. 
1 : 7). The rdki'a supported the upper 
reservoir (Ps. 148 : 4). It was the support 
also of the heavenly bodies (Gen. 1 : 14), 
and is spoken of as having "windows" and 
" doors " (Gen. 7 : 11 ; Isa. 24 : 18 ; Mai. 3 : 
10) through which the rain and snow might 
descend. 

First-born sons enjoyed certain special 
privileges (Deut. 21:17; Gen. 25:23, 31, 
34 ; 49 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 5:1; Heb. 12 : 16 ; Ps. 
89 : 27). (See Bietheight. ) 

This expression is used to denote the 
most excellent or most distinguished of 
things. Thus Jesus is the "first-born," 
the "first-begotten," the "first-born from 
the dead " (Col. 1 : 15, 18 ; Heb. 1 : 6). 

The "first-born of the poor" signifies 
the most miserable of the poor (Isa. 14 : 30). 
The "church of the first-born" signifies 
the church of the redeemed. 

The destruction of the first-horn was the 
last of the ten plagues inflicted on the 
Egyptians (Ex. 11 : 1-8 ; 12 : 29, 30). 

First-born, Sanctification of the. A 
peculiar sanctity was attached to the first- 
born both of man and of cattle. God 
claimed that the first-born males of man 
and of animals should be consecrated to 
him,— the one as a priest (Ex. 19 : 22, 24), re- 
presenting the family to which he belonged, 
and the other to be offered up in sacrifice 
(Gen. 4 : 4). The death of the first-born of 
the Egyptians was terribly felt. Now, 
seeing how wonderfully God had inter- 
posed in effecting their deliverance, he 
claims from the Hebrews the public conse- 
cration of all their first-born to him (Ex. 
13 : 2). 



First-born, Redemption of. From 

the beginning the office of the priesthood 
in each family belonged to the eldest son. 
But when the extensive plan of sacrificial 
worship was introduced, requiring a com- 
pany of men to be exclusively devoted to 
this ministry, the primitive office of the 
first-born was superseded by that of the 
Levites (Num. 3 : 11-13), and it was or- 
dained that the first-born of man and of 
animals should henceforth be redeemed 
(18 : 15). 

The laws concerning this redemption of 
the first-born of man are recorded in Ex. 
13:12-15; 22:29; 34:20; Num. 3:45; 
8 : 17 ; 18 : 16 ; Lev. 12 : 2, 4. 

The first-born male of every clean animal 
was to be given up to the priest for sac- 
rifice (Deut. 12:6; Ex. 13:12; 34:20; 
Num. 18 : 15-17). 

But the first-born of unclean animals 
was either to be redeemed or sold and the 
price given to the priest (Lev. 27 : 11-13, 
27). The first-born of an ass, if not re- 
deemed, was to be put to death (Ex. 13 : 
13 ; 34 : 20). 

First-fruits. The first-fruits of the 
ground were offered unto God just as the 
first-born of man and animals. 

The law required — (1. ) That on the mor- 
row after the Passover Sabbath a sheaf of 
new corn should be waved by the priest be- 
fore the altar (Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 10, 12 ; 2 : 12). 

(2.) That at the feast of Pentecost two 
loaves of leavened bread, made from the 
new flour, were to be waved in like manner 
(Lev. 23 : 15, 17 ; Num. 28 : 26). 

(3.) The feast of Tabernacles was an 
acknowledgment that the fruits of the 
harvest were from the Lord (Ex. 23 : 16 ; 
34 : 22). 

(4.) Every individual, besides, was re- 
quired to consecrate to God a portion of 
the first-fruits of the land (Ex. 22:29; 
23 : 19 ; 34 : 26 ; Num. 15 : 20, 21). 

(5.) The law enjoined that no fruit was 
to be gathered from newly-planted fruit- 
trees for the first three years, and that the 
first-fruits of the fourth year were to be 
consecrated to the Lord (Lev. 19 : 23-25). 
Jeremiah (2 : 3) alludes to the ordinance of 
"first-fruits," and hence he must have been 



nsH 



^60 



PLAG 



acquainted with the books of Exodiis, Levit- 
icus, and Numbers, where the laws regard- 
ing it are recorded. 

Fish, called dag by the Hebrews, a 
word denoting great fecundity (Gen. 9:2; 
Num. 11 : 22 ; Jonah 2 : 1, 10). No fish is 
mentioned by name either in the Old or 
New Testament. Tish abounded in the 
Mediterranean and in the lakes of the 
Jordan, so that the Hebrews were no doubt 
acquainted with many species. Two of the 
villages on the shores of the Sea of Galilee 
derived their names from their fisheries — 
Bethsaida (the " house of fish") on the east 
and on the west. There was a regular 
fish -market apparently in Jerusalem (2 
Chr. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1: 
10), as there was a fish-gate which was 
probably contiguous to it. 

Sidon is the oldest fishing establishment 
known in history. 

Fisher. Besides its literal sense (Luke 
5 : 2), this word is also applied by our Lord 
to his disciples in a figurative sense (Matt. 
4 : 19 ; Mark 1 : 17). 

Fish-hooks were used for catching fish 
(Amos 4:2; comp. Isa. 37:29; Jer. 16: 
16 ; Ezek. 29 : 4 ; Job 41 : 1, 2 ; Matt. 17 : 
27). 

Fish-pools (Cant. 7 : 4) should be simply 
*' pools," as in the Revised Version. The 
reservoirs near Heshbon {q.v,) were prob- 
ably stocked with fish (2 Sam. 2 : 13 ; 4 : 12 ; 
Isa. 7:3; 22 : 9, 11). 

Fishing, the art of, was prosecuted 
with great industry in the waters of Pales- 
tine. It was from the fishing-nets that 
Jesus called his disciples (Mark 1 : 16-20), 
and it was in a fishing-boat he rebuked the 
winds and the waves (Matt. 8 : 26) and 
delivered that remarkable series of pro- 
phecies recorded in Matt. 13. He twice 
miraculously fed multitudes with fish and 
bread (Matt. 14 : 19 ; 15 : 36). It was in 
the mouth of a fish that the tribute-money 
was found (Matt. 17 : 27). And he "ate a 
piece of broiled fish " Avith his disciples after 
his resurrection (Luke 24 : 42, 43 ; comp. 
Acts 1 : 3). At the Sea of Tiberias (John 
21 : 1-14), in obedience to his direction, the 
disciples cast their net "on the right side 
of the ship," and enclosed so many that 



"they were not able to draw it for the 
multitude of fishes." 

Two kinds of fishing-nets are mentioned 
in the New Testament : — 

(1.) The casting-net (Matt. 4:18; Mark 
1 : 16). 

(2.) The drag-net or seine (Matt. 13 : 48). 

Pish were also caught by the fishing- 
hook (Matt. 17 : 27). (See Net. ) 

Fitches (Isa. 28 : 25, 27), the rendering 
of the Hebrew ketsali, ' ' without doubt the 
Nigella sativa, a small annual of the order 




FITCHES (nigella SATIVA). 

Ranunculacece, which grows wild in the 
Mediterranean countries, and is cultivated 
in Egypt and Syria for its seed." It is 
rendered in margin of the Revised Version 
''black cummin." The seeds are used as a 
condiment. 

In Ezek. 4 : 9 this word is the rendering 
of the Hebrew kussemeth (incorrectly ren- 
dered "rye " in the Authorized Version of 
Ex. 9:32 and Isa. 28:25, but "spelt" in the 
Revised Version). The reading " fitches " 
here is an error ; it should be "spelt." 

Flag (Heb., or rather Egyptian, ahu, 
Job 8:11), rendered "meadow" in Gen. 
41 : 2, 18 ; probably the Cyperus esculentus, 
a species of rush eaten by cattle — the Nile 
reed. It also grows in Palestine. 

In Ex. 2 : 3, 5, Isa. 19 : 6, it is the rendering 
of the Hebrew sHi^h, a word which occurs 



FLAGON 



261 



FLESH 



frequently in cpnnection with yam; as 
yam sUph, to denote the "Red Sea" {q.v.) 
or the sea of weeds (as this word is ren- 
dered, Jonah 2 : 5). It denotes some kind 
of sedge or reed which grows in marshy 
places. (See Paper.) 

Flag'on— Heb. ashtshah—{2 Sam. 6 : 19 ; 
1 Chr. IG : 3 ; Cant. 2:5; Hos. 3 : 1), mean- 
ing properly "a cake of pressed raisins." 
"Flagons of wine" of the Authorized Ver- 
sion should be, as in the Revised Version, 
" cakes of raisins " in all these passages. 

In Isa. 22 : 24 it is the rendering of the 
ILehrew nebel, which properly means a bottle 
or vessel of skin. (Comp. 1 Sam. 1:24; 10: 
3 ; 25 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 16 : 1, where the same 
Hebrew word is used.) 

Flake— Job 41 : 23 (rendering of Hebrew 
mapped, meaning something pendulous) — 
the " dew-laps " or flabby parts on the 
belly of the leviathan. This Hebrew word 
occurs elsewhere only in Amos 8 : 6, where 
it is rendered "refuse" — i.e., that which 
falls away in winnowing ; chaff. 

Flame of fire is the chosen symbol of 
the holiness of God (Ex. 3:2; Rev. 2 : 18), 
as indicating "the intense, all-consuming 
operation of his holiness in relation to sin. " 

Flank— Job 15 : 27 (Heb. Usel, " theloin ") 
— in the plural denoting the muscles of the 
loins, and hence the viscera generally (Lev. 
3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4). 

The same word is rendered "loins " (Ps. 
38 : 7), and is used figuratively to denote 
the inmost feelings. 

Flax (Heb. pishtdh — i.e., "peeled" — in 
allusion to the fact that the stalks of flax 
when dried were first split or peeled before 
being steeped in water for the purpose of 
destroying the pulp). This plant was cul- 
tivated from earliest times. The flax of 
Egypt was destroyed by the plague of hail 
when it "was boiled" — i.e., was forming 
pods for seed (Ex. 9 : 31). It was exten- 
sively cultivated both in Egypt and Pales- 
tine. Reference is made in Josh. 2 : 6 to 
the custom of drying flax-stalks by expos- 
ing them to the sun on the fiat roofs of 
houses. It was much used in forming 
articles of clothing such as girdles, also 
cords and bands (Lev. 13 : 48, 52, 59 ; Deut. 
22:11). (See Linen.) 



"Few plants are at once so lovely and 
so useful as this slender upright herb, with 
taper leaves and large blue -purple flowers, 




from which are fashioned alike the coarsest 
canvas and the most ethereal cambric or 
lawn— the sail of the ship and the fairy-like 
scarf which can be packed into a filbert 
sheU." 

Flea. David at the cave of Adullam 
thus addressed his persecutor Saul (1 Sam. 
24 : 14) : "After whom is the king of Israel 
come out? after whom dost thou pursue? 
after a dead dog, after a fl.ea ? " He thus 
speaks of himself as the poor, contemptible 
object of the monarch's pursuit — a "worthy 
object truly for an expedition of the king 
of Israel with his picked troops ! " This 
insect is in Eastern language the popular 
emblem of insignificance. In 1 Sam. 26 : 
20 the LXX. read "come out to seek my 
life " instead of "to seek a flea." 

Fleece, the wool of a sheep, whether 
shorn off or still attached to the skin 
(Deut. 18 : 4 ; Job 31 : 20). The miracle of 
Gideon's fleece ( Judg. 6 : 37-40) consisted 
in the dew having fallen at one time on the 
fleece without any on the floor, and at an- 
other time in the fleece remaining dry 
while the ground was wet with dew. 

Flesh in the Old Testament denotes 
(1) a particular part of the body of man 
and animals (Gen. 2 : 21 ; 41 : 2 ; Ps. 102 : 5, 
marg. ) ; (2) the whole body (Ps. 16 : 9) ; (3) all 



FLESH-HOOK 



262 



FLY 



living things having flesh, and particu- 
larly humanity as a whole (Gen. : 12, 13) ; 
(4) mutability and weakness (2 Chr. 32 : 8 ; 
comp. Isa. 31 : 3 ; Ps. 78 : 39). As suggest- 
ing the idea of softness it is used in the 
expression "heart of flesh " (Ezek. 11 ; 19), 
The expression "my flesh and bone" (Judg. 
9:2; Isa. 58 : 7) denotes relationship. 

In the New Testament, besides these it 
is also used to denote the sinful element of 
human nature as opposed to the "Spirit" 
(Rom. 6 : 19 ; Matt. 16 : 17). Being "in the 
flesh " means being vmrenewed (Rom. 7:5; 
8 : 8, 9), and to live "according to the flesh" 
is to live and act sinfully (Rom. 8 : 4, 5, 7, 
12). 

This word also denotes the human natiire 
of Christ (John 1:14, "The Word was 
made flesh," Comp. also 1 Tim. 3:16; 
Rom. 1 : 3). 

Flesh-hook, a many-pronged fork used 
in the sacrificial services (1 Sam. 2 : 13, 14 ; 




FLESH-HOOKS, 



Ex, 27 : 3 ; 38 : 3) by the priest in drawing 
away the flesh. The fat of the sacrifice, 
together with the breast and shoulder 
(Lev. 7 : 29, 34), were presented by the 
worshipper to the priest. The fat was 
burned on the altar (3 : 3-5), and the breast 
and shoulder became the portion of the 
priests. But Hophni and Phinehas, not 
content with this, sent a servant to seize 
with a flesh-hook a further portion. 

Flint abounds in all the plains and val- 
leys of the wilderness of the forty years' 
wanderings. In Isa. 50 : 7 and Ezek. 3 : 9 
the expressions, where the word is used, 
mean that the "Messiah would b6 firm 
and resolute amidst all contempt and scorn 



which he would meet ; that he had made 
up his mind to endure it, and would not 
shrink from any kind or degree of suffer- 
ing which would be necessary to accom- 
plish the great work in which he was en- 
gaged." (Comp. Ezek. 3:8, 9.) The words 
"like a flint" are used with reference to 
the hoofs of horses (Isa, 5 : 28). 

Flood, an event recorded in Gen. 7 and 
8. (See Deluge.) In Josh. 24:2, 3, 14, 
15, the word "flood" (R.V,, "river") 
means the river Euphrates, In Ps. 66 : 6, 
this word refers to the river Jordan, 

Flour. Grain reduced to the form of 
meal is spoken of in the time of Abraham 
(Gen. 18 : 6). As baking was a daily neces- 
sity, grain was also ground daily at the 
mills (Jer. 25 : 10), The flour mingled with 
water was kneaded in kneading-troughs, 
and sometimes leaven (Ex, 12 : 34) was 
added and sometimes omitted (Gen, 19 : 3). 
The dough was then formed into thin cakes 
nine or ten inches in diameter and baked 
in the oven. 

Fine flour was offered by the poor as a 
sin-offering (Lev. 5 : 11-13), and also in 
connection with other sacrifices (Num. 15 : 
3-12 ; 28 : 7-29). 

Flowers. Very few species of fiowers 
are mentioned in the Bible although they 
abounded in Palestine. It has been calcu- 
lated that in Western Syria and Palestine 
from two thousand to two thousand five 
hundred plants are found, of which about 
five hundred probably are British wild- 
flowers. Their beauty is often alluded to 
(Cant. 2 : 12 ; Matt. 6 : 28). They are referred 
to as affording an emblem of the transitory 
nature of human life (Job 14 : 2 ; Ps, 103 : 
15 ; Isa, 28 : 1 ; 40 : 6 ; James 1 : 10), Gar- 
dens containing flowers and fragrant herbs 
are spoken of (Cant, 4 : 16 ; 6:2), 

Flute, a musical instrument, probably 
composed of a number of pipes, mentioned 
Dan, 3 : 5, 7, 10, 15, 

In Matt. 9 : 23, 24, notice is taken of 
players on the flute, here called "min- 
strels " (but in R,V, "flute-players "), 

Flutes were in comm^on use among the 
ancient Egyptians, 

Fly— Heb, zebilb—{'Eccl. 10:1; Isa. 7: 
18). This fly was so grievous a pest that 



FOAM 



263 



FOOD 



the Phoenicians invoked against it the aid 
of their god Baal-zebub {q.v.). 

Heb. '^arob, the name given to the in- 
sects sent as a plague on the land of Egypt 
(Ex. 8 : 21-31 ; Ps. 78 : 45 ; 105 : 31). The 
LXX. render this by a word which means 
the " dog-fly, " the cynomuia. The Jewish 
commentators regarded the Hebrew word 
here as connected with the word '^ardb, 
which means "mingled;" and they accord- 
ingly supposed the plague to consist of a 
mixed multitude of animals — beasts, rep- 



tiles, and insects. But there is no doubt 
that "the 'ar6h''' denotes a single definite 
species. Some interpreters regard it as the 
Blatta orientalis, the cockroach, a species 
of beetle. These insects "inflict very pain- 
ful bites with their jaws ; gnaw and destroy 
clothes, household furniture, leather, and 
articles of every kind, and either consume 
or render unavailable all eatables." 

Foam (Hos. 10 : 7), the rendering of ket- 
seph, which properly means twigs or splin- 
ters (as rendered in the LXX. and marg. 




SHEEP-FOLD. 



R. V. ). The expression in Hosea may there- 
fore be read, "as a chip on the face of the 
water," denoting the helplessness of the 
piece of wood as compared with the irresist- 
ible current. 

Fodder — Heb. beltl — (Job 6:5), meaning 
properly a mixture or medley {Lat. farrago), 
"made up of various kinds of grain, as 
wheat, barley, vetches, and the like, all 
mixed together, and then sovsm or given 
to cattle" (Job 24:6, A.V. "corn," RV. 
" provender ; " Isa. 30 : 24, " provender "). 



Fold, an enclosure for flocks to rest 
together (Isa. 13 : 20). Sheep-folds are 
mentioned Num. 32:16, 24, 36; 2 Sam. 
7:8; Zeph. 2:6; John 10 : 1, etc. It was 
prophesied of the cities of Ammon (Ezek. 
25 : 5), Aroer (Isa. 17 : 2), and Judaea, that 
they would be folds or couching - places 
for flocks. "Among the pots," of the 
Authorized Version (Ps. 68 : 13), is rightly 
in the Revised Version, "among the sheep- 
folds." 

Food. Originally the Creator granted 



FOOTSTOOL 



264 



FOREST 



the use of the vegetable world for food to 
man (Gen. 1 : 29), with the exception men- 
tioned (2 : 17). The use of animal food was 
probably not unknown to the antedilu- 
vians. There is, however, a distinct law 
on the subject given to Noah after the 
Deluge (Gen. 9 : 2-5). Various articles of 
food used in the patriarchal age are men- 
tioned in Gen. 18 : 6-8 ; 25 : 34 ; 27 : 3, 4 ; 
43 : 11. Regarding the food of the Israel- 
ites in Egypt, see Ex. 16 : 3 ; Num. 11 : 5. 
In the wilderness their ordinary food was 
miraculously supplied in the manna. They 
had also quails (Ex. 16 : 11-13 ; Num. 11 : 
31). 

In the law of Moses there are special regu- 
lations as to the animals to be used for food 
(Lev. 11; Deut. 14:3-21). The Jews were 
also forbidden to use as food anything that 
had been consecrated to idols (Ex. 34 : 15), 
or animals that had died of disease or had 
been torn by wild beasts (Ex. 22 : 31 ; Lev. 
22 : 8). (See also for other restrictions Ex. 
23:19; 29:13-22; Lev. 3:4-9; 9:18,19; 
22 : 8 ; Deut. 14 : 21. ) But beyond these re- 
strictions they had a large grant from God 
(Deut. 14 : 26 ; 32 : 13, 14). 

Food xoas prepared for use in various 
ways. The cereals were sometimes eaten 
without any preparation (Lev. 23 : 14 ; 
Deut. 23 : 25 ; 2 Kings 4 : 42). Vegetables 
were cooked by boiling (Gen. 25 : 30, 34 ; 
2 Kings 4 : 38, 39), and thus also other 
articles of food were prepared for use (Gen. 
27:4; Prov. 23:3; Ezek. 24:10; Luke 
24:42; John 21:9). Food was also pre- 
pared by roasting (Ex. 12 : 8 ; Lev. 2 : 14). 
(See Cook.) 

Foot^stool, connected with a throne 
(2 Chr. 9 : 18). 

Jehovah symbolically dwelt in the holy 
place between the cherubim above the ark 
of the covenant. The ark was his footstool 
(1 Chr. 28 : 2 ; Ps. 99 : 5 ; 132 : 7). And as 
heaven is God's throne, so the earth is his 
footstool (Ps. 110 : 1 ; Isa. 66 : 1 ; Matt. 5 : 35). 

Forces of the Gentiles (Isa. 60 : 5, 11 ; 
R.V., "the wealth of the nations") denotes 
the wealth of the heathen. The whole 
passage means that the wealth of the Gen- 
tile world should be consecrated to the ser- 
vice of the church. 



Ford. Mention is frequently made of 
the fords of the Jordan (Josh. 2:7; Judg. 
3 : 28 ; 12 : 5, 6), which must have been very 
numerous ; about fifty perhaps. The most 
notable was that of Bethabara. Mention 
is also made of the ford of the Jabbok 
(Gen. 32 : 22), and of the fords of Amon 
(Isa. 16 : 2) and of the Euphrates ( Jer. 
51 : 32). 

Fore^head. The practice common among 
Oriental nations of colouring the forehead 
or impressing on it some distinctive mark 
as a sign of devotion to some deity is al- 
luded to in Rev. 13 : 16, 17 ; 14 : 9 ; 17 : 5 ; 
20 : 4. 

The "jewel on thy forehead" mentioned 
in Ezek. 16:12 (R.V., "a ring upon thy 
nose") was in all probability the "nose- 
ring" (Isa. 3:21). 

In Ezek. 3:7 the word "impudent "is 
rightly rendered in the Revised Version 
" hard of forehead." (See also ver. 8, 9.) 

For^eigner, a Gentile. Such as resided 
among the Hebrews were required by the 
law to be treated with kindness (Ex. 22 : 
21 ; 23 : 9 ; Lev. 19 : 33, 34 ; 23 : 22 ; Deut. 
14 : 28 ; 16 : 10, 11 ; 24 : 19). They enjoyed 
in many things equal rights with the 
native-born residents (Ex. 12:49; Lev. 
24:22; Num. 15:15; 35:15), but were 
not allowed to do anything which was an 
abomination according to the Jewish law 
(Ex. 26:10; Lev. 17 : 15, 16 ; 18:26; 20:2; 
24:16, etc.). 

Foreknowl'edge of God (Acts 2 : 23 ; 
Rom. 8:29; 11:2; 1 Pet. 1:2), one of 
those high attributes essentially appertain- 
ing to him the full import of which we can- 
not comprehend. In the most absolute 
sense his knowledge is infinite (1 Sam. 23 : 
9-13 ; Jer. 38 : 17-23 ; 42 : 9-22 ; Matt. 11 : 
21, 23 ; Acts 15 : 18). 

Forerun'ner. John the Baptist went 
before our Lord in this character (Mark 1 : 
2, 3). Christ so called (Heb. 6 : 20) as en- 
tering before his people into the holy place 
as their head and guide. 

Forrest — Heb. ya^ar, meaning a dense 
wood, from its luxuriance. Thus all the 
great primeval forests of Syria (Eccl. 2:6; 
Isa. 44 : 14 ; Jer. 5:6; Micah 5 : 8). The most 
extensive was the trans-Jordanic forest of 



FORGIVENESS 



265 



FOUNTAIN 



Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:6, 8; Josh. 17:15, 
18), which is probably the same as the 
wood of Ephratah (Ps. 132 : 6), some part 
of the great forest of Gilead. It was in 
this forest that Absalom was slain by 
Joab. David withdrew to the forest of 
Hareth in the mountains of Judah to avoid 
the fury of Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 5). We read 
also of the forest of Bethel (2 Kings 2 : 23, 
24), and of that which the Israelites passed 
in their pursuit of the Philistines (1 Sam. 
14 : 25), and of the forest of the cedars of 
Lebanon (1 Kings 4 : 33 ; 2 Kings 19 : 23 ; 
Hos. 14 : 5, 6). 

"The house of the forest of Lebanon" 
(1 Kings 7:2; 10:17; 2 Chr. 9:16) was 
probably Solomon's armoury, and was so 
called because the wood of its many pillars 
came from Lebanon, and they had the ap- 
pearance of a forest. (See Baalbec.) 

Heb. horesh, denoting a thicket of trees, 
underwood, jungle, bushes, or trees entan- 
gled, and therefore affording a safe hiding- 
place. This word is rendered "forest" 
only in 2 Chr. 27 : 4. It is also rendered 
"wood" — the "wood "in the "mlderness 
of Ziph," in which David concealed him- 
self (1 Sam. 23 : 15), which lay south-east 
of Hebron. In Isa. 17 : 9 this word is in 
Authorized Version rendered incorrectly 
"bough." 

Heb. pardes, meaning an enclosed gar- 
den or plantation. Asaph is (Neh. 2 : 8) 
called the "keeper of the king's forest." 
The same Hebrew word is used Eccl. 2 : 5, 
where it is rendered in the plural "or- 
chards" (R.V., "parks"), and Cant. 4: 
13, rendered "orchard" (R.V. marg., "a 
paradise "). 

"The forest of the vintage" (Zech. 11:2, 
"inaccessible forest," or R.V. "strong 
forest ") is probably a figurative allusion to 
Jerusalem, or the verse may simply point 
to the devastation of the region referred to. 

The forest is an image of unfruitfulness 
as contrasted with a cultivated field (Isa. 
29:17; 32:15; Jer. 26:18; Hos. 2:12). 
Isaiah (10:19, 33, 34) likens the Assyrian 
host under Sennacherib {q.v.) to the trees 
of some huge forest, to be suddenly cut 
down by an unseen stroke. 

Forgive'ness of sin, one of the con- 



stituent parts of justification. In pardon- 
ing sin, God absolves the sinner from the 
condemnation of the law, and that on ac- 
count of the work of Christ — i.e., he re- 
moves the guilt of sin, or the sinner's actual 
liability to eternal wrath on account of it. 
All sins are forgiven freely (Acts 5 : 31 ; 
13 : 38 ; 1 John 1 : 6-9). The sinner is by 
this act of grace for ever freed from the 
guilt and penalty of his sins. This is the- 
peculiar prerogative of God (Ps. 130 : 4 ; 
Mark 2:5). It is offered to all in the 
gospel. (See Justification.) 

Fornica'^tion in every form of it was 
sternly condemned by the Mosaic law (Lev. 
21 : 9 ; 19 : 29 ; Deut. 22 : 20, 21, 23-29 ; 23 : 
18 ; Ex. 22 : 16). (See Adultery.) 

But this word is more frequently used in 
a symbolical than in its ordinary sense. It 
frequently means a forsaking of God or a 
following after idols (Isa, 1:2; Jer. 2 : 20 ; 
Ezek. 16 ; Hos. 1:2; 2:1-5; Jer. 3 : 8, 9). 

FortVLna^tVLS— fortunate — a disciple of 
Corinth who visited Paul at Ephesus, and 
returned with Stephanas and Achaicus, the 
bearers of the apostle's first letter to the 
Corinthians (1 Cor. 16 : 17). 

Fount ^ain (Heb, 'am; *.e.,"eye"of the 
desert), a natural source of living water. 
Palestine was a "land of brooks of water, 
of fountains, and depths that spring out of 
valleys and hills " (Deut. 8:7; 11 : 11). 

These fountains, bright sparkling "eyes'' 
of the desert, are remarkable for their 
abundance and their beauty, especially on 
the west of Jordan. All the perennial 
rivers and streams of the country are sup- 
plied from foiintains, and depend compara- 
tively little on surface water. "Palestine 
is a country of mountains and hills, and it 
abounds in fountains of water. The mur- 
mur of these waters is heard in every dell, 
and the luxuriant foliage which surrounds 
them is seen in every plain." Besides its 
rain-water, its cisterns and fountains, Jeru- 
salem had also an abundant supply of 
water in the magnificent reservoir called 
"Solomon's Pools" {q.v.), at the head of 
the UrtSs valley, whence it was conveyed 
to the city by subterranean channels some 
10 miles in length. These have all been 
long ago destroyed, so that no water from 



FOUNTAIN 



266 



FOX 



the "Pools" now reaches Jerusalem. Only 
one fountain has been discovered at Jeru- 
salem — the so-called "Virgin's Fountain," 
in the valley of Kidron ; and only one well 
(Heb. beer), the Bir Eyub, also in the val- 
ley of Kidron, south of the King's Gardens, 
which has been dug through the solid rock. 
The inhabitants of Jerusalem are now 
mainly dependent on the winter rains, 
which they store in cisterns. (See Well.) 
Fountain of the Virgin, the perennial 
source from which the Pool of Siloam (q.v.) 



is supplied, the waters flowing in a copious 
stream to it through a tunnel cut through 
the rock, the actual length of which is 1,706 
feet. The spring rises in a cave 20 feet by 
7. A serpentine tunnel 67 feet long runs 
from it toward the left, off which the tun- 
nel to the Pool of Siloam branches. It is 
the only unfailing fountain in Jerusalem. 

The fountain received its name from the 
"fantastic legend" that here the virgin 
washed the swaddling-clothes of our Lord. 

This spring has the singular character- 




rOUNTAIN OF THE VIRGIN. 



istic of being intermittent, flowing from 
three to five times daily in winter, twice 
daily in summer, and only once daily in 
autumn. This peculiarity is accounted for 
by the supposition that the outlet from the 
reservoir is by a passage in the form of a 
siphon. 

Fowler, the arts of, referred to Ps. 91 : 
3; 124:7; Prov. 6:5; Jer. 5:26; Hos. 9: 
8 ; Ezek. 17 : 20 ; Eccl. 9 : 12. Birds of all 
kinds abound in Palestine, and the capture 
of these for the table and for other uses 



formed the employment of many persons. 
The traps and snares used for this purpose 
are mentioned Hos. 5:1; Prov. 7 : 23 ; 22 : 
5; Amos 3:5; Ps. 69:22; comp. Deut. 
22 : 6, 7. 

Fox (Heb. shu^dl, a name derived from 
its digging or burrowing under ground), 
the Vulpes thaleb, or Syrian fox, the only 
species of this animal indigenous to Pales- 
tine. It burrows, is silent and solitary in 
its habits, is destructive to vineyards, being 
a plunderer of ripe grapes (Cant. 2:15). 



FEANKINCENSE 



267 



FRONTLETS 



The Vulpes Niloticus, or Egyptian dog-fox, 
and the Vulpes vulgaris, or common fox, 
are also found in PaLestine. 

The proverbial cunning of the fox is al- 
luded to in Ezek. 13 : 4, and in Luke 13 : 32, 
where our Lord calls Herod "that fox." 
In Judg. 15 : 4, 5, the reference is in all 
probability to the jackal. The Hebrew- 
word shu^dl through the Persian schagal 
becomes our jackal [Cams aureus), so that 
the word may bear that signification here. 
The reasons for preferring the rendering 
"jackal" are (1) that it is more easily 
caught than the fox ; (2) that the fox is shy 
and suspicious, and flies mankind, while 
the jackal does not ; and (3) that foxes are 
difficult, jackals comparatively easy, to 
treat in the way here described. Jackals 
hunt in large numbers, and are still very 
numerous in Southern Palestine. 




>-^K? 



SYKIAX FOX. 

Frankin^cense (Heb. lehdnah; Gr. 
libanos — i.e., "white"), an odorous resin 
imported from Arabia (Isa. 60:6; Jer. 
6 : 20), yet also growing in Palestine (Cant. 
4 : 14). It was one of the ingredients in 
the perfume of the sanctuary (Ex. 30 : 34), 
and was used as an accompaniment of the 
meat-offering (Lev. 2 : 1, 16 ; 6 : 15 ; 24 : 7). 
When burnt it emitted a fragrant odour, 
and hence the incense became a symbol of 
the Divine name (Mai. 1 : 11 ; Cant. 1 : 3) 
and an emblem of prayer (Ps. 141 : 2 ; Luke 
1 : 10 ; Rev. 5 : 8 ; 8 : 3). 

This frankincense, or olihanum, used by 
the Jews in the temple services is not to be 
confounded with the frankincense of modern 



commerce, which is an exudation of the 
Norway spruce fir, the Pinus aties. It was 



-=f-^ 




FBANKINCEXSE (bOSWELLIA THURIFERA). 

probably a resin from the Indian tree 
known to botanists by the name of Bos- 
wellia serrata or thurifera, which grows to 
the height of forty feet. 

Free'dom. The law of Moses pointed 
out the cases in which the servants of the 
Hebrews were to receive their freedom 
(Ex. 21 : 2-4, 7, 8 ; Lev. 25 : 39-41, 47-55 ; 
Deut. 15 : 12-17). Under the Roman law 
the "freeman" {ingenuus) was one born 
free; the "freedman" {libertinus) was a 
manumitted slave, and had not equal rights 
with the freeman (Acts 22 : 28 ; comp. Acts 
16 : 37-39 ; 21 : 39 ; 22 : 25 ; 25 : 11, 12). 

Free-will offering, a spontaneous gift 
(Ex. 35 : 29), a voluntary sacrifice (Lev. 
22 : 23 ; Ezra 3 : 5), as opposed to one in 
consequence of a vow, or in expiation of 
some offence. 

Frog (Heb. tsepharde^a, meaning a 
" marsh-leaper "). This reptile is men- 
tioned in the Old Testament only in con- 
nection with one of the plagues which fell 
on the land of Egypt (Ex. 8:2-14; Ps. 
78 : 45 ; 105 : 30). 

In the New Testament this word occurs 
only in Rev. 16 : 13, where it is referred to 
as a symbol of uncleanness. The only 
species of frog existing in Palestine is the 
green frog [Rana esculenta), the well-known 
edible frog of the Continent. 

Front'lets occurs only in Ex. 13:16; 
Deut. 6 : 8, and 11 : 18. The meaning of the 



FROST 



268 



FUEL 



injunction to the Israelites, with regard to 
the statutes and precepts given them, that 
they should "bind them for a sign upon 
their hand, and have them as frontlets be- 
tween their eyes," was that they should 
keep them distinctly in view and carefully 
attend to them. But soon after their re- 
turn from Babylon they began to interpret 
this injunction literally, and had accord- 
ingly portions of the law written out and 
worn about their person. These they called 
tephillin — i.e., "prayers." The passages so 
written out on strips of parchment were 
these-Ex. 12 : 2-10 ; 13 : 11-21 ; Deut. 6:4-9; 
11:18-21. They were then "rolled up in a 
case of black calfskin, which was attached 
to a stiffer piece of leather, having a thong 
one finger broad and one cubit and a half 
long. Those worn on the forehead were 
written on four strips of parchment, and 
put into four little cells within a square 
case, which had on it the Hebrew letter 
called shin, the three points of which were 




THE TEPHILLAH OR PHYLACTERY. 

regarded as an emblem of God." This case 
tied around the forehead in a particular 
way was called " the tephillah on the head." 
(See Phylactery. ) 

Frost (Heb. kerah, from its smoothness) 
—Job 37:10 (R.V.,'"ice"); Gen. 31:40; 
Jer. 36 : 30 ; rendered " ice " in Job 6 : 16, 
38 : 29 ; and "crystal " in Ezek. 1 : 22. "At 
the present day frost is entirely unknown 
in the lower portions of the valley of the 
Jordan, but slight frosts are sometimes felt 
on the sea-coast and near Lebanon." 
Throughout Western Asia cold frosty 
nights are frequently succeeded by warm 
days. 



^^ Hoar frost" (Heb. kephor, so called 
from its covering the ground) is mentioned 
in Ex. 16 : 14 ; Job 38 : 29 ; Ps. 147 : 16. 

In Ps. 78 : 47 the word rendered "frost" 
(R.V. marg., "great hail-stones "), hanamdl, 
occurs only there. It is rendered by Ge- 
senius, the Hebrew lexicographer, "ant," 
and so also by others, but the usual inter- 
pretation derived from the ancient ver- 
sions may be maintained. 

Fruit, a word as used in Scripture 
denoting produce in general, whether 
vegetable or animal. The Hebrews divided 
the fruits of the land into three classes : — 

(1.) The fruit of the field, "corn-fruit" 
(Heb. dagdn) ; all kinds of grain and 
pulse. 

(2.) The fruit of the vine, " vintage-fruit" 
(Heb. tirosh) ; grapes, whether moist or 
dried. 

(3.) " Orchard-fruits " (Heb. yitshdr), as 
dates, figs, citrons, etc. 

Injunctions concerning offerings and 
tithes were expressed by these Hebrew 
terms alone (Num. 18 : 12 ; Deut. 14 : 23). 

This word "fruit" is also used of chil- 
dren or offspring (Gen. 30 : 2 ; Deut. 7 : 13 ; 
Luke 1 : 42 ; Ps. 21 : 10 ; 132 : 11) ; also of 
the progeny of beasts (Deut. 28 : 51 ; Isa. 
14 : 29). 

It is used metaphorically in a variety 
of forms (Ps. 104:13; Pro v. 1:31; 11:30 
31:16 ; Isa. 3 : 10; 10 : 12 ; Matt. 3 : 8 ; 21 
41 ; 26 : 29 ; Heb. 13 : 15 ; Rom. 7 : 4, 5 ; 15 
28). 

The fruits of the Spirit (Gal. 5 : 22, 23 ; 
Eph. 5:9; James 3:17, 18) are those 
gracious dispositions and habits which the 
Spirit produces in those in whom he dwells 
and works. 

Frying-pan (Heb. marMsheth, a 
"boiler"), a pot for boiling meat (Lev. 2: 
7; 7:9). 

Fuel. Almost every kind of combustible 
matter was used for fuel, such as the 
withered stalks of herbs (Matt. 6:30), 
thorns (Ps. 58 : 9 ; Eccl. 7 : 6), animal ex- 
crements (Ezek. 4 : 12-15 ; 15 : 4, 6 ; 21 : 32). 
Wood or charcoal is mixch used still in all 
the towns of Syria and Egypt. It is 
largely brought from the region of Hebron 
to Jerusalem. (See Coal.) 



FUGITIVE. 



269 



FURXACE. 



Fugitive. Gen. 4 : 12, 14, a rover or 
wanderer (Heb. n'^d) ; Judg. 12 : 4, a re- 
fugee, one who has escaped (Heb. pdlit) ; 
2 Kings 25 : 11, a deserter, one who has 
fallen away to the enemy (Heb. nophel) ; 
Ezek. 17 : 21, one who has broken away in 
flight (Heb. mibrah) ; Isa. 15 : 5 ; 43 : 14, a 
breaker away, a fugitive (Heb. heriah), one 
who flees away. 

Furier. The word "full" is from the 
Anglo-Saxon /w^^iaw, meaning "to whiten." 
To full is to press or scour cloth in a mill. 
This art is one of great antiquity. Men- 
tion is made of "fuller's soap " (Mai. 3 : 2), 
and of " the fuller's field " (2 Kings 18 : 17). 
At his transfiguration our Lord's raiment 
is said to have been white " so as no fuller 
on earth could white them " (Mark 9 : 3). 
En-rogel (g. v. ), meaning literally ' ' f oot-foxm- 
tain," has been interpreted as the "fuller's 
fountain," because there the fullers trod 
the cloth with their feet. 

Ful'ler's soap (Heb. horith meJcabbeshim 
— i.e., "alkali of those treading cloth"). 
Mention is made (Prov. 25 : 20 ; Jer. 2 : 22) 
of nitre and also (Mai. 3 : 2) of soap (Heb. 
bortth) used by the fuller in his operations. 
Nitre is found in Syria, and vegetable 
alkali was obtained from the ashes of cer- 
tain plants. (See Soap.) 

FuFler's field, a spot near Jerusalem 
(2 Kings 18 : 17 ; Isa. 36 : 2 ; 7 : 3), on the 
side of the highway west of the city, not 
far distant from the "upper jdooI" at the 
head of the valley of Hinnom. Here the 
fullers pursued their occupation. 

Furness. (1.) Of time (Gal. 4:4), the 
time appointed by God, and foretold by 
the prophets, when Messiah should appear. 
(2.) Of Christ (John 1 : 16), the superabund- 
ance of grace with which he was filled. 
(3.) Of the Godhead bodily dwelling in 
Christ (Col. 2:9) — i.e., the whole nature 
and attributes of God are in Christ. (4.) 
Eph. 1:23, the church as the fulness of 
Christ — i.e., the church makes Christ a 
complete and perfect head. 

Fu''neral. Burying was among the Jews 
the only mode of disposing of corpses (Gen. 
23:19; 25:9; 35:8, 9, etc.). 

The first traces of burning the dead are 
found in 1 Sam. 31 : 12. The burning of 



the body was affixed by the law of Moses 
as a penalty to certain crimes (Lev. 20 : 14 ; 
21 : 9). 

To leave the dead unburied was regarded 
with horror (1 Kings 13 : 22 ; 14 : 11 ; 16 : 4 ; 
21:24, etc.). 

In the earliest times of which we have 
record kinsmen carried their dead to the 
grave (Gen. 25 : 9 ; 35 : 29 ; Judg. 16 : 31), 
but in later times this was done by others 
(Amos 5 : 16). 

Immediately after decease the body was 
washed, and then wrapped in a large cloth 
(Acts 9 : 37 ; Matt. 27 : 59 ; Mark 15 : 46). 
In the case of persons of distinction, aro- 
matics were laid on the folds of the cloth 
(John 19 : 39 ; comp. John 12 : 7). 

As a rule the burial {q.v.) took place on 
the very day of the death (Acts 5:6, 10), 
and the body was removed to the grave in 
an open coffin or on a bier (Luke 7:14). 
After the burial a funeral meal was usu- 
ally given (2 Sam. 3 : 35 ; Jer. 16 : 5, 7 ; 
Hos. 9 : 4). 

Fur'long, a stadium, a Greek measure 
of distance equal to 606 feet and 9 inches 
(Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 
14 : 20 ; 21 : 16). 

Fur'nace. (1.) Chald. 'attUn, a large 
furnace with a wide open mouth, at the top 
of which materials were cast in (Dan. 3 : 
22, 23 ; comp. Jer. 29 : 22). This furnace 
would be in constant requisition, for the 
Babylonians disposed of their dead by 
cremation, as did also the Accadians who 
invaded Mesopotamia. 

(2.) Heb. kibshdn, a smelting furnace 
(Gen. 19 : 28), also a lime-kiln (Isa. 33 : 12 ; 
Amos 2 : 1). 

(3. ) Heb. Mr, a refining furnace (Prov. 
17:3; 27:21; Ezek. 22:18). 

(4.) Heb. "alil, a crucible; only used in 
Ps. 12 : 7. 

(5.) Heb. tannUr, oven for baking bread 
(Gen. 15 : 17 ; Isa. 31 : 9 ; Neh. 3 : 11). It 
was a large pot, narrovdng towards the top. 
When it was heated by a fire made within, 
the dough was spread over the heated sur- 
face, and thus was baked. ' ' A smoking fur- 
nace and a burning lamp" (Gen. 15 : 17), the 
symbol of the presence of the Almighty, 
passed between the divided pieces of Abra- 

18 



FURROW 



270 



GAD 



ham's sacrifice in ratification of the covenant 
God made with him. (See Oven.) 




SECTION or OVEN FOR BAKING EKEAD (tannUr). 
(From Niebuhr.) 

(6. ) Gr. kamnos, a furnace, kiln, or oven 
(Matt. 13 : 42, 50 ; Rev. 1 : 15 ; 9 : 2). 



Fur'row, an opening in the ground made 
by the plough (Isa. 65:10; Hos. 10:4, 
16). 

In Hos. 10 : 10 the expression in Author- 
ized Version, "their two furrows," is in 
the Revised Version "their two trans- 
gressions," following the marginal read- 
ing of the Hebrew text. The words re- 
fer to the two golden calves at Dan and 
Bethel. The words of Job 31:38 are 
proverbial. The furrows are figuratively 
said to "complain" — i.e., to cry out 
against the cruelty and wrong done to 
the owner of the land from whom it had 
been robbed. 

Fury, as attributed to God, is a figura- 
tive expression for dispensing afflictive 
judgments (Lev. 26 : 28 ; Job 20 : 23 ; Isa. 
63 : 3; Jer. 4:4; Ezek. 5 : 13 ; Dan. 9 : 16 ; 
Zech. 8 : 2). 



G 



Ga'al — loathing — the son of Ebed, in 
whom the Shechemites "placed their con- 
fidence " when they became discontented 
with Abimelech. He headed the revolu- 
tion, and led out the men of Shechem 
against Abimelech ; but was defeated, and 
fled to his own home (Judg. 9 : 26-46). We 
hear no more of him after this battle. 

Ga^ash — a shaking — a hill, on the north 
side of which Joshua was buried (Josh. 
24 : 30 ; Judg. 2 : 9), in the territory of 
Ephraim. ( See Timnath-sek ah. ) 

Gab^batha = Gab Baitha — i.e., "the 
ridge of the house" = "the temple-mound," 
on a part of which the fortress of Antonia 
was built. This "temple-mound" was 
covered with a tesselated "pavement " (Gr. 
lithostroton — i.e., " stone-paved "). A judg- 
ment-seat [lema] was placed on this "pave- 
ment" outside the hall of the "praetorium" 
{q.v.), the judgment-hall (John 18 : 28 ; 19 : 
13). 

Ga'briel — champion of God — used as a 
proper name to designate the angel who 
was sent to Daniel (8:16) to explain the 
vision of the ram and the he-goat, and to 



communicate the prediction of the seventy 
weeks (Dan. 9 : 21-27). 

He announced also the birth of John the 
Baptist (Luke 1 : 11), and of the Messiah 
(26). He describes himself in the words, 
"I am Gabriel, who stand in the presence 
of God "(1:19). 

G&iA— fortune ; luck. (1. ) Jacob's seventh 
son, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, and the 
brother of Asher (Gen. 30 : 11-13 ; 46 : 16, 
18). In the Authorized Version of 30 : 11 
the words, "A troop cometh : and she 
called," etc., should rather be rendered, 
" In fortune [R. V., ' Fortunate '] : and she 
called," etc., or "Fortune cometh," etc. 

The tribe of Gad during the march through 
the wilderness had their place with Simeon 
and Reuben on the south side of the taber- 
nacle (Num. 2 : 14). The tribes of Reuben 
and Gad continued all through their history 
to follow the pastoral pursuits of the patri- 
archs (Num. 32 : 1-5). 

The portion allotted to the tribe of Gad 
was on the east of Jordan, and compre- 
hended the half of Gilead, a region of great 
beauty and fertility (Deut. 3 : 12), bounded 



GADARA 



271 



GADDIEL 



on the east by the Arabian desert, on the 
west by the Jordan (Josh. 13 : 27), and on 
the north by the river Jabbok. It thus 
included the whole of the Jordan valley as 
far north as to the Sea of Galilee, where it 
narrowed almost to a point. 

This tribe was fierce and warlike ; they 
were " strong men of might, men of war 
for the battle, that could handle shield and 
buckler, their faces the faces of lions, and 
like roes upon the mountains for swiftness " 
(1 Chr. 12 : 8 ; 5 : 19-22). Barzillai (2 Sam. 17 : 
27) and Elijah (1 Kings 17 : 1) were of this 
tribe. It was carried into captivity at the 
same time as the other tribes of the nor- 
thern kingdom by Tiglath-pileser (1 Chr. 5 : 
26), and in the time of Jeremiah (49 : 1) their 
cities were inhabited by the Ammonites. 

(2.) A prophet who joined David in the 



"hold," and at whose advice he quitted it 
for the forest of Hareth (1 Chr. 29 : 29 ; 2 
Chr. 29 : 25 ; 1 Sam. 22 : 5). Many years 
after we find mention made of him in con- 
nection with the punishment inflicted for 
numbering the people (2 Sam. 24 : 11-19 ; 
1 Chr. 21 : 9-19). He wrote a book called 
the "Acts of David" (1 Chr. 29 : 29), and 
assisted in the arrangements for the musical 
services of the "house of God" (2 Chr. 
29 : 25). He bore the title of " the king's 
seer " (2 Sam. 24 : 11, 13 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 9). 

Gad'ara, the capital of the Roman pro- 
vince of Persea. It stood on the summit 
of a mountain about 6 miles south-east of 
the Sea of Galilee. Mark (5 : 1) and Luke 
(8 : 27, 37) describe the miracle of the heal- 
ing of the demoniac (Matthew [8 : 28-34] 
says two demoniacs) as having been wrought 




BTJINS OF UM-KEIS (gABARA). 



"in the country of the Gadarenes," thus 
describing the scene generally. The miracle 
could not have been wrought at Gadara 
itself, for between the lake and this town 
there is the deep, almost impassable ravine 
of the Hieromax ( Jarmtlk). It is identified 
with the modern village of Um-Keis, which 
is surrounded by very extensive ruins, all 
bearing testimony to the splendour of 
ancient Gadara. 

"The most interesting remains of Gadara 
are its tombs, which dot the cliffs for a con- 
siderable distance round the city, chiefly 
on the north-east declivity ; but many 
beautifully sculptured sarcophagi are scat- 
tered over the surrounding heights. They 
are excavated in the limestone rock, and 
consist of chambers of various dimensions, 



some more than 20 feet square, with re- 
cesses in the sides for bodies The present 

inhabitants of Um-Keis are all troglodytes, 
'dwelling in tombs,' like the poor maniacs 
of old, and occasionally they are almost as 
dangerous to unprotected travellers." 

Gad'arenes, the inhabitants of Gadara, 
in Revised Version "Gerasenes" (Matt. 
5:1; Luke 8 : 26, 37). In Matt. 8 : 28 they 
are called Gergesenes, Revised Version 
"Gadarenes." 

Gad^ di— foj'tunate — the representative of 
the tribe of Manasseh among the twelve 
"spies" sent by Moses to spy the land 
(Num. 13 : 11). 

Gsid^diel— fortune {i.e., sent) of God — 
the representative of the tribe of Zebulun 
among the twelve spies (Num. 13 : 10). 



GAHAR, 



272 



GALATIANS 



Ga'har — lurking-place — one of the chief 
of the Nethinim, whose descendants re- 
turned to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel 
(Ezra 2 : 47). 

Ga^ius. (1.) A Macedonian, Paul's 
fellow-traveller, and his host at Corinth 
when he wrote his Epistle to the Romans 
(16 : 23). He with his household were bap- 
tized by Paul (1 Cor. 1 : 16). During a 
heathen outbreak against Paul at Ephesus 
the mob seized Gains and Aristarchus 
because they could not find Paul, and 
rushed with them into the theatre. Some 
have identified this Gaius with No, (2). 

(2.) A man of Derbe who accompanied 
Paul into Asia on his last journey to Jervi- 
salem (Acts 20 : 4). 

(3. ) A Christian of Asia Minor to whom 
John addressed his third epistle (3 John 1). 

Gala''tia has been called the "Gallia" 
of the East, Roman writers calling its 
inhabitants Galli. They were an inter- 
mixture of Gauls and Greeks, and hence 
were called Gallo-Grseci, and the country 
Gallo-Graecia. The Galatians were in 
their origin a part of that great Celtic mi- 
gration which invaded Macedonia about 
B.C. 280. They were invited by the king 
of Bithynia to cross over into Asia Minor 
to assist him in his wars. There they ulti- 
mately settled, and being strengthened by 
fresh accessions of the same clan from 
Europe, they overran Bithynia, and sup- 
ported themselves by plundering neigh- 
bouring countries. They were great war- 
riors, and hired themselves out as mercenary 
soldiers, sometimes fighting on both sides 
in the great battles of the times. They 
were at length brought under the power of 
Rome in B.C. 189, and Galatia became a 
Roman province B.C. 25. 

This province of Galatia, within the 
limits of which these Celtic tribes were 
confined, was the central region of Asia 
Minor. 

During his second missionary journey 
Paul, accompanied by Silas and Timothy 
(Acts 16 : 6), visited the " region of Galatia, " 
where he was detained by sickness (Gal. 
4 : 13), and had thus the longer opportunity 
of preaching to them the gospel. On 
his third journey he went over "all the 



country of Galatia and Phrygia in order" 
(Acts 18 : 23). Crescens was sent thither 
by Paul toward the close of his life (2 Tim. 
4 : 10). 

Gala^tians, Epistle to. The genuineness 
of this epistle is not called in question. Its 
Pauline origin is universally acknowledged. 

Occasion of. The churches of Galatia 
were founded by Paul himself (Acts 16 : 6 ; 
Gal. 1:8; 4 : 13, 19). They seem to have 
been composed mainly of converts from 
heathenism (4 : 8), but partly also of Jewish 
converts, who probably, under the influ- 
ence of Judaizing teachers, sought to incor- 
porate the rites of Judaism with Christian- 
ity, and by their active zeal had succeeded 
in inducing the majority of the churches to 
adopt their views (1:6; 3:1). This epistle 
was written for the purpose of counteract- 
ing this Judaizing tendency, and of recalling 
the Galatians to the simplicity of the gospel, 
and at the same time also of vindicating 
Paul's claim to be a divinely-commissioned 
apostle. 

Time and place of toriting. The epistle 
was probably written very soon after 
Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts 18 : 23), 
The references of the epistle appear to 
agree with this conclusion. The visit to 
Jerusalem, mentioned in Gal. 2 : 1-10, was 
identical with that of Acts 15, and it is 
spoken of as a thing of the past, and con- 
seqiiently the epistle was written subse- 
quently to the council of Jerusalem. The 
similarity between this epistle and that to 
the Romans has led to the conclusion that 
they were both written at the same time — 
namely, in the winter of a.d. 57-8, during 
Paul's stay in Corinth (Acts 20 : 2, 3). This 
to the Galatians is written on the urgency 
of the occasion, tidings having reached him 
of the state of matters ; and that to the 
Romans in a more deliberate and syste- 
matic way, in exposition of the same great 
doctrines of the gospel. 

Contents of. The great question discussed 
is. Was the Jewish law binding on Chris- 
tians? The epistle is designed to prove 
against the Jews that men are justified by 
faith without the works of the law of 
Moses. After an introductory address (Gal. 
1 : 1-10) the apostle discusses the subjects 



GALBANUM 



273 



GALILEE 



which had occasioned the ei)istle. (1) He 
defends his apostolic authority (1 : 11-19 ; 
2 : 1-14) ; (2) shows the evil influence of the 
Judaizers in destroying the very essence of 
the gospel (3 and 4) ; (3) exhorts the Gal- 
atian believers to stand fast in the faith 
as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the 
fruits of the Spirit, and in a right use of 
their Christian freedom (5-6 : 1-10) ; (4) 
and then concludes with a summary of the 
topics discussed, and with the benediction. 

The Epistle to the Galatians and that 
to the Romans taken together "form a 
complete proof that justification is not to 
be obtained meritoriously either by works 
of morality or by rites and ceremonies, 
though of divine appointment ; but that 
it is a free gift, proceeding entirely from 
the mercy of God, to those who receive it 
by faith in Jesus our Lord. " 

In the conclusion of the epistle (6 : 11) 
Paul says, "Ye see how large a letter I 
have written with mine own hand." It is 
implied that this was different from his 
ordinary usage, which was simply to write 
the concluding salutation with his own 
hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle 
was written by another hand. Regarding 
this conclusion, Lightfoot, in his Comment- 
ary on the epistle, says : ' ' At this point 
the apostle takes the pen from his amanu- 
ensis, and the concluding paragraph is 
written with his own hand. From the 
time when letters began to be forged in 
his name (2 Thess. 2:2; 3 : 17) it seems to 
have been his practice to close with a few 
words in his own handwriting, as a pre- 
caution against such forgeries In the 

present case he writes a whole paragraph, 
summing up the main lessons of the epistle 
in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He 
■writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. 
pelikois grammasin), tliat his hand-writing 
may reflect the energy and determination 
of his soul." (See Justification.) 

Gal'banum— Heb. helbendh—{'Ex. 30: 
34), one of the ingredients in the holy in- 
cense. It is a gum, probably from the 
Galbanum officinale. 

Ga'leed — hea}-) of vntness — the name of 
the pile of stones erected by Jacob and 
Laban to mark the league of friendship 



into which they entered with each other 
(Gen. 31 : 47, 48). This was the name given 
to the "heap" by Jacob. It is Hebrew, 
while the name Jegar-sahadutha, given to 
it by Laban, is Aramaic (Chaldee or Syriac). 
Probably Nahor's family originally spoke 
Aramaic, and Abraham and his descend- 
ants learned Hebrew, a kindred dialect, 
in the land of Canaan. 

Galile'an, an inhabitant or native of 
Galilee. This word was used as a name 
of contempt as applied to our Lord's dis- 
ciples (Luke 22 : 59 ; Acts 2 : 7). All the 
apostles, with the exception of Judas Is- 
cariot (Acts 1 : 11), were Galileans. Peter 
was detected by his Galilean accent (Matt. 
26 : 69 ; Mark 14 : 70). 

This was also one of the names of re- 
proach given to the early Christians. 
Julian the Apostate, as he is called, not 
only used the epithet himself when refer- 
ring to Christ and his apostles, but he 
made it a law that no one should ever call 
the Christians by any other name. 

GaVilee — circuit. Solomon rewarded 
Hiram for certain services rendered him 
by the gift of an upland plain among the 
mountains of Naphtali. Hiram was dis- 
satisfied with the gift, and called it "the 
land of Cabul" {q.v.). The Jews called it 
Galil. It continued long to be occupied 
by the original inhabitants, and hence 
came to be called "Galilee of the Gen- 
tiles " (Matt. 4 : 15), and also " Upper Gal- 
ilee," to distinguish it from the extensive 
addition afterwards made to it toward the 
south, which was usually called "Lower 
Galilee. " In the time of our Lord, Galilee 
embraced more than one-third of Western 
Palestine, extending "from Dan on the 
north, at the base of Mount Hermon, to 
the ridges of Carmel and Gilboa on the 
south, and from the Jordan valley on the 
east away across the splendid plains of 
Jezreel and Acre to the shores of the Medi- 
terranean on the west." Palestine was 
divided into three provinces — Judea, Sa- 
maria, and Galilee, which comprehended 
the whole northern section of the country 
(Acts 9 : 31 ; 17 : 11), and was the largest of 
the three. 

It was the scene of some of the most 



GALILEE 



274 



GALILEE 








m 



'tmff' 



■^,^^i wi 



^WS'<i^=^.S; 






GERGESA.V, ^/-'-^ 



-— ^^. 




MAP OP THE SEA OF GALILEE. 



memorable events of Jewish history. Gal- 
ilee also was the home of our Lord during 
at least thirty years of his life. The first 
three Gospels are chiefly taken up with 



oiir Lord's public ministry in this province. 
"The entire province is encircled with a 
halo of holy associations connected with 
the life, works, and teachings of Jesus of 



GALILEE 



275 



GALL 



Nazareth." " It is noteworthy that of his 
thirty-two beautiful parables, no less than 
nineteen were spoken in Galilee. And it 
is no less remarkable that of his entire 
thirty -three great miracles, twenty -five 
were wrought in this province. His first 
miracle was wrought at the wedding in 
Cana of Galilee, and his last, after his 
resurrection, on the shore of Galilee's sea. 
In Galilee our Lord delivered the ' sermon 
on the mount,' and the discourses on 'The 
Bread of Life,' on 'Purity,' on 'Forgive- 
ness,' and on 'Humility.' In Galilee he 
called his first disciples ; and there occurred 
the sublime scene of the 'Transfiguration'" 
(Porter's Through Samaria). 

When the Sanhedrim were about to pro- 
ceed with some plan for the condemnation 
of our Lord (John 7 : 45-52), Nicodemus 
interposed in his behalf. (Comp. Deut. 
1 : 16, 17 ; 17 : 8. ) They replied, ' ' Art thou 
also of Galilee?... Out of Galilee ariseth no 
prophet." This saying of theirs was "not 
historically true ; for two prophets at least 
had arisen from Galilee — Jonah of Gath- 
hepher, and the greatest of all the prophets, 
Elijah of Thisbe ; and perhaps also Nahum 
and Hosea. Their contempt for Galilee 
made them lose sight of historical accu- 
racy" (Alford, Com.). 

The Galilean accent differed from that of 
Jerusalem in being broader and more gut- 
tural (Mark 14 : 70). 

Galilee, Sea of (Matt. 4 : 18 ; 15 : 29), is 
mentioned in the Bible under three other 
names. (1.) In the Old Testament it is 
called the "sea of Chinnereth" (Num. 34: 
11 ; Josh. 12 : 3 ; 13 : 27), as is supposed from 
its harp-like shape. (2. ) The "lake of Gen- 
nesareth " once by Luke (5 : 1), from the flat 
district lying on its west coast. (3. ) John 
(6 : 1 ; 21 : 1) calls it the " sea of Tiberias" 
{q.v.). The modern Arabs retain this name, 
Bahr Tahariyeh. 

This lake is 12| miles long, and from 4 
to 7^ broad. Its surface is 682 feet below 
the level of the Mediterranean. Its depth 
is from 80 to 160 feet. The Jordan enters 
it 10| miles below the southern extremity 
of the Huleh Lake, or about 26^ miles from 
its source. In this distance of 26^^ miles 
there is a fall in the river of 1,682 feet, or 



of more than 60 feet to the mile. It is 27 
miles east of the Mediterranean coast, and 
about 60 miles north-east from Jerusalem. 
It is of an oval or pear -like shape, and 
abounds in fish. 

Its present appearance is thus described : 
"The utter loneliness and absolute still- 
ness of the scene are exceedingly impres- 
sive. It seems as if all nature had gone 
to rest, languishing under that scorching 
heat. How different it was in the days of 
our Lord ! Then all was life and bustle 
along the shores ; the cities and villages 
that thickly studded them resounded with 
the hum of a busy population ; while from 
hill-side and corn-field came the cheerful 
cry of shepherd and ploughman. The lake, 
too, was dotted with dark fishing-boats 
and spangled with white sails. Now a 
mournful, solitary silence reigns over sea 
and shore. The cities are in ruins ! " 

This sea is chiefly of interest as associ- 
ated with the public ministry of our Lord. 
Capernaum, "his own city" (Matt. 9:1), 
stood on its shores. Erom among the 
fishermen who plied their calling on its 
waters he chose Peter and his brother 
Andrew, and James and John, to be his 
disciples, and sent them forth to be "fishers 
of men " (Matt. 4 : 18, 22 ; Mark 1 : 16-20 ; 
Luke 5 : 1-11). He stilled its tempest, 
saying to the storm that swept over it, 
"Peace, be still" (Matt. 8:23-27; Mark 
7 : 31-35) ; and here also he showed him- 
self after his resurrection to his disciples 
(John 21). 

Gall. (1.) Heb. mererdh, meaning "bit' 
terness" (Job 16 : 13) ;i.e., the bile secreted 
in the liver. This word is also used of the 
poison of asps (20:14), and of the vitals, 
the seat of life (25). 

(2.) Heb. rosh. In Deut. 32:33 and 
Job 20:16 it denotes the poison of ser- 
pents. In Hos. 10 : 4 the Hebrew word is 
rendered "hemlock." The original prob- 
ably denotes some bitter poisonous plant, 
most probably the poppy, which grows up 
quickly, and is therefore coupled with 
wormwood (Deut. 29:17; Jer. 9:15; Lam. 
3 : 19). Comp. Jer. 8 : 14 ; 23 : 15, " water 
of gall," Gesenius, "poppy juice ;" others 
"water of hemlock," "bitter water." 



GALLERY 



276 



GAMES 



(3.)Gr. choU (Matt. 27:34), the LXX. 
translation of the Hebrew rdsh in Ps. 69 : 
21, which foretells our Lord's sufferings. 
The drink offered to our Lord was vinegar 
(made of light wine rendered acid, the com- 
mon drink of Roman soldiers) "mingled 
with gall," or, according to Mark (15 : 23), 
"mingled with myrrh;" both expressions 
meaning the same thing — namely, that the 
vinegar was made bitter by the infusion of 
wormwood or some other bitter substance, 
usually given, according to a merciful cus- 
tom, as an anodyne to those who were 
crucified, to render them insensible to pain. 
Our Lord, knowing this, refuses to drink it. 
He would take nothing to cloud his facul- 
ties or blunt the pain of dying. He chooses 
to suffer every element of woe in the bitter 
cup of agony given him by the Father 
(John 18 : 11). 

Gaiaery. (1.) Heb. 'atttk (Ezek. 41 : 15, 
16), a terrace ; a projection ; ledge. 

(2.) Heb. rahit (Cant. 1:17), translated 
' ' rafters, " marg. ' ' galleries ; " probably 
panel-work or fretted ceiling. 

Gariim — heaps — (1 Sam. 25 : 44 ; Isa. 
10:30). The native place of Phalti, to 
whom Michal was given by Saul. It was 
probably in Benjamin, to the north of 
Jerusalem. 

Gal^lio, the elder brother of Seneca the 
philosopher, who was tutor and for some 
time minister of the emperor Nero. He 
was "deputy" — i.e., proconsul, as in Re- 
vised Version — of Achaia, under the em- 
peror Claudius, when Paul visited Corinth 
(Acts 18 : 12). The word used here by 
Luke in describing the rank of Gallio 
shows his accuracy. Achaia was a sena- 
torial province under Claudius, and the 
governor of such a province was called a 
"proconsul." He is spoken of by his con- 
temporaries as "sweet Gallio," and is de- 
scribed as a most popular and affectionate 
man. When the Jews brought Paul before 
his tribunal on the charge of persuading 
"men to worship contrary to the law" 
(18 : 13), he refvised to listen to them, and 
"drave them from the judgment seat" 
(18:16). 

Gallows— Heb. "ets, meaning "a tree" 
— (Esther 6:4), a post or gibbet. In Gen. 



40 : 19 and Deut. 21 : 22 the word is ren- 
dered "tree." 

Gamaliel — retvard of God. (1.) A chief 
of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at 
Sinai (Num. 1 : 10 ; 2 : 20 ; 7 : 54, .59). 

(2. ) The son of rabbi Simeon, and grand- 
son of the famous rabbi Hillel. He was a 
Pharisee, and therefore the opponent of 
the party of the Sadducees. He was noted 
for his learning, and was president of the 
Sanhedrim during the reigns of Tiberius, 
Caligula, and Claudius, and died, it is said, 
about eighteen years before the destruction 
of Jerusalem. 

When the apostles were brought before 
the council, charged with preaching the 
resurrection of Jesus, as a zealous Pharisee 
Gamaliel counselled moderation and calm- 
ness. By a reference to well-known events, 
he advised them to "refrain from these 
men." If their work or counsel was of 
man, it would come to nothing ; but if it 
was of God, they could not destroy it, and 
therefore ought to be on their guard lest 
they should be "found fighting against 
God" (Acts 5:34-40). Paul was one of 
his disciples (22 : 3). 

Gaines. (1.) Of children (Zech. 8:5; 
Matt. 11 : 16). The Jewish youth were 
also apparently instructed in the use of 
the bow and the sling ( Judg. 20 : 16 ; 1 Chr. 
12 : 2). 

(2. ) Public games, such as were common 
among the Greeks and Romans, were for- 
eign to the Jewish institutions and cus- 
toms. Reference, however, is made to 
such games in two passages (Ps. 19 : 5 ; 
Eccl. 9 : 11). 

(3.) Among the Greeks and Romans 
games entered largely into their social life. 

(a) Reference in the New Testament is 
made to gladiatorial shows and fights with 
wild beasts (1 Cor. 15 : 22). These were 
common among the Romans, and some- 
times on a large scale. 

(6) Allusion is frequently made to the 
Grecian gymnastic contests (Gal. 2:2; 5:7; 
Phil. 2 : 16 ; 3 : 14 ; 1 Tim. 6 : 12 ; 2 Tim. 
2:5; Heb. 12 : 1, 4, 12). These were very 
numerous. The Olympic, Pythian, Nem- 
ean, and Isthmian games were esteemed as 
of great national importance, and the vie- 



GAMIMADIM 



277 



GATE 



tors at any of these games of wrestling, 
racing, etc., were esteemed as the noblest 
and the happiest of mortals. 

Gam^madim (Ex. 27 : 11) — h7'ave xoar- 
riors ; R.V. marg,, "valorous men;" 
others interpret this word as meaning 
"short-swordsmen," or "daring ones" — 
the name of a class of men who were de- 
fenders of the towers of Tyre. 

Ga''inul — loeaned — the leader of one of 
the priestly courses (1 Chr. 24 : 17). 

Gap, a rent or opening in a wall (Ezek. 
13 : ; comp. Amos 4 : 3). The false pro- 
phets did not stand in the gap (Ezek. 22 : 
30) — i.e., they did nothing to stop the out- 
break of wickedness. 

Gar^dens mentioned in Scrijoture — of 
Eden (Gen. 2:8, 9); Ahab's garden of 
herbs (1 Kings 21 : 2) ; the royal garden 
(2 Kings 21 : 18) ; the royal garden at Susa 
(Esther 1:5); the garden of Joseph of 
Arimathea (John 19 : 41) ; of Gethsemane 
(John 18 : 1). 

The "king's garden" mentioned 2 Kings 
25:4, Neh. 3:15, was near the Pool of 
Siloam. 

Gardens were surrounded by hedges of 
thorns (Isa. 5 : 5) or by walls of stone (Pro v. 
24:31). "Watch-towers" or "lodges" 
Avere also built in them (Isa. 1:8; Mark 
12 : 1), in which their keepers sat. On 
accoimt of their retirement they were fre- 
quently used as places for secret prayer 
and communion mth God (Gen. 24 : 63 ; 
Matt. 16 : 30 ; 26 : 36 ; John 2 : 48 ; 18 : 1, 2). 
The dead were sometimes buried in gar- 
dens (Gen. 23:19, 20; 2 Kings 21:4, 18, 
26; 1 Sam. 25:1; Mark 15:46; John 
19 : 41). 

Ga''reb— scabby ; itch. (1. ) One of David's 
warriors (2 Sam, 23 : 38), an Ithrite. 

(2.) A hill near Jerusalem (Jer. 31:39), 
probably the hill of lepers, and conse- 
quently a place outside the boundary of 
the cit3\ 

Garlands (Acts 14:13). In heathen 
sacrifices the victims were adorned with 
fillets and garlands made of wool, with 
leaves and flowers interwoven. The altar 
and the priests and attendants wei-e also 
in like manner adorned. 

Gar''lic (Heb, shUm, from its strong 



odour), mentioned only once (Num. 11 : 5). 
The garlic common in Eastern countries is 
the Allium sativum or Allium, Ascalonicum, 
so called from its having been brought into 
Europe from Ascalon by the Crusaders. 
It is now known by the name of " shallot " 
or "eschalot." 

Gardner. (1.) Heb. 'otsdr, a treasure; a 
store of goods laid up, and hence also the 
place where they are deposited (Joel 1 : 17; 

2 Chr. 32:27, rendered "treasury"). 

(2.) Heb. mezev, a cell, storeroom (Ps. 
144 : 13) ; Gr. apotheke, a place for storing 
anything, a granary (Matt, 3 : 12 ; Luke 
3 : 17). 

Gar'nish, overlay with stones (2 Chr. 

3 : 6), adorn (Rev, 21 : 19), deck with gar- 
lands (Matt. 23 : 29), furnish (12 : 44). 

In Job 26 : 13 (Heb. shiphrdh, meaning 
" brightness "), " By his spirit the heavens 
are brightness" — i.e., are bright, splendid, 
beautiful. 

Gar^rison. (1.) Heb. matstsdb, a sta- 
tion; a place where one stands (1 Sam. 
14 : 12) ; a military or fortified post (1 Sam. 
13:23; 14:1, 4, 6, etc). 

(2.) Heb. nets lb, a praefect, superinten- 
dent ; hence a military post (1 Sam. 10 : 
5 ; 13 : 3, 4 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 6). This word has 
also been explained to denote a pillar set 
up to mark the Philistine conquest, or 
an oficer appointed to collect taxes ; but 
the idea of a military post seems to be the 
correct one. 

(3.) Heb. matstsebah, properly a monu- 
mental column ; improperly rendered pi. 
"garrisons" in Ezek. 26:11; correctly in 
Revised Version "pillars," marg. "obe- 
lisks," probably an idolatrous image. 

Gate. (1,) Of cities, as of Jerusalem 
(Jer. 37:13; Neh, 1:3; 2:3; 5:3), of 
Sodom (Gen. 19 : 1), of Gaza (Judg. 16 : 3). 

(2.) Of royal palaces (Neh. 3 : 8). 

(3.) Of the temple of Solomon (1 Kings 
6:34, 35; 2 Kings 18:16); of the holy 
place (1 Kings 6:31, 32; Ezek, 41:23, 
24) ; of the outer courts of the temple, the 
Beautiful gate (Acts 3 : 2), 

(4.) Tombs (Matt. 27:60). 

(5,) Prisons (Acts 12 :10 ; 16 : 27). 

(6.) Caverns (1 Kings 19 : 13). 

(7.) Camps (Ex. 32 : 26, 27 ; Heb. 13 : 12). 



GATH 



278 



GEBA 



The materials of which gates were made 
were, — 

(1.) Iron and brass (Ps. 107:16; Isa. 
45 : 2 ; Acts 12 : 10). 

(2.) Stone and pearls (Isa. 54:12; Hev. 
21 : 12). 

(3.) Wood (Judg. 16 : 3) probably. 

At the gates of cities courts of justice 
were frequently held, and hence "judges 
of the gate " are spoken of (Deut. 16 : 18 ; 
17 : 8 ; 21 : 19 ; 25 : 6, 7, etc.). At the gates 
prophets also frequently deUvered their 
messages (Prov, 1 : 21 ; 8:3; Isa. 29 : 21 ; 
Jer. 17 : 19, 20 ; 26 : 10). Criminals were 
punished without the gates (1 Kings 21 : 
13 ; Acts 7 : 59). By the "gates of righte- 
ousness" we are probably to understand 
those of the temple (Ps. 118:19). "The 
gates of hell" (R.V., "gates of Hades") 
— Matt. 16 : 19 — are generally interpreted 
as meaning the power of Satan, but prob- 
ably they may mean the power of death, 
denoting that the Church of Christ shall 
never die. 

Gath — a loine-vat — one of the five royal 
cities of the Philistines (Josh. 13 : 3) on 
which the ark brought calamity (1 Sam. 5 : 
'8, 9 ; 6 : 17). It was famous also as being 
the birthplace or residence of Goliath 
(1 Sam. 17 : 4). David fled from Saul to 
Achish, king of Gath (1 Sam. 21 : 10 ; 27 : 
2-4; Ps. 56), and his connection with it 
will account for the words in 2 Sam. 1 : 20. 
It was afterwards conquered by David 
(2 Sam. 8 : 1). It occupied a strong posi- 
tion on the borders of Judah and Philistia 
(1 Sam. 21 : 10 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 1). Its site has 
been identified with the hill called Tell es- 
Sdfieh, the Alba Specula of the Middle 
Ages, which rises 695 feet above the plain 
on its east edge. It commanded the mouth 
of the valley of Elah. (See Metheg- 

AMMAH.) 

Gath-he^pher — wine-press of the hill — a 
town of Lower Galilee, about 5 miles from 
Nazareth ; the birthplace of Jonah (2 Kings 
14 : 25) ; the same as Gittah-hepher (Josh. 
19 : 13). It has been identified with the 
modern el-Meshed, a village on the top of 
a rocky hill. Here the supposed tomb of 
Jonah, Nehy Yunas, is still pointed out. 

Gath-rim''xnoii— ;oress of the pomegranate. 



(1.) A Levitical city in the tribe of Dan 
(Josh. 19 : 45 ; 21 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 69). 

(2.) Another city of the same name in 
Manasseh, west of the Jordan (Josh. 21 : 
25), called also Bileam (1 Chr. 6 : 70). 

Gaulani^tis, a name derived from "Go- 
lan" iq.v.), one of the cities of refuge in the 
territory of Manasseh (Josh. 20 : 8 ; 21 : 27; 
Deut. 4 : 43). This was one of the provinces 
ruled by Herod Antipas. It lay to the 
east of the Lake of Galilee, and included 
among its towns Bethsaida-Julias (Mark 
8 : 22) and Seleucia. 

Ga''za, called also Azzah, which is its 
Hebrew name (Deut. 2 : 23 ; 1 Kings 4 : 14 ; 
Jer. 25 : 20) — strong — a city on the Medi- 
terranean shore, remarkable for its early 
importance as the chief centre of a great 
commercial traffic with Egypt. It is one 
of the oldest cities of the world (Gen. 10 : 
19 ; Josh. 15 : 47). Its earliest inhabitants 
were the Avims, who were conquered and 
displaced by the Caphtorims (Deut. 2 : 23 ; 
Josh. 13 : 2, 3), a Philistine tribe. In the 
division of the land it fell to the lot of 
Judah (Josh. 15:47; Judg. 1:18). It 
was the southernmost of the five great 
Philistine cities which gave each a golden 
emerod as a trespass - offering unto the 
Lord (1 Sam. 6 : 17). Its gates were carried 
away by Samson (Judg. 16 : 1-3). Here he 
was afterwards a prisoner, and "did grind 
in the prison house." Here he also pulled 
down the temple of Dagon, and slew "all 
the lords of the Philistines," himself also 
perishing in the ruin (Judg. 16 : 21-30). 
The prophets denounce the judgments of 
God against it (Jer. 25 : 20 ; 47 : 5 ; Amos 
1 : 6, 7 ; Zeph. 2 : 4). It is referred to in 
Acts 8 : 26. Philip is here told to take 
the road from Jerusalem to Gaza (about 6 
miles south-west of Jerusalem), "which is 
desert" — i.e., the "desert road," probably 
by Hebron, through the desert hills of 
Southern Judea. (See Samson.) 

Its modern name is Ghuzzeh. It contains 
about ten thousand inhabitants, chiefly 
Mohammedans. 

Ge^ba— i/te hill—{'2. Sam. 5 :25 [1 Chr. 14: 
16, "Gibeon"]; 2 Kings 23: 8; Neh.ll:31), 
a Levitical city of Benjamin (1 Kings 15 : 22 ; 
1 Sam. 13:16; 14:5, wrongly "Gibeah" 



GEBAL 



279 



GEHENNA 



in the A.V.), on the north border of Judah 
near Gibeah (Isa. 10 : 29 ; Josh. 18 : 24, 28). 
" From Geba to Beersheba " expressed the 
whole extent of the kingdom, of Judah, just 
as ''from Dan to Beersheba" described the 
whole length of Palestine (2 Kings 23 : 8). 
It has been identified with Gaba (Josh. 
18 : 24 ; Ezra 2 : 26 ; Neh. 7 : 30), now JeVa, 
about 3 miles north-east of Tell el-FM, and 
5| miles north of Jerusalem. 

Some identify this town with Gibeah 
[q.v.), but these were probably different 
places. 

Ge'bal — a line (or natural boundary, as 
a mountain range). (1.) A tract in the 
land of Edom south of the Dead Sea (Ps. 
83 : 7) ; now called Djebdl. 

(2. ) A Phoenician city, not far from the 
sea coast, to the north of Beyrout (Ezek. 
27 : 9) ; called by the Greeks By bios. Now 
Jiheil. 

Ge^balites (1 Kings 5:18 R.V., inA.V. 
incorrectly rendered, after the Targum, 
"stone-squarers," but marg. "Giblites"), 
the inhabitants of Gebal (2). 

Ge'ber — a valiant man — (1 Kings 4 : 19), 
one of Solomon's purveyors, having juris- 
diction over a part of Gilead, comprising 
^11 the kingdom of Sihon and part of the 
kingdom of Og (Deut. 2 ; 3). 

Ge^toim—ctsferTis— (rendered ' ' pits, " Jer. 
14 : 3 ; "locusts," Isa. 33 : 4), a small place 
north of Jerusalem, whose inhabitants fled 
at the approach of the Assyrian army (Isa. 
10:31). It is probably the modern el- 
Isaioiyeh. 

Gedali^ah — made great hy Jehovah. 
(1.) The son of Jeduthun (1 Chr. 25 : 3, 9). 
(2. ) The grandfather of the prophet Zeph- 
aniah, and the father of Cushi (Zeph. 1:1). 
(3. ) One of the Jewish nobles who conspired 
against Jeremiah (Jer. 38:1). (4.) The 
son of Ahikam, and grandson of Shaphan, 
secretary of king Josiah (Jer. 26 : 24). 
After the destruction of Jerusalem (see 
Zedekiah), Nebuchadnezzar left him to 
govern the country as tributary to him 
(1 Kings 25 : 22 ; Jer. 40 : 5 ; 52 : 16). Ish- 
mael, however, at the head of a party of 
the royal family — "Jewish irreconcilables " 
— rose against him, and slew him and "all 
the Jews that were with him " (Jer. 41 : 2, 



3) at Mizpah about three months after the 
destruction of Jerusalem. He and his 
band also plundered the town of Mizpah, 
and carried off many captives. He was, 
however, overtaken by Johanan and routed. 
He fled with such of his followers as escaped 
to the Ammonites (41 : 15). The little rem- 
nant of the Jews now fled to Egypt. 

Gender— a walled place— {3osh.. 12:13), 
perhaps the same as Gederah or Gedor 
(15 : 58). 

Gede'^rah — the fortress ; a fortified place — - 
a town in the plain {shephelah) of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 36). This is a very common 
Canaanite and Phoenician name. It is the 
feminine form of Geder (12 : 13) ; the plural 
form is Gederoth (41). This place has by 
some been identified with Jedireh, a ruin 
9 miles from Lydda, toward Eleutheropolis, 
and 4 miles north of Sur'ah (Zorah), in the 
valley of Elah. 

Gede^rathite, an epithet applied to 
Josabad, one of David's warriors at Ziklag 
(1 Chr. 12 : 4), a native of Gederah. 

Ge^dor — a wall. (1.) A city in the 
mountains or hill country of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 58), identified with Jeddr, between 
Jerusalem and Hebron. 

(2.) 1 Chr. 4:40, the Gederah of Josh. 15: 
36, or the well-known Gerar, as the LXX. 
read, where the patriarchs of old had so- 
joiTrned and fed their flocks (Gen. 20 : 1, 
14, 15 ; 26 : 1, 6, 14). 

(3.) A town apparently in Benjamin 
(2 Chr. 12 : 7), the same probably as Geder 
(Josh. 12 : 13). 

Geha^zi — valley of vision — Elisha's 
trusted servant (2 Kings 4 : 31 ; 5 : 25 ; 8 : 
4, 5). He appears in connection with the 
history of the Shunammite (2 Kings 4 : 
14, 31) and of Naaman the Syrian. On 
this latter occasion he was guilty of du- 
plicity and dishonesty of conduct, causing 
Elisha to denounce his crime with righte- 
ous sternness, and pass on him the terrible 
doom that the leprosy of Naaman would 
cleave to him and his for ever (5 : 20-27). 

He afterwards appeared before king 
Joram, to whom he recounted the great 
deeds of his master (2 Kings 8 : 1-6). 

Gehen^na (originally Ge bene Hinnom; 
i.e., "the valley of the sons of Hinnom ")> 



GELILOTH 



280 



GENESIS 



a deep, narrow glen to the south of Jeni- 
salem, where the idolatrous Jews offered 
their children in sacrifice to Molech (2 Chr. 
28:3; 33:6; Jer. 7:31; 19:2-6). This 
valley afterwards became the common re- 
ceptacle for all the refuse of the city. Here 
the dead bodies of animals and of criminals, 
and all kinds of filth, were cast and con- 
sumed by fire kept always burning. It 
thus in process of time became the image 
of the place of everlasting destruction. In 
this sense it is used by our Lord in Matt. 
5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; 
Mark 9 : 43, 45, 47 ; Luke 12 : 5. In these 
passages, and also in James 3 : 6, the word 
is uniformly rendered "hell," the Revised 
Version placing " Gehenna" in the margin, 
(See Hell; Hinnom.) 

Geli^loth— circles; regions— z> place in the 
border of Benjamin (Josh, 18:17); called 
Qilgal in 15 : 17. 

Gemari^ah — Jehovah has ttwde perfect. 
(1.) The son of Shaphan, and one of the 
Levites of the temple in the time of Je- 
hoiakim (Jer. 36:10; 2 Kings 15:35). 
Baruch read aloud to the people from 
Gemariah's chamber, and again in the 
hearing of Gemariah and other scribes, the 
prophecies of Jeremiah (Jer. 36 : 11-20), 
which filled him with terror. He joined 
with others in entreating the king not to 
destroy the roll of the prophecies which 
Baruch had read (21-25). 

(2.) The son of Hilkiah, who accom- 
panied Shaphan with the tribute-money 
from Zedekiah to Nebuchadnezzar, and 
was the bearer at the same time of a letter 
from Jeremiah to the Jewish captives at 
Babylon (Jer. 29 : 3, 4). 

Genera^tion. Gen. 2:4, "These are 
the generations," means the "history." 
5:1, "The book of the generations," means 
a family register, or history of Adam. 
37:2, "The generations of Jacob " = the 
history of Jacob and his descendants. 
7:1, "In this generation " = in this age. 
Ps. 49:19, "The generation of his fathers" 
=the dwelling of his fathers — i.e., the grave. 
Ps. 73:15, "The generation of thy chil- 
dren "=the contemporary race. Isa. 53 : 8, 
"Who shall declare his generation? "= 
His manner of life who shall declare? or 



rather = His race, posterity, shall be so 
numerous that no one shall be able to 
declare it. 

In Matt. 1:17, the word means a suc- 
cession or series of persons from the same 
stock. Matt, 3 : 7, "Generation of vipers " 
= brood of vipers. 24:34, "This gener- 
ation " = the persons then living contem- 
porary with Christ. 1 Pet. 2:8, "A chosen 
generation " = a chosen people. 

The Hebrews seem to have reckoned 
time by the generation. In the time of 
Abraham a generation was an hundred 
years, thus : Gen. 15 : 16, " In the fourth 
generation "=in four hundred years (comp, 
verse 13 and Ex, 12 : 10). In Deut, 1 : 35 
and 2 : 14 a generation is a period of thirty - 
eight years, 

Gen^esis. The five books of Moses were 
collectively called the Pentateuch, a word of 
Greek origin meaning "the five-fold book." 
The Jews called them the Torah — i.e., "the 
law. " It is probable that the division of 
the Torah into five books proceeded from 
the Greek translators of the Old Testa- 
ment, The names by which these several 
books are generally known are Greek, 

The first book of the Pentateuch {q.v.) is 
called by the Jews Bereshith — i.e., "in the 
beginning" — because this is the first word 
of the book. It is generally known among 
Christians by the name of Genesis — i.e., 
"creation" or "generation," being the 
name given to it in the LXX. as designat- 
ing its character, because it gives an account 
of the origin of all things. It contains, 
according to the usual computation, the 
history of about two thousand three hun- 
dred and sixty-nine years. 

Genesis is divided into two principal 
parts. The first part (1-11) gives a general 
history of mankind down to the time of the 
Dispersion, The second part presents the 
early history of Israel down to the death 
and burial of Joseph (12-50), 

There are five principal persons brought 
in succession under our notice in this book, 
and around these persons the history of the 
sviccessive periods is grouped — viz., Adam 
(1-3), Noah (4-9),' Abraham (10-25:18), 
Isaac (25 : 19-35 : 29), and Jacob (36-50), 

In this book we have several prophecies 



GENNESARET 



282 



GEKIZIM 



concerning Christ (3 : 15 ; 12 : 3 ; 18 : 18 ; 
22 : 18 ; 26 : 4 ; 28 : 14 ; 49 : 10). 

There are " two chapters in Genesis to 
tell how the world was created, then six- 
teen chapters to tell us how the tabernacle 
was built. Eor the world was made for the 
sake of the church ; and the great object 
of all creation is to glorify God in the re- 
demption and sanctification of his people " 
(Bengel's Gnomon). 

Gennes'^aret — a garden of riches. (1.) A 
town of Naphtali called Chinnereth (Josh. 
19 : 35), sometimes in the plural form Chin- 
neroth (11 : 2). In later times the name 
was gradually changed to Genezar and 
Gennesaret (Luke 5 : 1). This city stood 
on the western shore of the lake to which 
it gave its name. No trace of it remains. 
The plain of Gennesaret has been called, 
from its fertility and beauty, "the paradise 
of Galilee." 

(2.) The Lake of Gennesaret, the Grecized 
form of Chinneketh {q.v.). (See Galilee, 
Sea OF.) 

Gen^tiles (Heb. , usually in plural, goyim), 
meaning in general all nations except the 
Jews. In course of time, as the Jews be- 
gan more and more to pride themselves on 
their peculiar privileges, it acquired un- 
pleasant associations, and was used as a 
term of contempt. 

In the New Testament the Greek word 
Hellenes, meaning literally Greeks (as in 
Acts 16 : 1, 3 ; 18 : 17 ; Rom. 1 : 14), gener- 
ally denotes any non-Jewish nation. 

Genu^bath — theft— the, son of Hadad of 
the Edomitish royal family. He was 
brought up in Pharaoh's household. His 
mother was a sister of Tahpenes, the king 
of Egypt's wife (1 Kings 11 : 20). 

Ge^'ra — grain. (1.) The son of Bela and 
grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:3, 5, 7). 

(2.) The father of Ehud the judge (Judg. 
3 : 15). 

(3.) The father of Shimei, who so grossly 
abused David (2 Sam. 16 : 5 ; 19 : 16, 
18). 

Ge^rah — a hean, probably of the carob 
tree — the smallest weight, and also the 
smallest piece of money, among the He- 
brews, equal to the twentieth part of a 
shekel (Ex. 30 : 13 ; Lev. 27 : 25 ; Num. 3 : 



47). This word came into use in the same 
way as our word "grain," from a grain of 
wheat. 

Ge'rar — a region; lodging-place — a very 
ancient town and district in the south bor- 
der of Palestine, which was ruled over by 
a king named Abimelech (Gen. 10 : 19; 20 : 
1, 2). Abraham sojourned here, and per- 
haps Isaac was born in this place. Both 
of these patriarchs were guilty of the sin 
of here denying their wives, and both of 
them entered into a treaty with the king 
before they departed to Beersheba (21 : 23- 
34 ; 26). It seems to have been a rich 
pastoral country (2 Chr. 14 : 12-18). Isaac 
here rea]3ed an hundred-fold (Gen. 26 : 12). 
The "valley of Gerar" (17) was probably 
the modern Wddy el-Jerdr. 

Ger'gesa=Gerasa, identified with the 
modern Khersa, "over against Galilee," 
close to the lake. This Avas probably the 
scene of the miracle, Mark 5:1-20, etc. 
"Erom the base of the great plateau of 
Bashan, 2,000 feet or more overhead, the 
ground slopes down steeply, in places pre- 
cipitously, to the shore. And at the foot 
of the declivity a bold spur runs out to the 
water's edge. By it the frantic swine 
would rush on headlong into the lake and 
perish." — Porter's Through Samaria. (See 
Gadaka.) 

Gerlzim, a mountain of Samaria, about 
3,000 feet above the Mediterranean. It 
Avas on the left of the valley containing 
the ancient town of Shechem {q.v.), on the 
way to Jerusalem. It stood over against 
Mount Ebal, the summits of these moun- 
tains being distant from each other about 
2 miles (Deut. 27 ; Josh. 8 : 30-35). On the 
slopes of this mountain the tribes descended 
from the handmaids of Leah and Rachel,, 
together with the tribe of Reuben, were 
gathered together, and gave the responses 
to the blessings pronounced as the reward 
of obedience, when Joshua in the vaUey be- 
low read the whole law in the hearing of 
all the people ; as those gathered on Ebal 
responded with a loud amen to the rehearsal 
of the curses pronounced on the disobedi- 
ent. It was probably at this time that the 
coffin containing the embalmed body of 
Joseph was laid in the "parcel of ground 



GERSHOM 



283 



GETHSEMANE 



which Jacob bought of the sons of Hamor" 
(Gen. 33 : 19 ; 50 : 25). 

Josephus relates {Ant. 11 : 8, 2-4) that San- 
ballat built a temple for the Samaritans on 
this mountain, and instituted a priesthood, 
as rivals to those of the Jews at Jerusalem, 
This temple was destroyed after it had stood 
two hundred years. It was afterwards re- 
built by Herod the Great. There is a 
Samaritan tradition that it was the scene 
of the incident recorded in Gen. 22. There 
are many ruins on this mountain, some of 
which are e\idently of Christian buildings. 
To this mountain the woman of Sychar re- 
ferred in John 4 : 20. For centuries Geri- 
zim was the centre of poHtical outbreaks. 
The Samaritans {q.v.), a small but united 
body, still linger here, and keep up their 
ancient ceremonial worship. 

Ger'shom— expulsion. (1.) The eldest 
son of Levi (1 Chr. 6 : 16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71; 
15 : 7)=Geeshon (q.v.). 

(2.) The elder of the two sons of Moses 
born to him in Midian (Ex. 2 : 22 ; 18 : 4). 
On his way to Egypt with his family, in 
obedience to the command of the Lord, 
Moses was attacked by a sudden and dan- 
gerous illness (4 : 24-27), which Zipporah 
his wife believed to have been sent because 
he had neglected to circumcise his son. 
She accordingly took a "sharp stone" and 
circumcised her son Gershom, saying, 
"Surely a bloody husband art thou to me" 
• — i.e., by the blood of her child she had, 
as it were, purchased her husband — had 
won him back agairi. 

(3.) A descendant of Phinehas who re- 
turned with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra 
8:2). 

(4.) The son of Manasseh (Judg. 18 : 30), 
inR.V. "of Moses." 

Ger ''shon = Ger'shom — expu Ision — the 
eldest of Levi's three sons (Gen. 46:11; 
Ex. 6 : 16). 

In the wilderness the sons of Gershon 
had charge of the fabrics of the tabernacle 
when it was moved from place to place— 
the curtains, veils, tent-hangings (Num. 4 : 
22-26). Thirteen Levitical cities fell to 
the lot of the Gershonites (Josh. 21 : 27-33). 

Ge^shexn or Gashmn— firmness — prob- 
ably chief of the Arabs south of Palestine, 



one of the enemies of the Jews after the 
return from Babylon (Neh. 2 : 19 ; 6 : 1, 2). 
He united with Sanballat and Tobiah in 
opposing the rebuilding of the wall of 
Jerusalem. 

Ge^shur — bridge — the name of a district 
or principality of Syria near Gilead, be- 
tween Mount Hermon and the Lake of 
Tiberias (2 Sam. 15 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 23). The 
Geshurites probably inhabited the rocky 
fastness of Argob, the modern Lejdh, in 
the north-east corner of Bashan. In the 
time of David it was ruled by Talmai, 
whose daughter he married, and who was 
the mother of Absalom, who fled to Geshur 
after the murder of Amnon (2 Sam. 13 : 
37). 

Gesh^'urites. (1.) The inhabitants of 
Geshur. They maintained friendly rela- 
tions with the Israelites on the east of 
Jordan (Josh. 12 : 5 ; 13 : 11, 13). 

(2.) Another aboriginal people of Pales- 
tine who inhabited the south-west border 
of the land. Geshuri in Josh. 13 : 2 should 
be "the Geshurite," not the Geshurites 
mentioned in ver. 11, 13, but the tribe 
mentioned in 1 Sam. 27 : 8. 

Gethsem^ane — oil-press — the name of 
an olive-yard at the foot of the Mount of 
Olives, to which Jesus was wont to retire 
(Luke 22 : 39) ^^dth his disciples, and which 
is specially memorable as being the scene 
of his agony (Mark 14:32; John 18:1; 
Luke 22 : 44). The plot of ground pointed 
out as Gethsemane is now surrounded by a 
wall, and is laid out as a modern European 
flower-garden. It contains eight venerable 
olive-trees, the age of which cannot, how- 
ever, be determined. The exact site of 
Gethsemane is still in question. Dr. 
Thomson [The Land and the Book) says : 
" When I first came to Jerusalem, and for 
many years afterward, this plot of ground 
was open to all whenever they chose to come 
and meditate beneath its very old olive- 
trees. The Latins, however, have witliin 
the last few years succeeded in gaining 
sole possession, and have built a high wall 

around it The Greeks have invented 

another site a little to the north of it 

My own impression is that both are wrong. 
The position is too near the city, and so 



GEZER 



284 



GIANTS 



close to what must have always been the 
great thoroughfare eastward, that our Lord 
would scarcely have selected it for retire- 
ment on that dangerous and dismal night 

I am inclined to place the garden in 

the secluded vale several hundred yards to 
the north-east of the present Gethsemane." 
Gc'zer — a precipice — an ancient royal 
Canaanitish city (Josh. 10 : 33 ; 12 : 12). It 
was allotted with its suburbs to the Ko- 
hathite Levites (21 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 67). It 
stood between the lower Beth-horon and 



the sea (Josh. 16 : 3 ; 1 Kings 9 : 17). It 
was the last point to which David pursued 
the Philistines (2 Sam. 5 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 
16) after the battle of Baal-perazim. The 
Canaanites retained possession of it till 
the time of Solomon, when the king of 
Egypt took it and gave it to Solomon as a 
part of the dowry of the Egyptian princess 
whom he married (1 Kings 9 : 13-16). It 
is identified with Tell el-Jezer, about 10 
miles south-west of Beth-horon, and 4 from 
Nicopolis. 




GETHSEMANE AT THE PRESENT DAY. 



Ghost, an old Saxon word equivalent to 
soul or spirit. It is the translation of the 
Hebrew nephesh and the Greek pneuma, 
both meaning "breath," "life," "spirit," 
the "living principle" (Job 11: 20; Jer. 15: 
9; Matt. 27:50; John 19:30). The expres- 
sion "to give up the ghost" means to die 
(Lam. 1 : 19 ; Gen. 25 : 17 ; 35 : 29 ; 49 : 33 ; 
Job 3 : 11). (See Holy Ghost. ) 

Gi^ants. (1.) Heb. nephilim, meaning 
"violent " or " causing to fall " (Gen. 6 : 4). 
These were the violent tyrants of those 



days, those who fell upon others. The 
word may also be derived from a root sig-' 
nifying "wonder," and hence "monsters " 
or " prodigies." In Num. 13 : 33 this name 
is given to a Canaanitish tribe, a race of 
large stature, "the sons of Anak." The 
Revised Version, in these passages, simply 
transliterates the original, and reads " Ne- 
philim." 

(2.) Heb. rephaim, a race of giants 
(Deut. 3 : 11) who lived on the east of 
Jordan, from whom Og was descended. 



GIANTS 



285 



GIBEAH-HAARALOTH 



They were probably the original inhabit- 
ants of the land before the immigration of 
the Canaanites. They were conquered by 
Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 5), and their ter- 
ritories were promised as a possession to 
Abraham (15 : 20). The Anakim, Zuzim, 
and Emim were branches of this stock. 

In Job 26:5 (R. v., "they that are de- 
ceased;" marg., "the shades," the "Re- 
phaim ") and Isa. 14 : 9 this Hebrew word 
is rendered (A.V.) " dead." It means here 
"the shades," the departed spirits in 
Sheol. In 2 Sam. 21 : 16, 18, 20, 22, "the 
giant" is (A.V.) the rendering of the sin- 
gular form ha rdphcih, which may possibly 
be the name of the father of the four 
giants referred to here, or of the founder 
of the Rephaim. The Vulgate here reads 
"Ar^pha," whence Milton (iii Samson 
Agonistes) has borrowed the name "Har^- 
pha." (See also 1 Chron. 20 : 5, 6, 8 ; Deut. 
2:11, 20; 3:13; Josh. 15:8, etc., where 
the word is similarly rendered "giant.") 
It is rendered " dead " in (A.V.) Ps. 88 : 10; 
Prov. 2:18; 9:18; 21:16: in all these 
places the Revised Version marg. has "the 
shades." (See also Isa. 26 : 14.) 

(3.) Heb. 'Anakim (Deut. 2:10, 11, 21; 
Josh. 11 : 21, 22 ; 14 : 12, 15 ; called "sons of 
Anak," Num. 13 : 33 ; " children of Anak," 
13 : 22 ; Josh. 15 : 14), a nomad race of 
giants descended from Arba (Josh. 14 : 15), 
the father of Anak, that dwelt in the south 
of Palestine near Hebron (Gen. 23 : 2 ; 
Josh. 15 : 13). They were a Cushite tribe 
of the same race as the Philistines and 
the Egyptian shepherd kings. David on 
several occasions encountered them (2 Sam. 
21 : 15-22). From this race sprung Goliath 
(1 Sam. 17 : 4). 

(4.) Heb. 'emhn, a warlike tribe of the 
ancient Canaanites. They were "great, 
and many, and tall, as the Anakims " (Gen. 
14 : 5 ; Deut. 2 : 10, 11). 

(5.) Heb. Zamzumvitm [q.v.) — Deut. 2 : 20 
— so called by the Amorites. 

(6.) Heb. gibbor (Job 16:14), a mighty 
one — i.e., a champion or hero. In its plural 
form {gibbortm) it is rendered "mighty 
men " (2 Sam. 23 : 8-39 ; 1 Kings 1 : 8 ; 1 
Chr. 11:9-47; 29:24.) The band of six 
hundred whom David gathered around him 



when he was a fugitive were so designated. 
They were divided into three divisions of 
two hundred each, and thirty divisions of 
twenty each. The captains of the thirty 
divisions were called " the thirty," the cap- 
tains of the two hundred "the three," and 
the captain over the whole was called " the 
captain of the mighty men. " 

The sons born of the marriages men- 
tioned in Gen. 6 : 4 are also called by this 
Hebrew name. 

Gib'bethon — a height — a city of the 
Philistines in the territory of Dan, given 
to the Kohathites (Josh. 19 : 44 ; 21 : 23). 
Nadab the king of Israel, while besieging 
it, was slain under its walls by Baasha, one 
of his own officers (1 Kings 15 : 27). It was 
in the possession of the Philistines after 
the secession of the ten tribes (2 Chr. 11 : 
13, 14). 

Gib'eah — a hill or hill-toicn — "of Ben- 
jamin " (1 Sam. 13 : 15), better known as 
" Gibeah of Saul " (11 : 4 ; Isa. 10 : 29). It 
was here that the terrible outrage was 
committed on the Levite's concubine 
which led to the almost utter extirpation 
of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 19; 20), 
only six hundred men surviving after a 
succession of disastrous battles. This was 
the birthplace of Saul, and continued to 
be his residence after he became king (1 
Sam. 10 : 26 ; 11 : 4 ; 15 : 33). It was reck- 
oned among the ancient sanctuaries of 
Palestine (10 : 56 ; 15 : 34 ; 23 : 19 ; 26 : 1 ; 
2 Sam. 21 : 6-10), and hence it is called 
"Gibeah of God" (1 Sam. 10:4, R.V. 
marg.). It has been identified with the 
modern Tell el-Fiil [i.e., "hill of the bean "), 
aboiit 3 miles north of Jerusalem. 

Gib'eah of Judah (Josh. 15 : 57), a city 
in the mountains of Judah, the modern 
Jeba, on a hill in the Wady Musurr, about 
7| miles west-south-west of Bethlehem. 

Gib'eah of Phinehas (Josh. 15:57, 
R.V. marg.), a city on Mount Ephraim 
which had been given to Phinehas (24 : 33 
"hill," A.V. ; R.V. marg. and Heb., 
"Gibeah."). Here Eleazar the son of 
Aaron was buried. It has been identified 
with the modern Khurbet Jibia, 5 miles 
north of Guphna towards Shechem, 

Gib'eah-haar'aloth (Josh. 5 : 3, marg. ) 

19 



GIBEON 



286 



GIBEON 



— hill of the foreskins — a place at Gilgal 
where those who had been born in the 
wilderness were circumcised. All the 
others — i.e., those who were under twenty 
years old at the time of the sentence at 
Kadesh — had already been circumcised. 

Gib^eon — hill-city— '^ one of the royal 
cities, greater than Ai, and all the men 
thereof were mighty " (Josh. 10 : 2). Its 
inhabitants were Hivites (11 : 19). It lay 
within the territory of Benjamin, and be- 
came a priest-city (18 : 25 ; 21 : 17). Here 
the tabernacle was set up after the destruc- 
tion of Nob, and here it remained many 
years till the temple was built by Solo- 
mon. It is represented by the modern 
el-Jlh, to the south-west of Ai, and about 
5^ miles north-north-west of Jerusalem. 

A deputation of the Gibeonites, with their 
allies from three other cities (Josh. 9 : 17), 
visited the camp at Gilgal, and by false 
representations induced Joshua to enter 
into a league with them, although the Is- 
raelites had been specially warned against 
any league with the inhabitants of Canaan 
(Ex. 23 : 32 ; 34 : 12 ; Num. 33 : 55 ; Deut. 
7 : 2). The deception practised on Joshua 
was detected three days later ; biit the oath 
rashly sworn "by Jehovah God of Israel" 
was kept, and the lives of the Gibeonites 
were spared. They were, however, made 
"bondmen" to the sanctuary (Josh. 9:23). 

The most remarkable incident connected 
with this city was the victory Joshua 
gained over the kings of Palestine (Josh. 
10 : 16-27). The battle here fought has been 
regarded as " one of the most important in 
the history of the world." The kings of 
southern Canaan entered into a confederacy 
against Gibeon (because it had entered into 
a league with Joshua) under the leader- 
ship of Adoni-zedec, king of Jerusalem, and 
marched upon Gibeon with the view of 
taking possession of it. The Gibeonites 
entreated Joshua to come to their aid with 
the utmost speed. His army came sud- 
denly upon that of the Amorite kings as 
it lay encamped before the city. It was 
completely routed, and only broken rem- 
nants of their great host found refuge in 
the fenced cities. The five confederate 
kings who led the army were taken prison- 



ers, and put to death at Makkedah {q.v.). 
This eventful battle of Beth-horon sealed 
the fate of all the cities of Southern Pales- 
tine. 

This place is again brought into notice 
as the scene of a battle between the army 
of Ish-bosheth under Abner and that of 
David led by Joab. At the suggestion of 
Abner, to spare the effusion of blood, 
twelve men on either side were chosen to 
decide the battle. The issue was unex- 
pected ; for each of the men slew his fel- 
low, and thus they all perished. The two 
armies then engaged in battle, in which 
Abner and his host were routed and put 
to flight (2 Sam. 2 : 12-17). Only nineteen 
of David's men fell in this battle besides 
Asahel, whom Abner pierced through and 
through with the butt-end of his spear ; 
while Abner lost three hundred and sixty 
of his men. This battle led to a virtual 
truce between Judah and Israel — Judah, 
under David, increasing in power ; and 
Israel, under Ish-bosheth, continually los- 
ing ground. 

Soon after the death of Absalom and 
David's restoration to his throne his king- 
dom was visited by a grievous famine, 
which was found to be a punishment for 
Saul's violation (2 Sam. 21 : 2, 5) of the 
covenant with the Gibeonites (Josh. 9 : 3- 
27). The Gibeonites demanded blood for 
the wrong that had been done to them, 
and accordingly David gave up to them 
the two sons of Pizpah {q.v.) and the five 
sons of Michal, and these the Gibeonites 
took and hanged or crucified "in the 
hill before the Lord " (2 Sam. 21 : 9) ; and 
there the bodies hung for six months (21 : 
10), and all the while Rizpah watched over 
the blackening corpses and "suffered 
neither the birds of the air to rest on 
them by day, nor the beasts of the field by 
night." David afterwards removed the 
remains, and had them buried with the 
bones of Saul and Jonathan at Jabesh- 
gilead (21 : 12, 13). 

Here also, "at the great stone," Amasa 
was put to death by Joab (20 : 5-10). To 
the altar of burnt-offering which was at 
Gibeon, Joab (1 Kings 2:28-34), who had 
taken the side of Adonijah, fled for sane- 



GIDEOX 



28: 



GIFT 



tuary in the beginning of Solomon's reign, 
and "svas there also slain by the hand of 
Benaiah. 

Soon after he came to the throne, Solo- 
mon paid a visit of state to Gibeon, there 
to offer sacrifices (1 Kings 3 : 4 ; 2 Chr. 
1:3). On this occasion the Lord a]> 
peared to him in a memorable dream, re- 
corded in 1 Kings 3 : 5-15 ; 2 Chr. 1 : 7-12. 
When the temple was built "all the men 
of Israel assembled themselves" to king 
Solomon, and brought up from Gibeon the 
tabernacle and "all the holy vessels that 
were in the tabernacle " to Jerusalem, 
where they remained till they were carried 
away by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24 : 13). 

Gid^eon, called also Jerubbaal ( Judg. 6 : 
29, 32), was the first of the judges whose 
history is circumstantially narrated (Judg. 
6-8). His calling is the commencement of 
the second period in the history of the 
judges. After the victory gained by Deb- 
orah and Barak over Jabin, Israel once 
more sank into idolatry, and the Midian- 
ites iq.v.) and Amalekites, "v^dth other " chil- 
dren of the east," crossed the Jordan each 
year for seven successive years for the pur- 
pose of plundering and desolating the land. 
Gideon received a direct call from God to 
undertake the task of delivering the land 
from these warlike invaders. He was of 
the family of Abiezer (Josh. 17 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 
7 : 18), and of the little township of Ophrah 
(Judg. 6 : 11). First, with ten of his ser- 
vants, he overthrew the altars of Baal and 
cut down the asherah which was upon it, 
and then blew the trumpet of alarm, and 
the people flocked to his standard on the 
crest of Mount Gilboa to the number of 
twenty-two thousand men. These were, 
however, reduced to only three hundred. 
These, strangely armed with torches and 
pitchers and trumpets, rushed in from three 
different points on the camp of Midian at 
midnight, in the valley to the north of 
Moreh, with the terrible war-cry, " For the 
Lord and for Gideon" (Judg. 7 : 18, E.V.). 
Terror-stricken, the Midianites were put 
into dire confusion, and in the darkness 
slew one another, so that only fifteen thou- 
sand out of the great army of one hundred 
and twenty thousand escaped alive. The 



memory of this great deliverance impressed 
itseK deeply on the mind of the nation (1 
Sam. 12 : 11 ; Ps. 83 : 11 ; Isa. 9:4; 10 : 26; 
Heb. 11 : 32). The land had now rest for 
forty years. Gideon died in a good old 
age, and was buried in the sepulchre of his 
fathers. Soon after his death a change 
came over the people. They again forgot 
Jehovah, and turned to the worship of 
Baalim, "neither shewed they kindness 
to the house of Jerubbaal " (Judg. 8 : 35). 
Gideon left behind him seventy sons, a 
feeble, sadly degenerated race, with one 
exception — that of Abimelech, who seems 
to have had much of the courage and 
energy of his father, j^et of restless and 
unscrupulous ambition. He gathered 
around him a band who slaughtered all 
Gideon's sons, except Jotham, upon one 
stone. (See Opheah.) 

Gier eagle (Heb. r«7t«m=" parental af- 
fection," Lev. 11 : 18 ; Deut. 14 : 17 ; R.V., 
"vulture"), a species of vulture living en- 
tirely on carrion. " It is about the size of 
a raven ; has an almost triangular, bald, 
and wrinkled head, a strong pointed beak, 
black at the tip, large eyes and ears, the 
latter entirely on the outside, and long 
feet." It is common in Egypt, where it 
is popularly called "Pharaoh's chicken" 
(the Neophron percnopterus), and is found 
in Palestine only during summer. Tris- 
tram thinks that the Hebrew name, which 
is derived from a root meaning "to love,'' 
is given to it from the fact that the male 
and female bird never part company. 

Gift. (1.) A gratuity (Prov. 19:6) to 
secure favour (18 : 16 ; 21 : 14), a thank- 
offering (Num. 18 : 11), or a dowry (Gen. 
34 : 12). 

(2.) An oblation or propitiatory gift 
(2 Sam. 8:2, 6 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 2, 6 ; 2 Chr. 
26 : 8 ; Ps. 45 : 12 ; 72 : 10). 

(3.) A bribe to a judge to obtain a fa- 
vourable verdict (Ex. 23 : 8 ; Deut. 16 : 19). 

(4.) Simply a thing given (Matt. 7:11; 
Luke 11 : 13 ; Eph. 4:8); sacrificial (Matt. 
5 : 23, 24 ; 8 : 4); eleemosynary (Luke 21 : 1); 
a gratuity (John 4 : 10 ; Acts 8 : 20), In 
Acts 2 : 38 the generic word dorca is ren- 
dered "gift." It differs from the charisma 
(1 Cor. 12 : 4) as denoting not miraculous 



GIFTS 



288 



GIHON 



powers but the working of a new spirit in 
men, and that spirit from God. 

The giving of presents entered largely 
into the affairs of common life in the East. 
The nature of the presents was as various 
as were the occasions : food (1 Sam. 9:7; 
16 : 20), sheep and cattle (Gen. 32 : 13-15), 
gold (2 Sam. 18 : 11), jewels (Gen. 24 : 53), 
furniture, and vessels for eating and drink- 
ing (2 Sam. 18 : 28) ; delicacies — as spices, 
honey, etc. (1 Kings 10 : 25 ; 2 Kings 5 : 
22). The mode of presentation was with 
as much parade as possible : the presents 
were conveyed by the hands of servants 
(Judg. 3 : 18), or still better, on the backs 



of beasts of burden (2 Kings 8 : 9). The 
refusal of a present was regarded as a high 
indignity ; and this constituted the aggra- 
vated insult noticed in Matt. 22 : 11, the mar- 
riage robe having been offered and refused. 
Gifts, spiritual (Gr. charismata), gifts 
supernaturally bestowed on the early Chris- 
tians, each having his own proper gift or 
gifts for the edification of the body of 
Christ. These were the result of the ex- 
traordinary operation of the Spirit, as on 
the day of Pentecost. They were the gifts 
of speaking with tongues, casting out 
devils, healing, etc. (Mark IG : 17, 18), usu- 
ally communicated by the medium of the 




BIRKET EL-MAMILLA. 



laying on of the hands of the apostles 
(Acts 8 : 17 ; 19 : 6 ; 1 Tim. 4 : 14). These 
charismata were enjoyed only for a time. 
They could not continue always in the 
church. They were suited to its infancy 
and to the necessities of those times. 

Gi^hon — a stream. (1.) One of the four 
rivers of Eden (Gen. 2 : 13). It has been 
identified with the Nile. Others regard it 
as the Oxus, or the Araxes, or the Ganges. 
But as, according to the sacred narrative, 
all these rivers of Eden took their origin 
from the head-waters of the Euphrates and 
the Tigris, it is probable that the Gihon 
is the ancient Araxes, which, under the 



modern name of the Arras, discharges itself 
into the Caspian Sea. It was the Asiatic and 
not the African " Cush " which the Gihon 
compassed (Gen. 10 : 7-10). (See Eden.) 

(2.) The only natural spring of water in 
or near Jerusalem is the "Fountain of the 
Virgin" {q.v.), which rises outside the city 
walls on the west bank of the Kidron val- 
ley. On the occasion of the approach of 
the Assyrian army under Sennacherib, 
Hezekiah, in order to prevent the besiegers 
from finding water, "stopped the upper 
water coiirse of Gihon, and brought it 
straight do\vn to the west side of the city 
of David " (2 Chr. 32 : 30 : 33 : 14). This 



GILBOA 



289 



GILGAL 



"fountain " or spring is therefore to be re- 
garded as the ' ' upper water course of 
Gihon." From this "fountain" a tunnel 
cut through the ridge which forms the 
south part of the temple hill conveys the 
water to the Pool of Siloam, which lies on 
the opposite side of this ridge at the head 
of the Tyropoeon (" cheesemakers' ") valley, 
or valley of the son of Hinnom, now filled 
up by rubbish. The length of this tunnel 
is about 1,708 yards. In 1880 an inscrip- 
tion was accidentally discovered on the 
wall of the tunnel about nineteen feet from 
where it opens into the Pool of Siloam. 
This inscription was executed in all proba- 
bility by Hezekiah's workmen. It briefly 
narrates the history of the excavation. 
It may, however, be possible that this 
tunnel was executed in the time of Solo- 
mon. If the "waters of Shiloah that go 
softly " (Isa. 8 : G) refers to the gentle stream 
that still flows through the tunnel into the 
Pool of Siloam, then this excavation must 
have existed before the time of Hezekiah. 

In the upper part of the Tyropoeon val- 
ley there are two pools still existing— the 
first, called Birket el-Mamilla, to the west 
of the Jaffa gate ; the second, to the south 
of the first, called Birket es-Sultan. It is 
the opinion of some that the former was 
the "upper" and the latter the "lower" 
Pool of Gihon (2 Kings 18 : 17 ; Isa. 7:3; 
36 : 2 ; 22 : 9). (See Conduit ; Siloam. ) 

Gilbo^a — boiling spring — a mountain 
range, now Jebel Fukiia\ memorable as 
the scene of Saul's disastrous defeat by the 
Philistines. Here also his three sons were 
slain, and he himself died by his own hand 
(1 Sam. 28 : 4 ; 31 : 1-8 ; 2 Sam.' 1 : 6-21 ; 21 : 
12 ; 1 Chr. 10 : 1, 8). It was a low bar- 
ren range of mountains bounding the val- 
ley of Esdraelon (Jezreel) on the east, be- 
tween it and the Jordan valley. When 
the tidings of this defeat were conveyed to 
David, he gave utterance to those pathetic 
words in the "Song of the Bow" (2 Sam. 
1 : 19-27). 

Gil^ead — hill of testimony — (Gen. 31 : 47), 
a mountainous region east of Jordan. 
From its mountainous character it is called 
"the mount of Gilead " (Gen. 31 : 25). It 
is called also " the land of Gilead " (Num. 



32 : 1), and sometimes simply " Gilead " 
(Ps. 60 : 7 ; Gen. 37 : 25). It comprised the 
possessions of the tribes of Gad and Reuben 
and the south part of Manasseh (Deut. 3 : 
13 ; Num. 32 : 40). It was bounded on the 
north by Bashan, and on the south by 
Moab and Amnion (Gen. 31 : 21 ; Deut. 3 : 
12-17). "Half Gilead" was possessed by 
Sihon, and the other half, separated from 
it by the river Jabbok, by Og, king of 
Bashan. The deep ravine of the river 
Hieromax (the modern Sheriat el-MandhUr) 
separated Bashan from Gilead, which was 
about 60 miles in length and 20 in breadth, 
extending from near the south end of the 
Lake of Gennesaret to the north end of the 
Dead Sea. Abarim, Pisgah, Nebo, and Peor 
are its mountains mentioned in Scripture. 

Gil^ead, Balm of. The region of Gilead 
abounded in spices and aromatic gums, 
which were exported to Egypt and Tyre 
(Gen. 37:25; Jer. 8:22; 46:11; Ezek. 
27 : 17). The word " balm " is a contracted 
form of "balsam," a word derived from 
the Greek halsamon, which was adopted as 
the representative of the Hebrew words haal 
shemcn, meaning "lord" or "chief of oils." 

The Hebrew name of this balm was tsori. 
The tree yielding this medicinal oil was 
probably the Balsamodendron opobalsamum 
of botanists, and the Amyris opobalsamum 
of Linnseus. It is an evergreen, rising to 
the height of about 14 feet. The oil or 
resin, exuding through an orifice made in 
its bark in very small quantities, is esteemed 
of great value for its supposed medicinal 
qualities. (See Balm.) It may be noted 
that Coverdale's version reads in Jer. 8 : 
52, "There is no triacle in Galaad." The 
word "triacle " = "treacle " is used in the 
sense of ointment. 

Gil'^gal — rolling. (1.) Prom the solemn 
transaction of the reading of the law in the 
valley of Shechem between Ebal and Geri- 
zim the Israelites moved forward to Gilgal, 
and there made a permanent camp (Josh. 
9:6; 10:6). It was "beside the oaks of 
Moreh," near which Abraham erected his 
first altar (Gen. 12 : 6, 7). This was one 
of the three towns to which Samuel re- 
sorted for the administration of justice 
(1 Sam. 7 : 16), and here also he offered 



GILOH 



290 



GITTITE 



sacrifices when the ark was no longer in 
the tabernacle at Shiloh (1 Sam. 10 : 8 ; 13 : 
7-9). To this place, as to a central sanc- 
tuary, all Israel gathered to renew their 
allegiance to Saul (11 : 14). At a later 
period it became the scene of idolatrous 
worship (Hos. 4 : 15 ; 9 : 15). It has been 
identified with the ruins of Jiljilich, about 
5 miles south-west of Shiloh and about 
the same distance from Bethel. 

(2.) The place in "the i^lains of Jericho," 
"in the east border of Jericho," where the 
Israelites first encamiDed after crossing the 
Jordan (Josh. 4 : 19, 20). Here they kept 
their first Passover in the land of Canaan 
(5 : 10) and renewed the rite of circumcision, 
and so " rolled away the reproach " of their 
Egyptian slavery. Here the twelve me- 
morial stones, taken from the bed of the 
Jordan, were set up ; and here also the 
tabernacle remained till it was removed 
to Shiloh (18:1). It has been identified 
with Tell Jiljulieh, about 5 miles from 
Jordan. 

(3. ) A place, probably in the hill country 
of Ephraim, where there was a school of the 
prophets (2 Kings 4 : 38), and whence Elijah 
and Elisha, who resided here, "went down " 
to Bethel (2 : 1, 2). It is mentioned also in 
Deut. 11 : 30. It is now known as Jiljilia, 
a place 8 miles north of Bethel. 

Gi^loh — exile — a city in the south-west 
part of the hill-country of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 51). It was the native place or resi- 
dence of the traitor Ahithophel "the Gi- 
lonite " (Josh. 15 : 51 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 12), and 
where he committed suicide (17 : 23). It 
has been identified with Kurhet Jala, about 
7 miles north of Hebron. 

Gim''zo — a place fertile in sycamores — a 
city in the plain of Judah, the villages of 
which were seized by the Philistines (2 Chr. 
28 : 18). It is now called Jimzil, about 3 
miles south-west of Ludd — i.e., Lydda. 

Gin— a trap. (1.) Ps. 140:6, 141:9, 
Amos 3 : 5, the Hebrew word used, mokesh, 
means a oioose or "snare," as it is elsewhere 
rendered (Ps. 18 : 6 ; Prov. 13 : 14, etc. ). 

(2.) Job 18:9, Isa. 8:14— Heb. pah— 
a plate or thin layer ; and hence a net, a 
snare, trap, especially of a fowler (Ps. 69 : 
22, "Let their table before them become 



a net ; " Amos 3:5, " Doth a bird fall into 
a net [pah] upon the ground where there is 
no trap-stick [mokesh] for her? doth the 
net [pah] spring up from the ground and 
take nothing at all ? " — Gesenius.) 

Girdle. (1. ) Heb. ha[/or, a girdle of any 
kind worn by soldiers (1 Sam. 18 : 4 ; 2 Sam. 
20:8; 1 Kings 2:5; 2 Kings 3:21) or 
women (Isa. 3 : 24). 

(2.) Heb. 'ezor, something "bound," worn 
by prophets (2 Kings 1:8; Jer. 13 : 1), 
soldiers (Isa. 5:27; 2 Sam. 20:8; Ezek. 
23 : 15), kings (Job 12 : 18). 

(3.) Heb. mezah, a "band," a girdle worn 
by men alone (Ps. 109 : 19 ; Isa. 23 : 10). 

(4.) Heb. \tbnet, the girdle of sacerdotal 
and state officers (Ex. 28 : 4, 39, 40 ; 29 : 9 ; 
39 : 29). 

(5. ) Heb. hesheb, the "curious girdle "(Ex. 
28:8; R.V., "cunningly woven band") 
was attached to the ephod, and was made 
of the same material. 

The common girdle was made of leather 
(2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4); a finer sort of 
linen (Jer. 13 : 1 ; Ezek. 16 : 10 ; Dan. 10 : 
5). Girdles of sackcloth were worn in token 
of sorrow (Isa. 3 : 24 ; 22 : 12). They were 
variously fastened to the wearer (Mark 1 : 
4 ; Jer. 13 : 1 ; Ezek. 16 : 10). 

The girdle was a symbol of strength and 
power (Job 12 : 18, 21 ; 30 : 11 ; Isa. 23 : 10 ; 
45 : 15). " Righteousness and faithfulness " 
are the girdle of the Messiah (Isa. 11 : 5). 

Girdles were used as purses or pockets 
(Matt. 10 : 9. A. V., "purses ; " R. V. inarg., 
' ' girdles. " Also Mark 6 : 8). 

Gir''gashite — dwelling in clayey soil — 
the descendants of the fifth son of Canaan 
(Gen. 10 : 16), one of the original tribes in- 
habiting the land of Canaan before the 
time of the Israelites (Gen. 15 : 21 ; Deut. 
7 : 1). They were a branch of the great 
family of the Hivites. Of their geograph- 
ical position nothing is certainly known. 
Probably they lived someAvhere in the cen- 
tral part of Western Palestine. 

Git'tah-hepher (Josh. 19:13). See 
Gath-hepher. 

Git^taim — t7vo zoine-presses — (2 Sam. 4 : 
3 ; Neh. 11 : 33), a town probably in Ben- 
jamin to which the Beerothites fled. 

Git'tite, a native of the Philistine city 



aiTTITH 



291 



GNAT 



of Gath (Josh. 13 : 3). Obed-edom, in whose 
house the ark was placed, is so designated 
(2 Sam. 6 : 10). Six hundred Gittites came 
with David from Gath into Israel (15: 
18, 19). 

Git''tith, a stringed instrument of music. 
This word is found in the titles of Ps. 8, 
81, 84. In these places the LXX. ren- 
der the word by "on the wine -fats." 
The Targum explains by "on the harp 
which David brought from Gath." It is 
the only stringed instrument named in the 
titles of the Psalms. 

Gi^zonite, a name given to Hashem, an 
inhabitant of Gizoh, a place somewhere in 
the mountains of Judah (1 Chr. 11 : 34 ; 
2 Sam. 23 : 32, 34). 

Glass was known to the Egyptians at a 
very early period of their national history, 
at least B.C. 1500. Various articles both 
useful and ornamental were made of it, as 
bottles, vases, etc. A glass bottle with the 
name of Sargon on it was found among the 
ruins of the north-west palace of Nimroud. 
The Hebrew word zekMtth (Job 28 : 17), ren- 
dered in the Authorized Version "crystal," 
is rightly rendered in the Revised Version 
" glass." This is the only allusion to glass 
found in the Old Testament. It is referred 
to in the New Testament in Rev, 4:6; 15 : 
2; 21:18, 21. In Job 37:18, the word 
rendered "looking-glass" is in the Re- 
vised Version properly rendered "mirror," 
formed, i.e., of some metal. (Comp. Ex. 
38 : 8 : " looking-glasses " are brazen mirrors 
— R.V.). A mirror is referred to also in 
James 1 : 23. 

Glean. The corners of fields were not to 
be reaped, and the sheaf accidentally left be- 
hind was not to be fetched away, according 
to the law of Moses (Lev. 19 : 9 ; 23 : 22 ; 
Deut. 24 : 21). They were to be left for the 
poor to glean. Similar laws were given re- 
garding vineyards and oliveyards. (Comp. 
Ruth 2: 2.) 

Glede, an Old English name for the com- 
mon kite, mentioned only in Deut. 14 : 13 
(Heb. ra'dh), the Milvus ater or black kite. 
The Hebrew word does not occur in the 
parallel passage in Leviticus (11 : 14, da'dh, 
rendered " vulture ; " in R. V., " kite "). It 
was an unclean bird. The Hebrew name is 



from a root meaning "to see," "to look," 
thus designating a bird with a keen sight. 
The bird intended is probably the buzzard, 
of which there are three species found in 
Palestine. (See Vulture.) 

Glo^rify. (1. ) To make glorious, or cause 
so to appear (John 12 : 28 ; 13 : 31, 32 ; 17 : 
4,5). 

(2.) Spoken of God to "shew forth his 
praise " (1 Cor. 6 : 20 ; 10 : 31). 

Glory (Heb. kdbhod; Gr. doxa). (1.) 
Abundance, wealth, treasure, and hence 
honour (Ps. 48:12); glory (Gen. 31:1; 
Matt. 4:8; Rev. 21 : 24, 26). 

(2.) Honour, dignity (1 Kings 3:13; 
Heb. 2 : 7 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 24) ; of God (Ps. 19 : 
1 ; 29 : 1) ; of the mind or heart (Gen. 49 : 
6 ; Ps. 7 : 5 ; Acts 2 : 26). 

(3.) Splendour, brightness, majesty (Gen. 
45:13;Isa.4:5; Acts 22:11; 2Cor.3:7); of 
Jehovah (Isa. 59 : 19 ; 60 : 1 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 9). 

(4.) The glorious moral attributes, the 
infinite perfections of God (Isa. 40 : 5 ; Acts 
7:2 ; Rom. 1 : 23; 9 : 23; Eph. 1 : 12). Jesus 
is the "brightness of the Father's glory " 
(Heb. 1:3; John 1 : 14 ; 2 : 11). 

(5.) The bliss of heaven (Rom. 2:7, 10; 
5 : 2 ; 8 : 18 ; Heb. 2 : 10 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 1, 10). 

(6.) The phrase "Give glory to God" 
(Josh. 7 : 19 ; Jer, 13 : 16) is a Hebrew idiom 
meaning, " Confess your sins." The words 
of the Jews to the blind man, " Give God 
the praise " (John 9 : 24), are an adjuration 
to confess. They are equivalent to, " Con- 
fess that you are an impostor," "Give God 
the glory by speaking the truth ; " for they 
denied that a miracle had been wrought. 

Glut'ton (Deut. 21:20) — Heb. zdlel, 
from a word meaning "to shake out," "to 
squander ; " and hence one who is prodigal, 
who wastes his means by indulgence. In 
Prov. 23 : 21, the word means debauchees 
or wasters of their own body. In Prov. 
28 : 7, the word (pi.) is rendered Authorized 
Version " riotous men ; " Revised Version, 
"gluttonous." Matt. 11 : 19, Luke 7 : 34, 
Greek pharjos, given to eating, gluttonous. 

Gnash — Heb. hdrak, meaning "to grate 
the teeth "—(Job'] 6:9; Ps. 112 : 10 ; Lam. 
2 : 16), denotes rage or sorrow. (See also 
Acts 7: 54; Mark 9: 18.) 

Gnat, only in Matt. 23 : 24, a small two- 



GOAD 



292 



GOAT 



winged stinging fly of the genus Culcx, 
which includes mosquitoes. Our Lord al- 
ludes here to the gnat in a proverbial ex- 
pression probably in common use, "who 
strain out a gnat ; " the words in the Author- 
ized Version, "strain at a gnat," being a 
mere typographical error, which has been 



corrected in the Revised Version. The 
custom of filtering wine for this purpose 
was common among the . Jews. It was 
founded on Lev. 11 : 23. It is supposed 
that the "lice," Ex. 8:16 (marg. R.V., 
"sand-flies ") were a species of gnat. 
Goad (Heb. malnidd, only in Judg. 3: 




31), an instrument used by ploughmen for 
guiding their oxen. Shamgar slew six 
hundred Philistines with an ox -goad. 
"The goad is a formidable weapon. It is 
sometimes ten feet long, and has a sharp 
point. We could now see that the feat of 
Shamgar was not so very wonderfixl as 
some have been accustomed to think." 



In 1 Sam. 13 : 21, a different Hebrew 
word is used — dorban — meaning something 
pointed. The expression (Acts 9 : 5, omitted 
in the H.V,), "It is hard for thee to kick 
against the pricks" — ?'.c., against the goad — 
was proverbial for unavailing resistance to 
superior power. 

Goat. (1.) Heb. Vr, the she -goat (Gen. 



GOAT 



293 



GOD 



15 : 9 ; 30 : 35 ; 31 : 38). This Hebrew word 
is also used for the he -goat (Ex. 12:5; 
Lev. 4 : 23 ; Num. 28 : 15). It is also used 
to denote a kid (Gen. 38 : 17, 20). Hence 
it may be regarded as the generic name of 
the animal as domesticated. It literally 
means "strength," and points to the supe- 
rior strength of the goat as compared with 
the sheep. 

(2. ) Heb. "attUd, only in j)lural ; rendered 
"rams " (Gen. 31 : 10, 12) ; he-goats (Nxxm. 
7 : 17-88 ; Isa. 1 : 11) ; goats (Deut. 22 : 14 ; 
Ps. 50 : 13). They were used in saci'ifice 
(Ps. 66 : 15). This word is used metapho- 
rically for princes or chiefs in Isa. 14 : 9, 
and Zech. 10 : 3 as leaders. (Comp. Jer. 
50:8.) 

(3. ) Heb. gedt, properly a kid. Its flesh 
was a delicacy among the Hebrews (Gen. 
27:9, 14, 17; Judg. 6:19). 

(4.) Heb. sa'^ir, meaning the "shaggj^," 
a hairy goat, a he-goat (2 Chr. 29 : 23) ; "a 
goat " (Lev. 4 : 24) ; " satyr " (Isa. 13 : 21) ; 
"devils" (Lev. 17:7). It is the goat of 
the sin-offering (Lev. 9 : 3, 15 ; 10 : 16). 

(5. ) Heb. tsaplitr, a he-goat of the goats 
(2 Chr. 29 : 21). Dan. 8 : 5, 8, as a symbol 
of the Macedonian empire. 

(6.) Heb. tayish, a "striker "or "butter," 
rendered "he-goat" (Gen. 30 : 35 ; 32 : 14). 

(7.) Heb. "azazd {q.v.), the "scapegoat" 
(Lev. 16 : 8, 10, 26). 

(8. ) There are two Hebrew words used to 
denote the undomesticated goat: — Yael, 
only in plural, mountain goats (1 Sam. 
24 : 2 ; Job 39 : 1 ; Ps. 104 : 18). It is derived 
from a Avord meaning "to climb." It is the 
ibex, which abounded in the mountainous 
parts of Moab. And 'akko, only in Deut. 
14 : 5, the wild goat. 

Goats are mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment in Matt. 25 : 32, 33 ; Heb. 9 : 12, 13, 
19 ; 10 : 4. They represent oppressors and 
wicked men (Ezek. 34 : 17 ; 39 : 18 ; Matt. 
25 : 33). 

Several varieties of the goat were familiar 
to the Hebrews. They had an important 
place in their rural economy on account of 
the milk they afforded and the excellency 
of the flesh of the kid. They formed an 
important part of pastoral wealth (Gen. 
31 : 10, 12 ; 32 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 2). 



Go^ath — a lowing— a. place near Jeru- 
salem, mentioned only in Jer. 31 : 39. 

Gob — a pit — a place mentioned in 2 Sam. 
21:18, 19; called also Gezer in 1 Chr. 
20:4. 

Gob'let, a laver or trough for washing 
garments. In Cant. 7:2a bowl or drink- 
ing vessel, a bowl for mixing wine ; in Ex. 
24 : 6 a sacrificial basin. (See Cup.) 

God, the name of the Divine Being, de- 
rived from the same Saxon root as good. 
It is the rendering (1) of the Hebrew 'El, 
from a word meaning to be strong ; (2) of 
'Eloah, plural ' EloMm. The singular form, 
Eloah, is used only in poetry. The plural 
form is more commonly used in all parts of 
the Bible. The Hebrew word Jehovah 
{q.v.), the only other word generally em- 
ployed to denote the Supreme Being, is 
uniformly rendered in the Authorized 
Version by "Lord," printed in small capi- 
tals. The existence of God is taken for 
granted in the Bible. There is nowhere 
any argument to prove it. He who dis- 
believes this truth is spoken of as one de- 
void of understanding (Ps. 14 : 1). 

The arguments generally adduced by 
theologians in proof of the being of God 
are, — 

(1. ) The a priori argument, which is the 
testimony afforded by reason. 

(2. ) The d posteriori argument, by which 
we proceed logically from the facts of 
experience to causes. These arguments 
are, — 

(a) The cosmological, by -n-hich it is 
proved that there must be a First Cause 
of all things, for every effect must have a 
cause. 

(6) The teleological, or the argument 
from design. We see everywhere the oper- 
ations of an intelligent Cause in nature. 

(c) The moral argument, called also the 
anthropological argument, based on the 
moral consciousness and the history of 
mankind, which exhibits a moral order and 
purpose which can only be explained on 
the supposition of the existence of God. 
Conscience and human history testify that 
"verily there is a God that judge th in the 
earth." 

The attributes of God are set forth in 



GODHEAD 



294 



GOLD 



order by Moses in Ex, 34 : 6, 7. (See also 
Deut. 6:4; 10:17; 9:16; Num. 16:22; 
33 : 19 ; Ex. 15: 11 ; Isa. 44 : 6 ; Hab. 3:6; 
Ps. 102:26; Job 34:22.) They are also 
systematically classified in Rev. 5 : 12 and 
7:12. 

God's attributes are spoken of by some 
as absolute — i.e., such as belong to his es- 
sence as Jehovah, Jah, etc. ; and relative — 
i.e., such as are ascribed to him with rela- 
tion to his creatures. Others distinguish 
them into communicable — i.e., those which 
can be imparted in degree to his creatures : 
goodness, holiness, wisdom, etc. ; and in- 
communicable, which cannot be so imparted : 
independence, immutability, immensity, 
and eternity. They are by some also divided 
into natural attributes — eternity, immen- 
sity, etc. ; and moral — holiness, goodness, 
etc. 

God'head (Acts 17 :29 ; Rom. 1:9; Col. 
2 : 9), the essential being or the nature of 
God. 

God''liness, the whole of practical piety 
(1 Tim. 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 1:6). "It supposes 
knowledge, veneration, affection, depend- 
ence, submission, gratitude, and obedi- 
ence. " In 1 Tim. 3 : 16 it denotes the sub- 
stance of revealed religion. 

Goel, in Hebrew the participle of the 
verb gaal, "to redeem." It is rendered in 
the Authorized Version "kinsman," Num. 
5:8; Ruth 3 : 12 ; 4 : 1, 6, 8 ; "redeemer," 
Job 19 : 25 ; "avenger," Num. 35 : 12 ; Deut. 
19 : 6, etc. The Jewish law gave the right 
of redeeming and repurchasing, as well as 
of avenging blood, to the next relative, who 
was accordingly called by this name. (See 
Redeemer. ) 

Gog. (1.) A Reubenite (1 Chr. 5 : 4), the 
father of Shimei. 

(2. ) The name of the leader of the hostile 
party described in Ezek. 38, 39, as coming 
from the "north country" and assailing the 
people of Israel to their own destruction. 
This prophecy has been regarded as ful- 
filled in the conflicts of the Maccabees with 
Antiochus, the invasion and overthrow of 
the Chaldeans, and the temporary successes 
and destined overthrow of the Turks. But 
"all these interpretations are unsatisfac- 
tory and inadequate. The vision respect- 



ing Gog and Magog in the Apocalypse 
(Rev. 20 : 8) is in substance a reannounce- 
ment of this prophecy of Ezekiel. But 
while Ezekiel contemplates the great con- 
flict in a more general light as what was 
certainly to be connected with the times of 
the Messiah, and should come then to its 
last decisive issues, John, on the other 
hand, writing from the commencement of 
the Messiah's times, describes there the last 
struggles and victories of the cause of 
Christ. In both cases alike the vision 
describes the final workings of the world's 
evil and its results in connection with the 
kingdom of God, only the starting-point 
is placed further in advance in the one 
case than in the other. " 

It has been supposed to be the name of 
a district in the wild north-east steppes of 
Central Asia, north of the Hindoo-Kush, 
now a part of Turkestan — a region about 
2,000 miles north-east of Nineveh. 

Go^lan — exile — a city of Bashan (Deut. 
4 : 23), one of the three cities of refuge east 
of the Jordan, about 12 miles north-east of 
the Sea of Galilee (1 Chr. 20:8). There 
are no further notices of it in Scripture. 
It became the head of the province of 
Gaulanitis, one of the four provinces into 
which Bashan was divided after the Baby- 
lonish captivity, and almost identical with 
the modern Jauldn, in Western Haur^n, 
about 39 miles in length and 18 in breadth. 

Gold. (1.) Heb. zdhdb, so called from 
its yellow colour, Ex. 25 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 28 : 18 ; 
2 Chr. 3 : 5. 

(2.) Heb. segor, from its compactness, or 
as being enclosed or treasured up ; thus pre- 
cious or "fine gold," 1 Kings 6 : 20 ; 7 : 49. 

(3.) Heb. paz, native or pure gold, Job 
28 : 17 ; Ps. 19 : 10 ; 21 : 3, etc. 

(4.) Heb. betzer, "ore of gold or silver" 
as dug out of the mine. Job 36 : 19, where 
it means simply riches. 

(5.) Heb. kethem — i.e., something con- 
cealed or separated — Job 28 : 16, 19 ; Ps. 
45:9; Prov. 25:12. Rendered "golden 
wedge " in Isa. 13 : 12. 

(6.) Heb. harHts — i.e., dug out; poetic 
for gold— Prov. 8 : 10 ; 16 : 16 ; Zech. 9 : 3. 

Gold was known from the earliest times 
(Gen. 2 : 11). It was principally used for 



GOLDEN 



295 



GOMER 



ornaments (Gen. 24 : 22). It was very 
abundant (1 Chr. 22 : 14 ; Nah. 2:9; Dan. 
3 : 1). Many tons of it were used in con- 
nection with the temple (2 Chr. 1 : 15). It 
was found in Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir 
(1 Kings 9 : 28 ; 10 : 1 ; Job 28 : 16), but not 
in Palestine. 

In Dan. 2 : 38, the Babylonian empire is 
spoken of as a "head of gold" because 
of its great riches, and Babylon was called 
by Isaiah (14:4) the "golden city" (R.V. 
marg., "exactress," adopting the reading 
inarMbah instead of the usual word mad- 
hebah). 

Gold'en calf (Ex. 32 : 4, 8 ; Deut. 9 : 16 ; 
Neh. 9 : 19). This was a molten image of a 
calf which the idolatrous Israelites formed 
at Sinai. This symbol was borrowed from 
the custom of the Egyptians. It was de- 
stroyed at the command of Moses (Ex. 32 : 
20). (See Aaron; Moses.) 

Gold^smith (Neh. 3 : 8, 32 ; Isa. 40 : 19 ; 
41 : 7 ; 46 : 6). The word so rendered means 
properly a founder or finer. "The use of 
gold for jewelry and various articles of 
luxury dates from the most remote ages. 
Pharaoh ' arrayed ' Joseph ' in vestures of 
fine linen, and put a gold chain about his 
neck ; ' and the jewels of silver and gold 
borrowed from the Egyptians (Ex. 12 : 35) 
by the Israelites at the time of the Exodus 
(out of which the golden calf was afterwards 
made) suffice to prove the great quantity 
of precious metals wrought at that time 
into female ornaments. It is not from 
the Scriptures alone that the skill of the 
Egyptian goldsmiths may be inferred: 
the sculptures of Thebes and Beni-Hassan 
afford their additional testimony ; and the 
numerous gold and silver vases, inlaid 
work, and jewelry represented in common 
use show the great advancement they had 
made in this branch of art." 

Gol^gotha, the common name of the 
spot where Jesus was crucified. It is in- 
terpreted by the evangelists as meaning 
"the place of a skull" (Matt. 27 :33; Mark 
15 : 21 ; John 19 : 17). This name repre- 
sents in Greek letters the Aramaic word 
Gulgaltha, which is the Hebrew GUlgoleth 
(Num. 1 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 23 : 3, 24 ; 2 Kings 9 : 
35), meaning "a skull." It is identical 



with the word "Calvary" {q.v.). It was 
a little knoll rounded like a bare skull. It 
is obvious from the evangelists that it was 
some well-known spot outside the gate 
(comp. Heb. 13 : 12), and near the city (Luke 
23 : 26), containing a ' ' garden " (John 19 : 41), 
and on a thoroughfare leading into the 
country. Hence it is a pure imagination 
that it is embraced within the present 
"Church of the Holy Sepulchre." The 
hillock above Jeremiah's Grotto, to the 
north of the city, is in all probability 
the true site of Calvary. The skull-like 
appearance of the rock in the southern 
precipice of the hillock is very remark- 
able. 

Goli^'ath — great. (1.) A famous giant of 
Gath, who for forty days openly defied the 
armies of Israel, but was at length slain by 
David with a stone from a sling (1 Sam. 17 : 
4). He was probably descended from the 
Rephaim who found refuge among the 
Philistines after they were dispersed by the 
Ammonites (Deut. 20 : 20, 21). His height 
was "six cubits and a span," which, taking 
the cubit at 21 inches, is equal to 10^ feet. 
David cut off his head (1 Sam. 17 : 51) and 
brought it to Jerusalem, while he hung 
the armour which he took from him in his 
tent. His sword was preserved at Nob as 
a religious trophy (21 : 9). David's victory 
over Goliath was the turning-point in his 
life. He came into public notice now as 
the deliverer of Israel and the chief among 
Saul's men of war (18 : 5), and the devoted 
friend of Jonathan. 

(2. ) In 2 Sam. 21 : 19 there is another 
giant of the same name mentioned as slain 
by Elhanan. The staff of his spear "was 
like a weaver's beam." The Authorized 
Version interpolates the words ' ' the brother 
of " from 1 Chr. 20 : 5, where this giant is 
called Lahmi. 

Go'mer — complete; vanishing. (1.) The 
daughter of Diblaim, who (probably in 
vision only) became the wife of Hosea (1 : 3). 

(2.) The eldest son of Japheth, and 
father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, andTogarmah 
(Gen. 10 : 2, 3), whose descendants formed 
the principal branch of the population of 
South-eastern Europe. He is generally re- 
garded as the ancestor of the Celtae and 



GOMORRAH 



296 



GOSPEL 



the Ciminerii, who in early times settled 
to the north of the Black Sea, and gave 
their name to the Crimea, the ancient 
Chersonesus Taurica. Traces of their pres- 
ence are found in the names Cimmerian 
Bosphorus, Cimmerian Isthmus, etc. In 
the seventh century B.C. they were driven 
out of their original seat by the Scythians, 
and overran western Asia Minor, whence 
they were afterwards expelled. They sub- 
sequently reappear in the times of the 
Romans as the Cimbri of the north and 
west of Europe, whence they crossed to 
the British Isles, where their descendants 
are still fo\ind in the Gaels and Cyniry. 
Thus the whole Celtic race may be re- 
garded as descended from Gomer. 

Gomor^'rah — submersion — one of the five 
cities of the plain of Siddim {q.v.) which 
were destroyed by fire (Gen. 10 : 19 ; 13 : 10 ; 
19 : 24, 28). These cities probably stood 
close together, and were near the northern 
extremity of what is now the Dead Sea. 
This city is always mentioned next after 
Sodom, both of which were types of im- 
piety and wickedness (Gen. 18 : 20 ; Rom. 
9 : 29). Their destruction is mentioned as 
an "ensample unto those that after should 
live ungodly" (2 Pet. 2:6; Jude 4-7). 
Their wickedness became proverbial (Dent. 
32:32; Isa. 1:9, 10; Jer. 23:14). But 
that wickedness may be exceeded (Matt. 
10 : 15 ; Mark 6 : 11). (See Dead Sea. ) 

Good^ly trees, boughs of, were to be 
carried in festive procession on the first 
day of the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23 : 40). 
This was probably the olive tree (Neh. 
8 : 15), although no special tree is men- 
tioned. 

Good^ness of God, a perfection of his 
character which he exercises towards his 
creatures according to their various cir- 
cumstances and relations (Ps. 145 : 8, 9 ; 
103 : 8 ; 1 John 4 : 8). Viewed generally, 
it is benevolence ; as exercised vnth. respect 
to the miseries of his creatures it is mercy, 
pity, compassion, and in the case of im- 
penitent sinners, long-suffering patience; 
as exercised in communicating favour on 
the unworthy it is grace. ' ' Goodness and 
justice are the several aspects of one un- 
changeable, infinitely wise, and sovereign 



moral perfection. God is not sometimes 
merciful and sometimes just, but he is 
eternally infinitely just and merciful." 
God is infinitely and unchangeably good 
(Zeph. 3 : 17), and his goodness is incom- 
prehensible by the finite mind (Rom. 11: 
35, 36). "God's goodness appears in two 
things— giving and forgiving. " 

Good''ness in man is not a mere passive 
quality, but the deliberate preference of 
right to wrong — the firm and persistent 
resistance of all moral evil, and the choosing 
and following of all moral good. 

Go'pher, a tree from the wood of which 
Noah was directed to build the ark (Gen. 
6 : 14). It is mentioned only there. The 
LXX. render this word by "squared 
beams," and the Vulgate by "planed 
wood." Other versions have rendered it 
"pine" and "cedar;" but the weight of 
authority is in favour of understanding by 
it the cypress tree, which grows abundantly 
in Chaldea and Armenia. 

Go^shen. (1. ) A district in Egypt where 
Jacob and his family settled, and in which 
they remained till the Exodus (Gen. 45 : 10 ; 
46:28, 29, 31, etc.). It is called "the 
land of Goshen " (47 : 27), and also simply 
"Goshen" (46:28), and "the land of 
Rameses" (47:11; Ex. 12:37), for the 
towns Pithom and Rameses lay within its 
borders ; also Zoan or Tanis (Ps. 78 : 12). 
It lay on the east of the Nile, and appar- 
ently not far from the royal residence. It 
was "the best of the land" (Gen. 47:6, 11), 
but is now a desert. It is first mentioned 
in Joseph's message to his father. It has 
been identified with the modern Wddy 
Tumilat, lying between the eastern part 
of the Delta and the west border of Pales- 
tine. It was a pastoral district, where 
some of the king's cattle were kept (Gen. 
47 : 6). The inhabitants were not exclu- 
sively Israelites (Ex. 3:22; 11:2; 12: 
35, 36). 

(2.) A district in Palestine (Josh. 10 : 41; 
11 : 16). It was a part of the maritime 
plain of Judah, and lay between Gaza and 
Gibeon. 

(3.) A town in the mountains of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 51). 

Gos'pel, a word of Anglo-Saxon origin, 



GOSPELS 



297 



GOURD 



and meaning "God's spell" — i.e., word of 
God, or rather, according to others, "good 
spell" — i.e., good news. It is the rendering 
of the Greek euangelion — i.e., "good mes- 
sage." It denotes (1) "the welcome in- 
telligence of salvation to man as preached 
by our Lord and his followers. (2.) It was 
afterwards transitively applied to each of 
the four histories of our Lord's life, pub- 
lished by those who are therefore called 
'Evangelists' — writers of the history of 
the gospel (the euangelion). (3.) The term 
is often used to express collectively the 
gospel doctrines ; and ' preaching the gos- 
pel ' is often used to include not only the 
proclaiming of the good tidings, but the 
teaching men how to avail themselves of 
the offer of salvation, the declaring of all 
the truths, precepts, promises, and threaten- 
ings of Christianity." It is termed "the 
gospel of the grace of God " (Acts 20 : 24), 
"the gospel of the kingdom" (Matt. 4 : 23), 
"the gospel of Christ " (Rom. 1 : 16), "the 
gospel of peace" (Eph. 4 : 15), "the glorious 
gospel," "the everlasting gospel," "the 
gospel of salvation " (Eph. 1 : 13). 

Gos^pels. The central fact of Christian 
preaching was the intelligence that the 
Saviour had come into the world (Matt. 
4 : 23 ; Rom. 10 : 15) ; and the first Christian 
preachers who called their account of 
the person and mission of Christ by the 
term euangelion (= good message) were 
called euangelistai (= evangelists) (Eph. 
4 : 11 ; Acts 21 : 8). 

There are four historical accounts of the 
person and work of Christ: "the first by 
Matthew, announcing the Redeemer as 
the promised King of the kingdom of 
God ; the second by Mark, declaring him 
' a prophet, mighty in deed and word ; ' 
the third by Luke, of whom it might be 
said that he represents Christ in the 
special character of the Saviour of sinners 
(Luke 7 : 36 ; 15 : 18) ; the fourth by John, 
who represents Christ as the Son of God, 
in whom deity and humanity become one. 
The ancient Church gave to Matthew the 
symbol of the lion, to Mark that of a man, 
to Luke that of the ox, and to John that 
of the eagle : these were the four faces of 
the cherubim " (Ezek. 1 : 10). 



Date. The Gospels were all composed 
during the latter part of the first century, 
and there is distinct historical evidence to 
show that they were used and accepted as 
authentic before the end of the second 
century. 

Mutual relation. "If the extent of all 
the coincidences be represented by 100, 
their proportionate distribution will be : 
Matthew, Mark, and Luke, 53 ; Matthew 
and Luke, 21 ; Matthew and Mark, 20 ; 
Mark and Luke, 6. Looking only at the 
general result, it may be said that of the 
contents of the synoptic Gospels \i.e., the 
first three Gospels] about two-fifths are 
common to the three, and that the parts 
peculiar to one or other of them are little 
more than one-third of the whole. " 

Origin. Did the evangelists copy from 
one another ? The opinion is well founded 
that the Gospels were published by the 
apostles orally before they were committed 
to A\Titing, and that each had an independ- 
ent origin. (See Matthew, Gospel of.) 

Gourd. (1.) Jonah's gourd (Jonah 4: 
6-10), bearing the Hebrew name Icikayon 
(found only here), was probably the Iciki of 
the Egyptians, the croton. This is the 
castor-oil plant, a species of ricinus, the 
pahna Christi, so caUed from the palmate 
division of its leaves. Others with more 
probability regard it as the cueurbita — 
the el-keroa of the Arabs — a kind of 
pumpkin peculiar to the East. "It is 
grown in great abundance on the alluvial 
banks of the Tigris and on the plain be- 
tween the river and the ruins of Nineveh." 
At the i^resent day it is trained to run 
over structures of mud and brush to form 
booths to protect the gardeners from the 
heat of the noon-day sun. It grows with 
extraordinary rapidity, and when cut or 
injured withers away also with great 
rapidity. 

(2. ) Wild gourds (2 Kings 4 : 38-40)— Heb. 
pakkuoth — belong to the family of the 
cucumber-like plants, some of which are 
poisonous. The species here referred to is 
probably the colocynth (Cucumis colocyn- 
thus). The LXX. render the word by 
"wild pumpkin." It abounds in the desert 
parts of Syria, Egypt, and Arabia. There 



GOVERNMENT 



298 



GRACE 



is, however, another species, called the 
Cucumis prophctarum, from the idea that 
it afforded the gourd which "the sons of 
the prophets " shred by mistake into their 
pottage. 
Gov^ernment of God. See Pkovi- 

DENCE. 

Gov^ernments (1 Cor. 12 : 28), the powers 
which fit a man for a place of influence in 
the church ; " the steersman's art ; the art 
of guiding aright the vessel of church or 
state." 

Gov^ernor. (1.) Heb. ndgtd, a promi- 
nent, conspicuous person, whatever his 
capacity : as, chief of the royal palace (2 
Chr. 28 : 7 ; comp. 1 Kings 4 : 6), chief of 
the temple (1 Chr. 9 : 11 ; Jer. 20 : 1), the 
leader of the Aaronites (1 Chr. 12 : 27), 
keeper of the sacred treasury (26 : 24), cap- 
tain of the army (13 : 1), the king (1 Sam. 
9 : 16), the Messiah (Dan. 9 : 25). 

(2. ) Heb. nasi, raised ; exalted. Used to 
denote the chiefs of families (Num. 3 : 24, 
30, 32, 35) ; also of tribes (2 : 3 ; 7 : 2 ; 3 : 32). 
These dignities appear to have been elec- 
tive, not hereditary. 

(3.) Heb, paMd, an officer or magis- 
trate. It is used of the delegate of the 
high priest (2 Chr. 24 : 11), the Levites 
(Neh. 11 : 22), a military commander (2 
Kings 25 : 19), Joseph's officers in Egypt 
(Gen. 41 : 34). 

(4.) Heb. shalltt, one who has power, 
who rules (Gen. 42 : 6 ; Ezra 4 : 20 ; Eccl. 
8:8; Dan. 2 : 15 ; 5 : 29). 

(5.) Heb. ^aluph, literally one put over 
a thousand — i.e., a clan or a subdivision 
of a tribe. Used of the "dukes " of Edom 
(Gen. 36), and of the Jewish chiefs (Zech. 
9:7). 

(6.) Heb. moshel, one who rules, holds 
dominion. Used of many classes of rulers 
(Gen. 3:16; 24:2; 45:8; Ps. 105:20); of 
the Messiah (Micah 5:1); of God (1 Chr. 
29:12; Ps. 103:19). 

(7. ) Heb. sar, 2i> ruler or chief ; a word 
of very general use. It is used of the chief 
baker of Pharaoh (Gen. 40 : 16) ; of the 
chief butler (40 : 2, etc. See also Gen. 47 
6; Ex. 1:11; Dan. 1:7; Judg. 10:30 

1 Kings 22:26; 20:15; 2 Kings 1:19 

2 Sam. 24 : 2). It is used also of angels, 



guardian angels (Dan. 10 : 13, 20, 21 ; 12 : 1 ; 
10:13; 8:25). 

(8.) Pehah, whence pasha — i.e., friend of 
the king ; adjutant ; governor of a pro- 
vince (2 Kings 18:24; Isa. 36:9; Jer. 51 
57; Ezek. 23:6, 23; Dan. 3:2; Esther 3 
12), or a prefect (Neh. 3 : 7 ; 5 : 14 ; Ezra 5 : 3 
Hag. 1 : 1). This is a foreign word — As- 
syrian — which was early adopted into the 
Hebrew idiom (1 Kings 10 : 15). 

(9. ) The Chaldean word segan is applied 
to the governors of the Babylonian satrapies 
(Dan. 3 : 2, 27; 6:8); the prefects over the 
Magi (2 : 48). The corresponding Hebrew 
word segan is used of provincial rulers 
(Jer. 51:23, 28, 57); also of chiefs and 
rulers of the people of Jerusalem (Ezra 9 : 
2; Neh. 2:16; 4:8, 13; 5:7, 17; 7:5; 
12 : 40). 

In the New Testament there are also 
different Greek words rendered thus. 

(1.) Meaning an etlinarch (2 Cor. 11 : 32), 
which was an office distinct from military 
command, with considerable latitude of 
application. 

(2.) The procurator of Judea under the 
Romans (Matt. 27 : 2). (Comp. Luke 2 : 2, 
where the verb from which the Greek word 
so rendered is derived is used.) 

(3.) Stcioard (Gal. 4:2). 

(4. ) Governor of the feast (John 2 : 9), 
who appears here to have been merely an 
intimate friend of the bridegroom, and to 
have presided at the marriage banquet in 
his stead. 

(5.) A director — i.e., helmsman; Lat. 
gubernator — (James 3 : 4). 

Go^zan, a region in Central Asia to 
which the Israelites were carried away 
captive (2 Kings 17:6; 1 Chr. 5:26; 2 
Kings 19:12; Isa. 37:12). It was situ- 
ated in Mesopotamia, on the river Habor 
(2 Kings 17:6; 18:11), the Khabilr, a 
tributary of the Euphrates. The " river 
of Gozan " (1 Chr. 5 : 26) is probably the 
upper part of the river flowing through 
the province of Gozan, now Kizzel-Ozan. 

Grace. (1.) Of form or person (Pro v. 
1:9; 3 : 22 ; Ps. 45 : 2). (2. ) Favour, kind- 
ness, friendship (Gen. 6:8; 18 : 3 ; 19 : 19 ; 
2 Tim. 1:9). (3.) God's forgiving mercy 
(Rom. 11 : 6 ; Eph. 2 : 5). (4.) The gospel 



GRACE 



299 



GRAVING 



as distinguished from the law (John 1 : 17 ; 
Rom. 6 : 14 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 12). (5. ) Gifts freely 
bestowed by God ; as miracles, prophecy, 
tongues (Rom. 15 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 10 ; Eph. 
3 : 8). (6.) Christian virtues (2 Cor. 8:7; 
2 Pet. 3:18). (7.) The glory hereafter to 
be revealed (1 Pet. 1 : 13). 

Grace, means of, an expression not 
used in Scripture, but employed (1) to 
denote those institutions ordained bj^ God 
to be the ordinary channels of grace to the 
souls of men. These are the Word, Sacra- 
ments, and Prayer. 

(2.) But in popular language the expres- 
sion is used in a wider sense to denote 
those exercises in which we engage for the 
purpose of obtaining spiritual blessing ; 
as hearing the gospel, reading the Word, 
meditation, self - examination. Christian 
conversation, etc. 

Graft, the process of inoculating fruit- 
trees (Rom. 11 : 17-24). It is peculiarly 
appropriate to olive-trees. The union thus 
of branches to a stem is used to illustrate 
the union of true believers to the true 
Church. 

Grain, used, in Amos 9:9, of a small 
stone or kernel ; in Matt. 13 : 31, of an in- 
dividual seed of mustard ; in John 12 : 24, 
1 Cor. 15 : 37, of wheat. The Hebrews 
sowed only wheat, barley, and spelt; rye 
and oats are not mentioned in Scripture. 

Grape, the fruit of the ^dne, which was 
extensi vely cultivated in Palestine. Grapes 
are spoken of as "tender"' (Cant. 2:13, 
15), "unripe" (Job 15:33), "sour" (Isa. 
18 : 5), " wild " (Isa. 5 : 2, 4). (See Rev. 14 : 
18 ; Micah 7:1; Jer. 6:9; Ezek. 18 : 2, for 
figurative use of the word.) (See ViXE.) 

Grass. (1.) Heb, lidtslr, ripe grass fit 
for mowing (1 Kings 18 : 5 ; Job 40 : 5 ; Ps. 
104 : 14). As the herbage rapidly fades 
under the scorching sun, it is used as an 
image of the brevity of human life (Isa. 40 : 
6, 7 ; Ps. 90 : 5). In Num. 11 : 5 this word 
is rendered ' ' leeks. " 

(2.) Heb. deshe\ green grass (Gen. 1: 
11, 12; Isa. 66:14; Deut. 32:2). "The 
sickly and forced blades of grass which 
spring up on the fiat plastered roofs of 
houses in the East are used as an emblem 
of speedy destruction, becatise thej^ are 



small and weak, and because, under the 
scorching rays of the sun, they soon wither 
away" (2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 129:6; Isa. 
37 : 27). 

The dry stalks of grass were often used 
as fuel for the oven (Matt. 6 : 30; 13 : 30 ; 
Luke 12 : 28). 

Grass'hopper belongs to the class of 
neuropterous insects called Gh'yllidce. This 
insect is not unknown in Palestine. 

In Judg. 6 : 5 ; 7 : 12 ; Job 39 : 20 ; Jer. 
46 : 23, where the Authorized Version has 
"grasshopper," the Revised Version more 
correctly renders the Hebrew word {'^arbeh) 
by " locust. " This is the case also in Amos 
7:1; Nah. 3 : 17, where the Hebrew word 
gob is used ; and in Lev. 11 : 22 ; Num. 13 : 
33 ; Eccl. 12 : 5 ; Isa. 11 : 22, where hdgdh 
is used. In all these instances the proper 
rendering is probably "locust" {q.v.). 

Grate, a network of brass for the bottom 
of the great altar of sacrifice (Ex. 27:4; 
35 : 16 ; 38 : 4, 5, 30). 

Grave. Among the ancient Hebrews 
graves were oijtside of cities in the open 
field (Luke 7:12; John 11:30). Kings 
(1 Kings 2 : 10) and prophets (1 Sam. 25 : 1) 
were generally buried within cities. Graves 
were generally grottoes or caves, natural 
or he%vn out in rocks (Isa. 22 : 16 ; Matt. 
27 : 60). There were family cemeteries 
(Gen. 47 : 29 ; 50 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 37). Pub- 
lic burial-places were assigned to the poor 
(Jer. 26 : 23 ; 2 Kings 23 : 6). Graves were 
usually closed with stones, which were 
whitewashed, to warn strangers against 
contact with them (Matt. 23 : 27), which 
caused ceremonial pollution (Num. 19 : 16). 

There were no graves in Jerusalem ex- 
cept those of the kings, and according to 
tradition of the prophetess Huldah. 

Gra^ven image— Deut. 27 : 25 ; Ps. 97 : 7 
(Heb. pesel) — refers to the household gods 
of idolaters. " Every nation and city had 

its own gods Yet every family had its 

separate household or tutelary god. " 

Gra'ving. (1.) Heb. hdtsahh. Job 
19:24, rendered "graven," but generally 
means hewn stone or wood, in quarry or 
forest. 

(2. ) Heb. hdrush. Jer. 17 : 1, rendered 
"engraving," and indicates generally 



GREAVES 



300 



GROVE 



artistic work in metal, wood, and stone, 
effected by fine instruments. 

(3. ) Heb. hdqaq. Ezek. 4 : 1, engraving 
a plan or map, rendered " pourtray ; " Job 
19:23, "written." 

(4.) Heb. pasal points rather to the 
sculptor's or the carver's art (Isa. 30 : 22 ; 
40:19; 41:7; 44:12-15). 

(5.) Pathdh refers to intaglio work, the 
cutting and engraving of precious stones 
(Ex. 28:9-11, 21; Zech. 3:9; Cant. 1: 
10, 11). 

(6.) Heret. In Ex. 32 : 4 rendered "grav- 
ing tool ; " and in Isa. 8:1, "a pen." 

Greaves — only in 1 Sam. 17 : 6 — a piece 
of defensive armour {q.v.) reaching from the 
foot to the knee ; from Erench greve, " the 
shin." They were the Roman cothurni. 

Gre^cians, Hellenists, Greek - Jews ; 
Jews born in a foreign country, and thus 
did not speak Hebrew (Acts 6:1; 9 : 29), 
nor join in the Hebrew services of the Jews 
in Palestine, but had synagogues of their 
own in Jerusalem. 

Greece originally consisted of the four 
provinces of Macedonia, Epirus, Achaia, 
and Peleponnesus. In Acts 20 : 2 it desig- 
nates only the Roman province of Mace- 
donia. Greece was conquered by the 
Romans B.C. 146. After passing through 
various changes it was erected into an in- 
dependent monarchy in 1831. 

Moses makes mention of Greece under 
the name of Javan (Gen. 10 : 2-5) ; and this 
name does not again occur in the Old 
Testament till the time of Joel (3:6). 
Then the Greeks and Hebrews first came 
into contact in the Tyrian slave-market. 
Prophetic notice is taken of Greece in 
Dan. 8 : 21. 

The cities of Greece were the special 
scenes of the labours of the apostle Paul. 

Greek. Pound only in the New Testa- 
ment, where a distinction is observed be- 
tween "Greek" and "Grecian" {q.v.). 
The former is (1) a Greek by race (Acts 
16 : 1-3 ; 18 : 17 ; Rom. 1 : 14), or (2) a Gen- 
tile as opposed to a Jew (Rom. 2 : 9, 10). 
The latter, meaning properly "one who 
speaks Greek," is a foreign Jew opposed to 
a home Jew who dwelt in Palestine. 

The word "Grecians" in Acts 11:20 



should be "Greeks," denoting the heathen 
Greeks of that city, as rendered in the 
Revised Version according to the reading 
of the best manuscripts ("Hellenes"). 

Grey^hound (Prov. 30 : 31), the render- 
ing of the Hebrew zarztr mothnaytm, 
meaning literally " girded as to the loins." 
Some think it means the "war-horse." 
The LXX. and Vulgate versions render it 
"cock." It has been by some interpre- 
ters rendered also "stag "and "warrior," 
as being girded about or panoplied, and 
" wrestler. " The greyhound, however, was 
evidently known in ancient times, as ap- 
pears from Egyptian monuments. 

Grind (Ex. 32:20; Deut. 9:21; Judg. 
16 : 21), to crush small (Heb. tahan) ; to 
oppress the poor (Isa. 3 : 5). The hand- 
mill was early used by the Hebrews (Num. 
11 : 8). It consisted of two stones — the 
upper (Deut. 24 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 21) being 
movable and slightly concave, the lower 
being stationary. 

The grinders mentioned Eccl. 12 : 3 are 
the teeth. (See Mill.) 

Griz'zled, party-coloured, as goats (Gen. 
31 : 10, 12), horses (Zech. 6 : 3, 6). 

Grove, (1.) Heb. 'asherah, properly a 
wooden image, or a pillar representing 
Ashtoreth, a sensual Canaanitish goddess, 
probably usually set up in a grove (2 Kings 
21 : 7 ; 23 : 4). In the Revised Version the 
word "Asherah" {q.v.) is inti-oduced as a 
proper noun, the name of the wooden 
symbol of a goddess, with the plurals 
Asherim (Ex. 34 : 13) and Asheroth (Judg. 
3 : 13). 

The LXX. have rendered asherah in 2 
Chr. 15:16 by "Astarte." The Vulgate 
has done this also in Judg. 3 : 7. 

(2.) Heb. 'eshel (Gen. 21 : 33). In 1 Sam. 
22 : 6 and 31 : 13 the Authorized Version 
renders this word by "tree." In all these 
passages the Revised Version renders by 
"tamarisk tree." It has been identified 
with the Tamariscus orientalis, five species 
of which are found in Palestine. 

(3.) The Heb. word ^elon, uniformly ren- 
dered in the Authorized Version by ' ' plain, " 
properly signifies a grove or plantation. 
In the Revised Version it is rendered, pi., 
"oaks " (Gen. 13 : 18 ; 14 : 13 ; 18 : 1 ; 12 : 6; 



GUARD 



301 



HABAKKUK 



Deut. 11 : 30 ; Josh. 19 : 33). In the earliest 
times groves are mentioned in connection 
udth religious worship. The heathen con- 
secrated groves to particular gods, and for 
this reason they were forbidden to the 
Jews (Jer. 17 : 3; Ezek. 20 : 28). 

Guard. (1.) Heb. tahhah (properly a 
"cook," and in a secondary sense "execu- 
tioner," because this oflSice fell to the lot of 
the cook in Eastern countries), the body- 
guard of the kings of Egj^^Dt (Gen. 37 : 36) 
and Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 8 ; Jer. 40 : 1 ; 
Dan. 2 : 14). 

(2.) Heb. rats, properly a "courier," one 
whose office was to run before the king's 
chariot (2 Sam. 15 : 1 ; 1 Kings 1 : 5). The 
couriers were also military guards (1 Sam. 
22 : 17 ; 2 Kings 10 : 25). They were prob- 
ably the same who under David were called 
Pelethites (1 Kings 14 : 27 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 1). 

(3.) Heb. mtshmereth, one who watches 
(Neh. 4 : 22), or a watch-station (7:3; 12 : 
9 ; Job 7 : 12). 

In the New Testament (Mark 6 : 27) the 
Authorized Version renders the Greek 
spekulator by "executioner," earlier En- 
glish versions by "hangman," the Ile\dsed 
Version by "soldier of his guard." The 
Avord properly means a ' ' pikeman " or 
"halberdier," of whom the bodyguard of 
kings and princes was composed. In Matt. 



27 : 65, m; 28 : 11, the Authorized Version 
renders the Greek kustodia by "watch," 
and the Revised Version by "guard," the 
Roman guard, which consisted of four 
soldiers, who were relieved every three 
hours (Acts 12:4). The "captain of the 
guard " mentioned Acts 28 : 16 was the 
commander of the Prsetorian troops, whose 
duty it was to receive and take charge of 
all prisoners from the provinces. 

Guest-cham'ber, the spare room on the 
upper floor of an Eastern dwelling (Mark 
14 : 14 ; Luke 22 : 11). In Luke 2 : 7 the 
word is translated "inn" {q.v.). 

Gur — a whelp — a place near Ibleam 
where Jehu's servants overtook and mor- 
tally wounded king Ahaziah (2 Kings 9 : 
27) ; an ascent from the plain of Jezreel. 

Gur-ba^al — sojourn of Baal — a place in 
Arabia (2 Chr. 26 : 7) where there was 
probably a temple of Baal. 

Gut'ter — Heb. tsinnoi — (2 Sam. 5:8). 
This Hebrew word occurs only elsewhere 
in Ps. 42 : 7 in the plural, where it is ren- 
dered "waterspouts." It denotes some 
passage through which water passed ; a 
water-course. 

In Gen. 30:38, 41 the Hebrew word 
rendered "gutters "is rdlmt, and denotes 
vessels overflowing Avith water for cattle 
(Ex. 2 : 16) ; drinking-troughs. 



H 



Hab^akkuk — embrace — the eighth of 
the twelve minor prophets. Of his per- 
sonal history we have no reliable informa- 
tion. He was probably a member of the 
Levitical choir. He was contemporary 
with Jeremiah and Zephaniah. 

Hab'akkuk, Prophecies of, were 
probably \\Titten about B. c. 611-599, or, as 
some think, a few j^ears earlier. This book 
consists of three chapters, the contents of 
which are thus comprehensively described : 
— "When the prophet in spirit saw the 
formidable power of the Chaldeans ap- 
proaching and menacing his land, and 
saw the great evils they would caxise in 



Judea, he bore his complaints and doubts 
before Jehovah, the just and the pure 
(1 : 2-17). And on this occasion the future 
punishment of the Chaldeans was revealed 
to him (2). In the third chapter a pre- 
sentiment of the destruction of his country, 
in the inspired heart of the prophet, con- 
tends with his hope that the enemy wotJd 
be chastised." The third chapter is a 
sublime song dedicated " to the chief 
musician," and therefore intended appa- 
rently to be used in the worship of God. 
It is "unequalled in majesty and splen- 
dour of language and imagery." 

The passage in 2 : 4, "The just shall live 

20 



HABERGEON 



302 



HADADEZER 



by his faith," is quoted by the apostle in 
Rom. 1 : 17. (Comp. Gal. 3 : 12 ; Heb. 10 : 
37, 38.) 

Haber'^geon, an Old English word for 
breastplate. In Job 41 : 26 (Heb. shirydh) 
it is properly a "coat of mail;" the Re- 
vised Version has "pointed shaft." In 
Ex. 28:32, 39:23, it denotes a military 
garment strongly and thickly woven and 
covered with mail round the neck and 
breast. Such linen corselets have been 
found in Egypt. The word used in these 
verses is tahra, which is of Egyptian origin. 
The Revised Version, however, renders it 
by " coat of mail." (See Aemour.) 

Habita^tion. God is the habitation of 
his people, who find rest and safety in him 
(Ps. 71 : 3 ; 91 : 9). Justice and judgment 
are the habitation of God's throne (Ps. 89 : 
14, 'H.eh. mekhdn, "foundation"), because 
all his acts are founded on justice and 
judgment. (See Ps. 132 : 5, 13 ; Eph. 2 : 22, 
of Canaan, Jerusalem, and the temple as 
God's habitation.) God inhabits eternity 
(Isa. 57 : 15) — i.e., dwells not only among 
men, but in eternity, where time is un- 
known; and "the praises of Israel" (Ps. 
22:3) — i.e., he dwells among those praises 
and is continually surrounded by them. 

Harbor — the united stream, or, accord- 
ing to others, with beautiful banks — the 
name of a river in Assyria, and also of the 
district through which it flowed (1 Chr. 
5 : 26). 

There is a river called Khabftr which 
rises in the central highlands of Kurdis- 
tan, and flows south-west till it falls into 
the Tigris, about 70 miles above Mosul. 
This was not, however, the Habor of 
Scripture. There is another river of the 
same name (the Chaboras) which, after a 
course of about 200 miles, flows into the 
Euphrates at Karkesia, the ancient Cir- 
cesium. This was, there can be little 
doubt, the ancient Habor. 

msich^ilah— the darksome hill — one of 
the peaks of the long ridge of el-K61ah, run- 
ning out of the Ziph plateau, "on the south 
of Jeshimon" [i.e., of the "waste"), the 
district to which one looks down from the 
plateau of Ziph (1 Sam. 23 : 19). After his 
reconciliation with Saul at Engedi (24 : 



1-8), David returned to Hachilah, where 
he had fixed his quarters. The Ziphites 
treacherously informed Saul of this, and 
he immediately (26 : 1-4) renewed his pur- 
suit of David, and "pitched in the hill of 
Hachilah. " David and his nephew Abishai 
stole at night into the midst of Saul's camp, 
when they were all asleep, and noiselessly 
removed the royal spear and the cruse from 
the side of the king, and then, crossing the 
intervening valley to the height on the 
other side, David cried to the people, and 
thus awoke the sleepers. He then ad- 
dressed Saul, who recognized his voice, and 
expostulated with him. Saul professed to 
be penitent ; but David could not jDut con- 
fidence in him, and he now sought refuge 
at Ziklag. David and Saul never after- 
wards met (1 Sam. 26 : 13-25). 

Ha^dad — clamour — the name of a Syrian 
god. (1. ) An Edomite king who defeated 
the Midianites (Gen. 36 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 46). 

(2.) Another Edomite king (1 Chr. 1 : 50, 
51), called also Hadar (Gen. 36 : 39 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 51). 

(3.) One of "the king's seed in Edom." 
He fled into Egypt, where he married the 
sister of Pharaoh's wife (1 Kings 11 : 14-22). 
He became one of Solomon's adversaries. 

Ha^dad — sharp — (a different name in 
Hebrew from the preceding), one of the 
sons of Ishmael (1 Chr. 1 : 30). Called also 
Hadar (Gen. 25 : 15). 

Hadade'zer — Hadad is help ; called 
also Hadare^zer, ornament of help— the 
king of Zobah. Hanun, the king of the 
Ammonites, hired among others the army 
of Hadadezer to assist him in his war 
against David. Joab, who was sent 
against this confederate host, found them 
in double battle array — the Ammonites to- 
ward their capital of Rabbah, and the 
Syrian mercenaries near Medeba. In the 
battle which was fought the Syrians were 
scattered, and the Ammonites in alarm 
fled into their capital. After this Hadade- 
zer went north "to recover his border" (2 
Sam. 8:3, A.V.); but rather, as the Re- 
vised Version renders, " to recover his do- 
minion" — i.e., to recruit his forces. Then 
followed another battle with the Syrian 
army thus recruited, which resulted in its 



HADAD-RIMMON 



803 



HADRACH 



being totally routed at Helam (2 Sam. 10: 
17). Shobach, the leader of the Syrian army, 
died on the field of battle. The Syrians of 
Damascus, who had come to help Hadade- 
zer, were also routed, and Damascus was 
made tributary to David. All the spoils 
taken in this war — "shields of gold "and 
"exceeding much brass," from which after- 
wards the "brazen sea, and the pillars, and 
the vessels of brass " for the temple were 
made (1 Chr. 18 : 8) — were brought to Jeru- 
salem and dedicated to Jehovah. Thus the 
power of the Ammonites and the Syrians 
was finally broken, and David's empire 
extended to the Euphrates (2 Sam. 10 : 
15-19 ; 2 Chr. 19 : 15-19). 

Ha^dad - rim^mon (composed of the 
names of two Syrian idols), the name of a 
place in the valley of Megiddo. It is al- 
luded to by the prophet Zechariah (12:11) 
in a proverbial expression derived from the 
lamentation for Josiah, who was mortally 
wounded near this place (2 Chr. 35 : 22-25). 
It has been identified with the modern 
Eummdneh, a village "at the foot of the 
Megiddo hills, in a notch or valley about 
an hour and a half south of Tell Metzellim. " 

Ha^dar — enclosure. (1.) A son of Ish- 
mael (Gen. 25 : 15) ; in 1 Chr. 1 : 30 written 
Hadad. 

(2.) One of the Edomitish kings (Gen. 
36 : 39) about the time of Saul. Called 
also Hadad (1 Chr. 1 : 50, 51). 

It is probable that in these cases Hada?' 
may be an error simply of transcription for 
Hadad. 

Hadare^zer — ornament of help — the 
name given to Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8 : 3-12) 
in 2 Sam. 10. 

Hada''shah — neiv — a city in the valley 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 37). 

Hadas^sah — myrtle — the Jewish name 
of Esther (g.r.)— Esther 2 : 7. 

Hadat''tah — nexo — one of the towns in 
the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 25). 

Ha'des— ^/la^ which is out of sight — a 
Greek word used to denote the state or 
place of the dead. All the dead alike go 
into this place. To be buried, to go down 
to the grave, to descend into hades, are 
equivalent expressions. In the LXX. this 
word is the usual rendering of the Hebrew 



sheol, the common receptacle of the de- 
parted (Gen. 42:38; Ps. 139:8; Hos. 
13 : 14 ; Isa. 14 : 9). This term is of com- 
paratively rare occurrence in the Greek 
New Testament. Our Lord speaks of 
Capernaum as being "brought down to 
hell" (hades) — i.e., simply to the lowest 
debasement — (Matt. 11 : 23). It is contem- 
plated as a kind of kingdom which could 
never overturn the foundation of Christ's 
kingdom (16 : 18)— i.e., Christ's church can 
never die. 

In Luke 16 : 23 it is most distinctly as- 
sociated with the doom and misery of the 
lost. 

In Acts 2 : 27-31 Peter quotes the LXX. 
version of Ps. 16 : 8-11, plainly for the 
purpose of proving our Lord's resurrection 
from the dead. David was left in the 
place of the dead, and his body saw cor- 
ruption. Not so with Christ. According 
to ancient prophecy (Ps. 30 : 3) he was 
recalled to life. 

Ha'^did — pointed — a place in the tx'ibe of 
Benjamin near Lydda, or Lod, and Ono 
(Ezra 2 : 33 ; Neh. 7 : 37). It is identified 
with the modern el-Hadttheh, 3 miles east 
of Lydda. 

Had^lai — resting — an Ephraimite ; the 
father of Amasa, mentioned in 2 Chr. 
28 : 12. 

Hado^ram — is exalted. (1.) The son of 
Tou, king of Hamath, sent by his father 
to congratulate David on his victory over 
Hadarezer, king of Syria (1 Chr. 18 : 10 ; 
called Joram 2 Sam. 8 : 10), 

(2. ) The fifth son of Joktan, the founder 
of an Arab tribe (Gen. 10 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 21). 

(3.) One who was "over the tribute;" 
i.e., "over the levy." He was stoned by 
the Israelites after they had revolted from 
Rehoboam (2 Chr. 10:18). Called also 
Adoram (2 Sam. 20 : 24) and Adoniram 
(1 Kings 4 : 6). 

Ha^drach, the name of a country (Zech. 
9 : 1) which cannot be identified. Rawlin- 
son would identify it with Edessa. He 
mentions that. in the Assyrian inscriptions 
it is recorded that "Shalmanezer III. made 
two expeditions — the first against Damas- 
cus B.C. 773, and the second against Ha- 



HEMORRHOIDS 



304 



HAGGAI 



drach B.C. 772 ; and again that Asshur- 
danin-il II. made expeditions against Ha- 
drach in B.C. 765 and 755." 

Haem^orrhoids or Emerods, bleeding 
piles known to the ancient Romans as 
mariscce, but more probably malignant 
boils of an infectious and fatal character. 
With this loathsome and infectious disease 
the men of Ashdod were smitten by the 
hand of the Lord. This calamity they 
attributed to the presence of the ark in 
their midst, and therefore they removed it 
to Gath (1 Sam. 5 : 6-8). But the same 
consequences followed from its presence in 
Gath, and therefore they had it removed 
to Ekron, 11 miles distant. The Ekronites 
were afflicted with the same dreadful 
malady, but more severely ; and a panic 
seizing the people, they demanded that the 
ark should be sent back to the land of 
Israel (9-12 ; 6 : 1-9). 

Haft, a handle as of a dagger ( Judg. 3 : 
22). 

Hsi^gSir— flight, or, according to others, 
stranger — an Egyptian, Sarah's handmaid 
(Gen. 16 : 1 ; 21 : 9, 10), whom she gave to 
Abraham [q.'v.) as a secondary wife (16 : 2). 
When she was about to become a mother 
she fled from the cruelty of her mistress, 
intending apparently to return to her rela- 
tives in Egypt, through the desert of Shur, 
which lay between. Wearied and worn 
she had reached the place she distinguished 
by the name of Beer-lahai-roi (" the well of 
the visible God"), where the angel of the 
Lord appeared to her. In obedience to 
the heavenly visitor she returned to the 
tent of Abraham, where her son Ishmael 
was born, and where she remained (16) till 
after the birth of Isaac, the space of fourteen 
years. Sarah after this began to vent her 
dissatisfaction both on Hagar and her 
child. Ishmael's conduct was insulting to 
Sarah, and she insisted that he and his 
mother should be dismissed. This was 
accordingly done, although with reluctance 
on the part of Abraham (Gen. 21 : 14). 
They wandered out into the wilderness, 
where Ishmael, exhausted with his journey 
and faint from thirst, seemed about to die. 
Hagar "lifted up her voice and wept," and 
the angel of the Lord, as before, appeared 



unto her, and she was comforted and deliv- 
ered out of her distresses (Gen. 21 : 18, 19). 

Ishmael afterwards established himself 
in the wilderness of Paran, where he 
married an Egyptian (Gen. 21 : 20, 21). 

"Hagar" allegorically represents the 
Jewish church (Gal. 4 : 24), in bondage to 
the ceremonial law; while "Sarah" repre- 
sents the Christian church, which is free. 

Hagare^ne or Hag^arite. (1.) One of 
David's mighty men (1 Chr. 11 : 38), the 
son of a foreigner. 

(2.) Used of Jaziz (1 Chr. 27:31), who 
was over David's flocks. ' ' A Hagarite 
had charge of David's flocks, and an Ish- 
maelite of his herds, because the animals 
were pastured in districts where these 
nomadic people were accustomed to feed 
their cattle." 

(3. ) In the reign of Saul a great war was 
waged between the trans-Jordanic tribes 
and the Hagarites (1 Chr. 5), who were 
overcome in battle. A great booty was 
captured by the two tribes and a half, and 
they took jjossession of the land of the 
Hagarites. 

Subsequently the " Hagarenes," still 
residing in the land on the east of Jordan, 
entered into a conspiracy against Israel 
(comp. Ps. 83 : 6). They are distinguished 
from the Ishmaelites. 

Hag^gai — festive — one of the twelve so- 
called minor prophets. He was the first 
of the three (Zechariah, his contemporary, 
and Malachi, who was about one hundred 
years later, being the other two) whose 
ministry belonged to the period of Jewish 
history which began after the return from 
captivity in Babylon. Scarcely anything 
is known of his personal history. He may 
have been one of the captives taken to 
Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. He began 
his ministry about sixteen years after the 
Return. The work of rebuilding the temple 
had been put a stop to through the in- 
trigues of the Samaritans. After having 
been suspended for fifteen years, the work 
was resumed through the efforts of Haggai 
and Zechariah (Ezra 6 : 14), who by their 
exhortations roused the people from their 
lethargj'', and induced them to take advan- 
tage of the favourable opportunity that had 



HAGGAI 



305 



HAIR 



arisen in a change in the policy of the Per- 
sian government. (See Darius [2].) Hag- 
gai's prophecies have thus been character- 
ized : — "There is a ponderous and simple 
dignity in the emphatic reiteration ad- 
dressed alike to every class of the com- 
munity—prince, priest, and people— '5e 
strong, he strong, he strong ' (2 : 4). ' Cleave, 
stick fast, to the work you have to do ; ' or 
again, ' Consider your ways, consider, con- 
sider, consider ' (1:5, 7 ; 2 : 15, 18). It is 
the Hebrew phrase for the endeavour, 
characteristic of the gifted seers of all 
times, to compel their hearers to turn the 
inside of their hearts outwards to their 
own view, to take the mask from off their 
consciences, to ' see life steadily, and to 
see it whoUy.'" — Stanley's Jcicish Church. 
(See Signet.) 

Hag^gai, Book of, consists of two brief, 
comprehensive chapters. The object of the 
prophet was generally to urge the people to 
proceed with the rebuilding of the temple. 

Chapter first com^jrehends the first ad- 
dress (2-11) and its effects (12-15). 

Chapter second contains, — 

(1.) The second prophecy (1-9), which 
was delivered a month after the first. 

(2.) The third prophecy (10-19), delivered 
two months and three days after the 
second ; and 

(3.) The fourth prophecy (20-23), de- 
livered on the same day as the third. 

These discourses are referred to in Ezra 
5:1; 6:14; Heb. 12:20. (Comp. Hag. 
2:7, 8, 22.) 

Hag^gith — festive ; the dancer — a wife 
of David and the mother of Adonijah (2 
Sam. 3 : 4 ; 1 Kings 1 : 5, 11 ; 2 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 
3:2), who, like Absalom, was famed for his 
beauty. 

Hagiog^rapha — the holy writings — a 
term which came early into use in the 
Christian church to denote the third divi- 
sion of the Old Testament scrii)tures, called 
by the Jews Kethuhun — i.e., "Writings." 
It consisted of five books — viz., Job, Pro- 
verbs, and Psalms, and the two books of 
Chronicles. The ancient Jews classified 
their sacred books as the Law, the Pro- 
phets, and the Kethuhlm, or Writings. 
(See Bible.) 



In the New Testament (Luke 24 : 44) we 
find three corresponding divisions — viz., 
the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms. 

Hail! a salutation expressive of a wish 
for the welfare of the person addressed ; the 
translation of the Greek Chaire, "Rejoice" 
(Luke 1:8). LTsed in mockery in Matt. 27 : 29. 

Hail, frozen rain - drops ; one of the 
plagues of Egypt (Ex. 9 : 23), It is men- 
tioned by Haggai as a divine judgment 
(Hag, 2 : 17). A hail-storm destroyed the 
armj' of the Amorites when they fought 
against Joshua (Josh. 10 : 11). Ezekiel re- 
presents the wall daubed with untempered 
mortar as destroj^ed by great hail -stones 
(Ezek. 13 : 11). (See also 38 : 2 ; Rev. 20 : 
9; 8:7.) 

Hair. (1.) The Egyptians let the hair 
of their head and beard grow only when 
they were in mourning, shaving it off at 
other times. "So particular were they 
on this point that to have neglected it was 
a subject of reproach and ridicule ; and 
whenever they intended to convey the idea 
of a man of low condition, or a slovenly 
person, the artists represented him with a 
beard." Joseph shaved himself before 
going in to Pharaoh (Gen. 41 : 14). The 
women of Egypt wore their hair long and 
plaited. Wigs were worn by priests and 
laymen to cover the shaven skull, and 
false beards were common. The great 
masses of hair seen in the portraits and 
statues of kings and priests are thus alto- 
gether artificial. 

(2.) A precisely opposite practice, as re- 
gards men, prevailed among the Assj^rians. 
In Assyrian sculptures the hair always 
appears long, and combed closely down 
upon the head. The beard also was al- 
lowed to grow to its full length. 

(3.) Among the Greeks the custom in 
this respect varied at different times, as it 
did also among the Romans. In the time 
of the apostle, among the Greeks the men 
wore short hair, while that of the women 
was long (1 Cor. 11 : 14, 15). Paul re- 
proves the Corinthians for falling in with 
a style of manners which so far confounded 
the distinction of the sexes and was hurt- 
ful to good morals. (See, however, 1 Tim. 
2 : 9, and 1 Pet. 3:9, as regards women.) 



HAKKOZ 



306 



HALLOW 



(4.) Among the Hebrews the natural 
distinction between the sexes was pre- 
served by the women wearing long hair 
(Luke 7:38; John 11:2; 1 Cor. 11:6), 
while the men preserved theirs as a rule 
at a moderate length by frequent clipping. 

Baldness disqualified any one for the 
priest's office (Lev. 21). 

Elijah is called a "hairy man " (2 Kings 
1 : 8) from his flowing locks, or more prob- 
ably from the shaggy cloak of hair which 
he wore. His raiment was of camel's hair. 

Long hair is especially noticed in the 
description of Absalom's person (2 Sam. 
14 : 26) ; but the wearing of long hair was 
unusual, and was only j)ractised as an act 
of religious observance by Nazarites (Num. 
6:5; Judg. 13 : 5) and others in token of 
special mercies (Acts 18 : 18). 

In times of affliction the hair was cut off 
(Isa. 3 : 17, 24 ; 15 : 2 ; 22 : 12 ; Jer. 7 : 29 ; 
Amos 8 : 10). Tearing the hair and letting 
it go dishevelled were also tokens of grief 
(Ezra 9:3). "Cutting off the hair" is a 
figure of the entire destruction of a people 
(Isa. 7 : 20). The Hebrews anointed the 
hair profusely with fragrant ointments 
(Ruth 3 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Ps. 23 : 5 ; 45 : 
7, etc.), especially in seasons of rejoicing 
(Matt. 6 : 17 ; 26 : 7 ; Luke 7 : 46). 

Hak''koz — the thorn — the head of one 
of the courses of tlie priests (1 Chr. 24 : 10). 

Ha''lah, a district of Media to which 
captive Israelites were transported by the 
Assyrian kings (2 Kings 17 : 6 ; 18 : 11 ; 
1 Chr. 5 : 26). It lay along the banks of 
the upper Khabiir, from its source to its 
junction with the Jerujer. Probably the 
district called by Ptolemy Chalcitis. 

Ha'lak — smooth ; bald — a hill at the 
southern extremity of Canaan (Josh. 11 : 
17). It is referred to as if it were a land- 
mark in that direction, being prominent 
and conspicuous from a distance. It has 
by some been identified with the modern 
Jebel el-Madura, on the south frontier of 
Judah, between the south end of the Dead 
Sea and the Wady Gaian. 

Hal'hul— -/w/Z of hoUous — a town in the 
highlands of Judah (Josh. 15 : 58). It is 
now a small village of the same name, and 
is situated about 5 miles north-east of 



Hebron on the way to Jerusalem. There 
is an old Jewish tradition that Gad, 
David's seer (2 Sam. 24:11), was buried 
here. 

Hall (Gr. aule, Luke 22:55; R.V., 
"court"), the open court or quadrangle 
belonging to the high priest's house. In 
Matt. 26 : 69 and Mark 14 : 66 this word 
is incorrectly rendered "palace" in the 
Authorized Version, but correctly " court " 
in the Revised Version. In John 10 : 1, 
16 it means a " sheep-fold." In Matt. 27 : 
27 and Mark 15 : 16 (A. V. , ' ' common hall ; " 
R. v., "palace ") it refers to the prcetorium 
or residence of the Roman governor at 
Jerusalem. The "porch " in Matt. 26 : 71 
is the entrance-hall or passage leading into 
the central court, which is open to the sky. 

Hal''lel — praise — the name given to the 
group of Psalms 113-118, which are pre- 
eminently psalms of praise. It is called 
"The Egyptian Hallel," because it was 
chanted in the temple whilst the Passover 
lambs were being slain. It was chanted 
also on other festival occasions — as at 
Pentecost, the feast of Tabernacles, and 
the feast of Dedication. The Levites, 
standing before the altar, chanted it verse 
by verse, the people responding by repeat- 
ing the verses or by intoned hallelujahs. 
It was also chanted in private families at 
the feast of Passover. This was probably 
the hymn which our Saviour and his dis- 
ciples sung at the conclusion of the Pass- 
over supper kept by them in the upper 
room at Jerusalem (Matt. 26 : 30 ; Mark 
14 : 26). 

There is also another group called "The 
Great Hallel," comprehending Psalms 118- 
136, which was recited on the first evening 
at the Passover supper and on occasions of 
great joy. 

Hallelu''jah — Praise ye Jehovah — fre- 
quently rendered "Praise ye the Lord," 
stands at the beginning of ten of the 
psalms (106, 111-113, 135, 146-150), hence 
called "hallelujah psalms." From its 
frequent occurrence it grew into a formula 
of praise. The Greek form of the word 
{alleluia) is found in Rev. 19 : 1, 3, 4, 6. 

Hal'loviT, to render sacred, to consecrate 
(Ex. 28 : 38 ; 29 : 1). This word is from 



HALT 



307 



HAMATH 



the Saxon, and properly means " to make 
holy. " The name of God is "hallowed " — 
i.e., is reverenced as holy (Matt. 6 : 9). 

Halt, lame on the feet (Gen. 32 : 31 ; Ps. 
38 : 17). To " halt between two opinions " 
(1 Kings 18 : 21) is supposed by some to be 
an expression used in "allusion to birds, 
which hop from spray to spray, forwards 
and backwards." The LXX. render the 
expression "How long go ye lame on 
both knees ? " The Hebrew verb rendered 
"halt" is used of the irregular dance 
("leaped upon ") around the altar (ver. 26). 
It indicates a lame, uncertain gait — going 
now in one direction, now in another, in 
the frenzy of wild leaping. 



Ham — tvarm, hot, and hence the south; 
also an Egyptian word meaning ' ' black " 
— the youngest son of Noah (Gen. 5 : 32 ; 
comp. 9 : 22, 24). The curse pronounced 
by Noah against Ham, properly against 
Canaan his fourth son, was accomplished 
when the Jews subsequently exterminated 
the Canaanites. 

One of the most important facts recorded 
in Gen. 10 is the foundation of the earliest 
monarchy in Babylonia by Nimrod, the 
grandson of Ham (6, 8, 10). The primi- 
tive Babylonian empire was thus Hamitic, 
and of a cognate race with the primitive 
inhabitants of Arabia and of Ethiopia. 
(See AccAD.) 



TABLE OF THE DESCENDANTS OF HAM (Geu. 10 : 6-14). 

Ham. 
I 



Gush. 

I 
Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, 
Eaamah, Sabtechah. 

I 
Sheba, Dedan. 



Mizraim. 



Phut. 



Canaan. 



Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, 

Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, 

Casluhim, Caphtorim (1 Chr. 1 : 12). 



Sidon, Heth, Jebusite, Amorite, Gir- 
gasite, Hivite, Arkite, Sinite, Ar- 
vadite, Zemarite, Hamathite. 



PhiKstim. 



The race of Ham were the most ener- 
getic of all the descendants of Noah in the 
early times of the post-diluvian world, 

Ha'man (of Persian origin) — magnificent 
— the name of the vizier {i.e. , the prime min- 
ister) of the Persian king Ahasuerus (Esther 
3 : 1, etc. ). He is called an ' ' Agagite, " which 
seems to denote that he was descended 
from the royal family of the Amalekites, 
the bitterest enemies of the Jews, as Agag 
was one of the titles of the Amalekite kings. 
He or his parents were brought to Persia as 
captives taken in war. He was hanged on 
the gallows which he had erected for Mor- 
decai the Jew (Esther 7 : 10). (See Esthek. ) 

Ha'^xnath — fortress — the capital of one 
of the kingdoms of Upper Sj^ria of the 
same name, on the Orontes, in the valley 
of Lebanon, at the northern boundary of 
Palestine (Num. 13 : 21 ; 34 : 8), at the foot 
of Hermon (Josh. 13 : 5) towards Damas- 
cus (Zech. 9:2; Jer. 49 : 20). It is called 
" Hamath the great" in Amos 6:2, and 
"Hamath-zobah " in 2 Chr. 8 : 3. 



This is one of the oldest cities in the 
world. It was a place of importance when 
the Israelites first entered on the posses- 
sion of the land of Canaan. Toi was king 
of Hamath in David's time. He sent an 
embassy to Jerusalem to congratulate 
David on the occasion of his victory over 
Hadadezer; also gifts "of all manner of 
vessels of gold, silver, and copper " (2 Sam. 
8 : 9, 10 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 9-12). It was after- 
wards conquered by Solomon (2 Chr. 8:3); 
but on his death it regained its independ- 
ence. It is frequently mentioned in sub- 
sequent times. In the time of Hezekiah 
it was conquered by the Assyrians (2 Kings 
17 : 24 ; 18 : 34 ; 19 : 13 ; Isa. 10 : 9 ; 11 : 11), 
and remained under their rule till the time 
of Alexander the Great. It was called 
ExDiphaneia by the Greeks in honour of 
Antiochus Epiphanes. This town, now 
called ^amaA, is " beautifully situated on 
the Orontes, 32 miles north of Emesa, and 
36 south of the ruins of Assamea. " 

The kingdom of Hamath comprehended 



HAMATH-ZOBAH 



308 



HANAN 



the great plain lying on both banks of the 
Orontes from the fountain near Riblah to 
Assamea on the north, and from Lebanon 
on the west to the desert on the east. 
The "entrance of Hamath " (Num. 34 : 8), 
which was the north boundary of Pales- 
tine, led from the west between the north 
end of Lebanon and the Nusairiyeh moun- 
tains. 

Ha^math-zo^'bah — fortress of Zobah — 
(2 Chr. 8:3) is supposed by some to be a 
different place from the foregoing ; but 
this is quite uncertain. 

Ham^math — ivaron springs — one of the 
"fenced cities '" of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 35). 
It is identified with the warm baths (the 
heat of the water ranging from 13G° to 144°) 
still found on the shore a little to the south 
of Tiberias under the name of Hummam 
Tahariyeh ("Bath of Tiberias "). 

Hammeda^tha, father of Haman, de- 
signated usually "the Agagite " (Esther 
3 : 1, 10 ; 8:5). 

Haznme^lech — the king — the father of 
Jerahmeel, mentioned in Jer. 36 : 26. Some 
take this word as a common noun — "the 
king" — and understand that Jerahmeel 
was Jehoiakim's son. Probably, however, 
it is to be taken as a proper name. 

Ham''mer. (1.) Heb. pattish, used by 
gold-beaters (Isa. 41:7) and by quarry- 
men (Jer. 23 : 29). Metaphorically of Baby- 
lon (Jer. 50 : 23) or Nebuchadnezzar. 

(2. ) Heb. makdbdh, a stone-cutter's mallet 
(1 Kings 6:7), or of any workman (Judg. 
4 : 21 ; Isa. 44 : 12). 

(3.) Heb. halmuth, a poetical word for a 
workman's hammer, found only in Judg. 
5 : 26, where it denotes the mallet with 
which the pins of the tent of the nomad are 
driven into the ground. 

(4.) Heb. mappets, rendered "battle- 
axe " in Jer. 51 : 20. This was properly a 
"mace," which is thus described by Raw- 
linson : "The Assyrian mace was a short, 
thin weapon, and must either have been 
made of a very tough wood or (and this is 
more probable) of metal. It had an orna- 
mented head, which was sometimes very 
beautifully modelled, and generally a strap 
or string at the lower end by which it 
could be grasped with greater firmness." 



Hammol^eketh — the queen— the daugh- 
ter of Machir and sister of Gilead (1 Chr. 
7 : 17, 18). Abiezer was one of her three 
children. 

Ham'mon — warm springs. (1. ) A town 
in the tribe of Asher, near Zidon (Josh. 
19 : 28), identified with 'Ain HdniiU. 

(2.) A Levitical city of NaphtaH (1 Chr. 

6 : 76). 

Ham^moth-dor — ivarm springs — a Le- 
vitical city of Naphtali (Josh. 21 : 32) ; prob- 
ably Hammath in 19 : 35. 

Harmon. See Baal-hamon. 

Hamo^nah — multitude — a name figura- 
tively assigned to the place in which the 
slaughter and burial of the forces of Gog 
were to take i:)lace (Ezek. 39 : 16). 

Ha^mon-gog — multitude of Gog — the 
name of the valley in which the slaugh- 
tered forces of Gog are to be buried (Ezek. 
39 : 11, 15), " the valley of the passengers 
on the east of the sea. " 

Ha^mor — he-ass — a Hivite from whom. 
Jacob purchased the plot of ground in 
which Joseph was afterwards buried (Gen. 
33:19). He is called "Emmor" in Acts 

7 : 16. His son Shechem founded the city 
of that name which Simeon and Levi de- 
stroyed because of his crime in the matter 
of Dinah, Jacob's daughter (Gen. 34 : 31). 
Hamor and Shechem were also slain (ver. 
26). 

Ha^mul — spared — one of the sons of 
Pharez, son of Judah (1 Chr. 2:5). His 
descendants are called Hamulites (Num. 
26 : 21). 

Hainu''tal — kinsman of the dew — the 
daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, wife of 
king Josiah, and mother of king Jehoahaz 
(2 Kings 23 : 31), also of king Zedekiah (2 
Kings 24 : 18). 

Hanam^eel — whom God has graciously 
given — the cousin of Jeremiah, to whom he 
sold the field he possessed in Anathoth, 
before the siege of Jerusalem (Jer. 32 : 
6-12). 

Ha'^nan — merciful. (1.) A Benjamite 
(1 Chr. 8 :23). (2.) One of David's heroes 
(1 Chr. 11 : 43). (3.) Jer. 35 : 4. (4.) A de- 
scendant of Saul (1 Chr. 8:38). (5.) One 
of the Nethinim (Ezra 2 : 46). (6.) One of 
the Levites who assisted Ezra (Neh. 8 : 7). 



HANANEEL 



309 



HANGING 



(7. ) One of the chiefs who subscribed the 
covenant (Neh. 10 : 22). 

Hanan^eel — God has graciously given — 
a tower in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3 : 
1 ; 12 : 39). It is mentioned also in Jer. 
31 : 38 ; Zech. 14 : 10. 

Hana'ni — God has gratified me, or gra- 
cious. (1. ) One of the sons of Heman (1 Chr. 
25 : 4, 25). (2.) A prophet who was sent to 
rebuke king Asa for entering into a league 
with Benhadad I., king of Syria, against 
Judah (2 Chr. 16 : 1-10). He w^as probably 
the father of the prop''^ "^ehu (1 Kings 16 : 
7). (3.) Probably a brother of Nehemiah 
(Neh. 1:2; 7:2), who reported to him the 
melancholy condition of Jerusalem. Nehe- 
miah afterwards appointed him to have 
charge of the city gates. 

Hanani'^ah — Jehovah has given. (1.) A 
chief of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8 : 
24). (2.) One of the sons of Heman (1 
Chr. 25 : 4, 23). (3.) One of Uzziah's mili- 
tary officers (2 Chr. 26:11). (4.) Grand- 
father of the captain who arrested Jere- 
miah (Jer. 37:13). (5.) Jer. 36:12. (6.) 
Jer. 38 : 1. (7. ) Shadrach, one of the 
"three Hebrew children" (Dan. 1; 6:7). 
(8.) Son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:19, 21). 
(9.) Ezra 10: 28. (10.) The "ruler of the 
palace ; he was a faithful man, and feared 
God above many " (Neh. 7 : 2). (11.) Neh. 
3 : 8. (12. ) Neh. 3 : 30 (13. ) A priest, son 
of Jeremiah (Neh. 12:12). (14.) A false 
prophet contemporary with Jeremiah (28 : 
3, 17). 

Hand. Called by Galen "the instru- 
ment of instruments." It is the symbol 
of human action (Ps. 9 : 17 ; Job 9 : 30 ; Isa. 
1 : 15 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 8). Washing the hands 
was a symbol of innocence (Ps. 26 : 6 ; 73 : 
13 ; Matt. 27 : 24), also of sanctification (1 
Cor. 6:11; Isa. 50:16; Ps. 24:3, 4). In 
Ps. 77 : 2 the correct rendering is, as in the 
Revised Version, "My hand was stretched 
out," etc., instead of, as in the Authorized 
Version, "My sore ran in the night," etc. 

The right hand denoted the south, and 
the left the north (Job 23 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 23 : 
19). To give the right hand was a pledge 
of fidelity (2 Kings 10 : 15 ; Ezra 10 : 19) ; 
also of submission to the victors (Ezek. 17 : 
18 ; Jer. 50 : 15j. The right hand was lifted 



up in taking an oath (Gen. 14 : 22, etc.). 
The hand is frequently mentioned, par- 
ticularly the right hand, as a symbol of 
power and strength (Ps. 66 : 5 ; Isa. 28 : 2). 
To kiss the hand is an act of homage (1 
Kings 19:18; Job 31:27), and to pour 
water on one's hands is to serve him (2 
Kings 3:11). The hand of God is the 
symbol of his power : its being upon one 
denotes favour (Ezra 7:6, 28 ; Isa. 1 : 25 ; 
Luke 1 : 66, etc.) or punishment (Ex. 9:3; 
Judg. 2 : 15 ; Acts 13 : 11, etc. ). A position 
at the right hand was regarded as the chief 
place of honour and power (Ps. 45 : 9 ; 80 : 
17 ; 110 : 1 ; Matt. 26 : 64). 

Hand''breadth, a measure of four fingers, 
equal to about four inches (Ex. 25 : 25 ; 37 : 
12; Ps. 39:5, etc.). 

Hand^ker chief. Only once in Author- 
ized Version (Acts 19:12). The Greek 
word {sudarion) so rendered means pro- 
perly "a sweat-cloth." It is rendered in 
the plural ' ' napkins " in John 11 : 44 ; 20 : 7 ; 
Luke 19 : 20. 

Hand'maid, servant (Gen. 16 : 1 ; Ruth 
3:9; Luke 1 : 48). It is probable that 
Hagar was Sarah's personal attendant 
while she was in the house of Pharaoh, and 
was among those maid - servants whom 
Abram had brought from Egypt. 

Hand'writing (CoL 2 : 14). The " blot- 
ting out the handwriting" is the removal 
by the grace of the gospel of the condem- 
nation of the law which we had broken. 

Haines, a place in Egypt mentioned 
only in Isa. 30 : 4 in connection with a re- 
proof given to the Jews for trusting in 
Egypt. It was considered the same as 
Tahpanhes, a fortified toA^m on the eastern 
frontier, but has been also identified as 
Ahnas-el-Medeeneh, 70 miles from Cairo. 

Hanging (as a punishment), a mark of 
infamy infiicted on the dead bodies of 
criminals (Deut. 21 : 23) rather than our 
modem mode of punishment. Criminals 
were first strangled and then hanged (Num. 
25 : 4 ; Deut. 21 : 22). (See 2 Sam. 21 : 6 for 
the practice of the Gibeonites.) 

Hanging (as a curtain). (1.) Heb. md- 
sdk — (a) before the entrance to the court 
of the tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 17) ; (6) before 
the door of the tabernacle (26 : 36, 37) ; 



HAISTXAH 



310 



HARAN 



(c) before the entrance to the most holy 
place, called "the veil of the covering ^^ 
(35:12; 39:34), as the word properly 
means. 

(2.) Heb. Jcela'tm, tapestry covering the 
walls of the tabernacle (Ex. 27 : 9 ; 35 : 17 ; 
Num. 3 : 26) to the half of the height of 
the wall (27:18; comp. 26:16). These 
hangings were fastened to pillars. 

(3.) Heb. bottim{2 Kings 23:7), "hang- 
ings for the grove" (R.V., "for the Ashe- 
rah"); marg., instead of " hangings, " has 
"tents" or "houses." Such curtained 
structures for idolatrous worship are also 
alluded to in Ezek. 16 : 16. 

Han^nah — favour, grace — one of the 
wives of Elkanah the Levite, and the 
mother of Samuel (1 Sam. 1 ; 2). Her 
home was at Ramathaim-zophim, whence 
she was wont every year to go to Shiloh, 
where the tabernacle had been pitched by 
Joshua, to' attend the offering of sacrifices 
there according to the law (Ex. 23 : 15 ; 
34 : 20 ; Deut. 16 : 16), probably at the feast 
of the Passover (comp. Ex. 13 : 10). On 
occasion of one of these "yearly" visits, 
being grieved by reason of Peninnah's con- 
duct toward her, she went forth alone, and 
kneeling before the Lord at the sanctuary 
she prayed inaudibly. Eli the high priest, 
who sat at the entrance to the holy place, 
observed her, and misunderstanding her 
character he harshly condemned her con- 
duct (1 Sam. 1 : 14-16). After hearing her 
explanation he retracted his injurious 
charge and said to her, " Go in peace : and 
the God of Israel grant thee thy petition." 
Perhaps the story of the wife of Manoah 
was not unknown to her. Thereafter El- 
kanah and his family retired to their quiet 
home, and there, before another Passover, 
Hannah gave birth to a son, whom, in 
grateful memory of the Lord's goodness, 
she called Samuel — i.e., "heard of God." 
After the child was weaned (probably in 
his third year) she brought him to Shiloh 
into the house of the Lord, and said to Eli 
the aged priest, ' ' Oh my lord, I am the 
woman that stood by thee here, praying 
unto the Lord. For this child I prayed ; 
and the Lord hath given me my petition 
which I asked of him : therefore I also 



have granted him to the Lord ; as long as 
he liveth he is granted to the Lord " (1 
Sam. 1:27, 28, R.V.). Her gladness of 
heart then found vent in that remarkable 
prophetic song (2 : 1-11 ; comp. Luke 2 ; 
46-55) which contains the first designation 
of the Messiah under that name (1 Sam. 2 : 
10, " Anointed "=" Messiah "). And so 
Samuel and his parents parted. He was 
left in Shiloh to minister "unto the Lord." 
And each year when they came up to 
Shiloh, Hannah brought to her absent child 
"a little coat" (7 '\ metl, a term used to 
denote the "robe" of the ephod worn by 
the high priest, Ex. 28 : 31), a priestly robe 
— a long upper tunic (1 Chr. 15 : 27) in which 
to minister in the tabernacle (1 Sam. 15 : 
27 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 10 ; Job 2 : 12). "And the 
child Samuel grew before the Lord." After 
Samuel, Hannah had three sons and two 
daughters. 

Hsin'niel— grace of God. (1. ) . A chief of 
the tribe of Manasseh (Num. 34 : 23). (2.) 
A chief of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7 : 39). 

Ha^nun — graciously given. (1.) The son 
and successor of Nahash, king of Moab. 
David's messengers, sent on an embassy of 
condolence to him to Rabbah Ammon, his 
capital, were so grossly insulted that he pro- 
claimed war against Hanun. David's army, 
imder the command of Joab, forthwith 
crossed the Jordan, and gained a complete 
victory over the Moabites and their allies 
(2 Sam. 10 : 1-14) at Medeba {q.v.). 

(2.) Neh. 3:13. (3.) 3:30. 

Ha^ra — mountainous land ■ — a province 
of Assyria (1 Chr. 5 : 26), between the Tigris 
and the Euphrates, along the banks of the 
KhablJir, to which some of the Israelite 
captives were carried. It has not been 
identified. Some think the word a varia- 
tion of Haran. 

Har'adah — fright; fear — the twenty- 
fifth station of the Israelites in their wan- 
derings (Num. 33 : 24). 

Ha^ran. (1.) Heh.hardn; r.c., "moun- 
taineer." The eldest son of Terah, brother 
of Abraham and Nahor, and father of Lot, 
Milcah, and Iscah. He died before his 
father (Gen. 11 : 27), in Ur of the Chaldees. 

(2.) Heb. hardn, i.e., "parched;" or 
probably from the Accadian charran, 



HARBONA 



Sll 



HARLOT 



meaning "a road." A celebrated city of 
Western Asia, now Harran, where Abram 
remained, after he left Ur of the Chaldees, 
till his father Terah died (Gen. 11 : 31, 38), 
when he continued his journey into the 
land of Canaan. It is called "Charran" 
in the LXX, and in Acts 7:2, It is called 
the "city of Nahor " (Gen. 24 : 10), and Jacob 
resided here with Laban (27 : 43). It stood 
on the river Belik, an affluent of the 
Euphrates, about 70 miles above where it 
joins that river in Upper Mesopotamia or 
Padan-aram, and about 600 miles north- 
west of Ur in a direct line. It was on the 
caravan route between the east and west. It 
is afterwards mentioned among the towns 
taken by the king of Assyria (1 Kings 19 : 
12 ; Isa. 37 : 12). It was known to the Greeks 
and Romans under the name Carrhse. 

(3.) The son of Caleb of Judah (1 Chr. 
2 : 46) by his concubine Ephah. 

Harbo^'na (a Persian word meaning 
"ass-driver"), one of the seven eunuchs or 
chamberlains of king Ahasuerus (Esther 
1 : 10 ; 7 : 9). 

Hare (Heb. ^arnebeth) was prohibited as 
food according to the Mosaic law (Lev. 11 : 
6; Deut. 14:7), "because he cheweth the 
cud, b\it divideth not the hoof." The habit 
of this animal is to grind its teeth and 
move its jaw as if it actually chewed the 
cud. But, like the cony {q.v.), it is not a 
ruminant with four stomachs, but a rodent 
like the squirrel, rat, etc. Moses speaks of it 
according to appearance. It is interdicted 
because, though apparently chewing the 
cud, it did not divide the hoof. 

There are two species in Syria— (1) the 
Lepus Syriacus or Syrian hare, which is like 
the English hare ; and (2) the Lepus Sinai- 
ticus, or hare of the desert. No rabbits 
are found in Syria. 

Ha^reth — thicket — a wood in the moun- 
tains of Judah where David hid when 
pursued by Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 5). It was 
possibly while he was here that the mem- 
orable incident narrated in 2 Sam. 23 : 
14-17, 1 Chr. 11:16-19 occurred. This 
place has not been identified, but perhaps 
it may be the modern Khards, on the bor- 
ders of the chain of mountains some 3 miles 
east of Keilah. 



Harhai^ah — zeal of Jehovah — (Neh. 3 : 8) 
" of the goldsmiths," one whose son helped 
to repair the wall of Jerusalem. 

Har^hur — fever — one of the Nethinim 
(Ezra 2 : 51). 

"RsL'Tiva.— flat-nosed. (1.) The head of 
the second course of priests (1 Chr. 24 : 8). 
(2.) Ezra 2:32, 39; Neh. 7:35, 42. (3.) 
Neh. 3:n. (4.) 12:3. (5.) 10:5. 

Harlph — autumnal rain. (1.) Neh. 
7:24. (2.) 10:19. 

Harlot. (1.) Heb. zondh (Gen. 34 : 31 ; 
38:15). In verses 21, 22 the Hebrew 
word used is kedSshah — i.e., a woman con- 
secrated or devoted to prostitution in con- 
nection with the abominable worship of 
Asherah or Astarte, the Syrian Venus. 
This word is also used in Deut. 23 : 17 ; 
Hos. 4 : 14. Thus Tamar sat by the way- 
side as a consecrated kedSshah. 

It has been attempted to show that Rahab, 
usually called a "harlot " (Josh. 2 : 1 ; 6 : 17 ; 
Heb. 11 : 31 ; James 2 : 25), was only an 
innkeeper. This interpretation, however, 
cannot be maintained. 

Jephthah's mother is called a "strange 
woman " ( Judg. 11 : 2). This, however, 
merely denotes that she was of foreign 
extraction. 

In the time of Solomon harlots appeared 
openly in the streets, and he solemnly 
warns against association with them (Prov. 
7 : 12 ; 9 : 14. See also Jer. 3:2; Ezek. 16 : 
24, 25, 31). The Revised Version, follow- 
ing the LXX., has "and the harlots 
washed," etc., instead of the rendering of 
the Authorized Version, "and they 
washed," of 1 Kings 22 : 38. 

To commit fornication is metaphorically 
used for to practise idolatry (Jer. 3:1; 
Ezek. 16 : 15 ; Hos. throughout) ; hence 
Jerusalem is spoken of as a harlot (Isa. 
1 : 22). 

(2.) Heb. nokrlyah, the " strange woman " 
(1 Kings 11 : 1 ; Prov. 5 : 20 ; 7:5; 23 : 27). 
Those so designated were Canaanites and 
other Gentiles (Josh. 23 : 13). To the same 
class belonged the "foolish" — i.e., the sin- 
ful — "woman." 

In the New Testament the Grvee^a pornai, 
plural, "harlots, " occurs in Matt. 21 : 31, 32, 
where they are classed with publicans ; 



HARNEPHER 



312 



HARVEST 



Luke 15 : 30 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 15, 16 ; Heb. 11 : 31 ; 
James 2:25. It is used symbolically in 
Rev. 17 : 1, 5, 15, 16 ; 19 : 2. 

Har^nepher, a chief of the tribe of 
Asher (1 Chr. 7 : 36). 

Hardness. (1.) Heb. 'ascir, "to bind;" 
hence the act of fastening animals to a 
cart (1 Sam. 6 : 7, 10 ; Jer. 46 : 4, etc.). 

(2.) An Old English word for " armour ; " 
Heb. neshek (2 Chr. 9 : 24). 

(3. ) Heb. shiryan, a coat of mail (1 Kings 
22:34; 2 Chr. 18:33; rendered in the 
phiral " breastplates " in Isa. 59 : 17). 

(4. ) The children of Israel passed out of 
Egypt "harnessed" (Ex. 13:18)— i.e., in 
an orderly manner, and as if to meet a foe. 
The word so rendered is probably a deriva- 
tive from Hebrew hcimesh {i.e., "five "), and 
may denote that they went up in five 
divisions — viz., the van, centre, two wings, 
and rear-guard. 

Ha'rod — palpitation — a fountain near 
which Gideon and his army encamped on 
the morning of the day when they encoun- 
tered and routed the Midianites (Judg. 7). 
It was sovith of the hill Moreh. The present 
'J.m JdMd ("Goliath's Fountain"), south 
of Jezreel and nearly opposite Shunem, is 
probably the fountain here referred to 
(7:4,5). 

Ha^rodite, an epithet applied to two of 
David's heroes (2 Sam. 23:25). (Comp. 
IChr. 11:27.) 

Haro^sheth of the Gentiles (Judg. 
4:2) or nations, a city near Hazor in 
Galilee of the Gentiles, or Upper Galilee, 
in the north of Palestine. It was here 
that Jabin's great army was marshalled 
before it went forth into the great battle- 
field of Esdraelon to encounter the army 
of Israel, by which it was routed and put 
to flight (Judg. 4). It was situated "at 
the entrance of the pass to Esdraelon from 
the plain of Acre " at the base of Carmel. 
The name in the Hebrew is Harosheth ha 
Gojim — i.e., "the smithy of the nations ; " 
probably, as is supposed, so called because 
here Jabin's iron war-chariots, armed with 
scythes, were made. It is identified with 
el-Hdrithiyeh. 

Harp (Heb. kinnor), the national instru- 
ment of the Hebrews. It was invented by 



Jubal (Gen. 4 : 21). Some think the word 
kinnor denotes the whole class of stringed 
instruments. It was used as an accom- 
paniment to songs of cheerfulness as well 
as of praise to God (Gen. 31 : 27 ; 1 Sam. 
16 : 23 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 28 ; Ps. 33 : 2 ; 137 : 2). 

In Solomon's time harps were made of 
almug-trees (1 Kings 10 : 11, 12). In 1 Chr. 
15:21 mention is made of "harps on the 
Sheminith;" Revised Version, "harps set 
to the Sheminith;" better perhaps "harps 
of eight strings." The soothing effect of 
the music of the harp is referred to 1 Sam. 
16 : 17, 24 ; 18 : 9 ; 19 : 9. The church in 
heaven is represented as celebrating the 
triumphs of the Redeemer "harping with 
their harps " (Rev. 14 : 2). 

Har'row (Heb. hartts), a trihulum or 
sharp threshing sledge ; a frame armed on 
the under side with rollers or sharp spikes 
(2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 3). 

Heb. verb sadad, to harrow a field, break 
its clods (Job 39 : 10 ; Isa. 28 : 4 ; Hos. 10 : 
11). Its form is unknown. It may have 
resembled the instrument still in use in 
Egypt. 

Har''sha — loorker or enchanter— o-ae of 
the Nethinim (Ezra 2 : 52 ; Neh. 7 : 54). 

Hart (Heb. 'ayal), a stag or male deer. 
It is ranked among the clean animals 
(Deut. 12 : 15 ; 14 : 5 ; 15 : 22), and was com- 
monly killed for food (1 Kings 4 : 23). The 
hart is frequently alluded to in the poetical 
and prophetical books (Isa. 35 : 6 ; Cant. 
2 : 8, 9 ; Lam. 1:6; Ps. 42 : 1). 

Ha^rum — elevated — (1 Chr. 4:8), a de- 
scendant of Judah. 

Ha'ruphite, a native of Hariph ; an epi- 
thet given to Shephatiah, one of those who 
joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 5). 

Ha^ruz — eager— the father of Meshul- 
lemeth, the wife of king Manasseh (2 Kings 
21 : 19) and mother of king Anion. 

Har'vest, the season for gathering grain 
or fruit. On the 16th day of Abib (or 
April) a handful of ripe ears of com was 
offered as a first-fruit before the Lord, and 
immediately after this the harvest com- 
menced (Lev. 23 : 9-14 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 9, 10 ; 
Ruth 2:23). It began with the feast of 
Passover and ended with Pentecost, thus 
lasting for seven weeks (Ex. 23 : 16). The 



HASADIAH 



313 



HAVILAH 



harvest was a season of joy (Ps. 126 : 1-6 ; 
Isa. 9 : 3). This word is used figuratively 
Matt. 9:37; 13:30; Luke 10:2; John 
4 : 35. (See Ageicultuke. ) 

Hasadi^aih.— favoured by Jehovah — one 
of the sons of Pedaiah (1 Chr. 3 : 20), of the 
royal line of David. 

Hasenu^ah — bristling or hated — a Ben- 
jamite (1 Chr. 9 : 7). 

Hashabi^ah — o'cgarded by Jehovah. 
(1.) Merarite Levite (1 Chr. 6 : 45 ; 9 : 14). 
(2. ) A son of Jeduthun (25 : 3, 19). (3. ) Son 
of Kemuel (26:30). (4.) One of the chief 
Levites (2 Chr. 35 : 9). (5.) A Levite (Neh. 
11 : 22). (6. ) One of the chief priests in the 
time of Ezra (Ezra 8 : 24). (7.) A chief of 
the Levites (Neh. 12 : 24). (8.) Ezra 8 : 19. 
(9.) Neh. 3:17. 

Hashabnrah. (L) Neh. 3:10. (2.) One 
of the Levites whom Ezra appointed to 
interpret the law to the people (Neh. 9:5). 

Hashbad^ana — consideration in judging 
^stood at Ezra's left hand when he read 
the law (Neh. 8 : 4). 

Hashmo^nah — fatness — the thirtieth 
halting -place of the Israelites during their 
wanderings in the wilderness, not far from 
Mount Hor (Num. 33 : 29, 30). 

Ha'shub — intelliaent. (1.) A Levite of 
the family of Merari (Neh. 11 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 
9:14). (2.) Neh. 3 : 2L (3.) 3 : IL 

Hashu^ah — ibid. — a descendant of 
David (1 Chr. 3 : 20). 

Ha^shum — opulent. (1.) Ezra 2:19; 
Neh. 7 : 22. (2. ) Stood on Ezra's left hand 
while he read the law (Neh. 8 : 4). 

Has^rah — poverty — "keeper of the ward- 
robe," i.e., of the sacerdotal vestments 
(2 Chr. 34:22); called Har'has 2 Kings 
22 : 14, He was husband of the prophetess 
Huldah. 

Hasu^pha — uncovered — one of the Neth- 
inim (Ezra 2 : 43 ; Neh. 7 : 46). 

Hat— Chald. Jcarb'eld — (Dan. 3 : 21), pro- 
perly mantle or pallium. The Revised 
Version renders it "tunic." 

Ha^tacb — verity — one of the eunuchs or 
chamberlains in the palace of Ahasuerus 
(Esther 4 : 5, 6, 9, 10). 

Ha'tred, among the works of the flesh 
(Gal. 5 : 20). Altogether different is the 
meaning of the word in Deut. 21 : 15 ; Matt. 



6 : 24 ; 10 : 37 ; Luke 14 : 26 ; Rom. 9 : 13, 
where it denotes only a less degree of love. 

Ha'thath — terror — son of Othniel (1 Chr. 
4 : 13). 

Hati^pha — captured — one of the Nethi- 
nim (Ezra 2 : 54). 

Hat^ita — exploration — one of the temple 
porters or janitors (Ezra 2 : 42). He re- 
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. 

Hat''tush — assembled. (1. ) A priest who 
returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12 : 2). 
(2.) Ezra 8 : 2. (3.) Neh. 3 : 10. (4.) Neh. 
10:4. (5.) IChr. 3:22. 

Hau^'ran — cave-land — mentioned only in 
Ezek. 47 : 16, 18. It was one of the ancient 
divisions of Bashan [q.v.), and lay on the 
south-east of Gaulanitis or the Jaulan, and 
on the south of Lejah, extending from the 
Arnon to the Hieromax. It was the most 
fertile region in Syria, and to this day 
abounds in the ruins of towns, many of 
which have stone doors and massive walls. 
It retains its ancient name. It was known 
by the Greeks and Romans as "Aura- 
nitis." 

Ha'ven, a harbour (Ps. 107 : 30; Acts 27 : 
12). The most famous on the coast of 
Palestine was that of Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 3). 
That of Crete, called "Fair Havens," is 
mentioned Acts 27 : 8. 

Havi^lah — the sand region. (1. ) A land 
mentioned in Gen. 2 : 11 rich in gold and 
bdellium and onyx stone. The question 
as to the locality of this region has given 
rise to a great diversity of opinion. It may 
perhaps be identified with the sandy tract 
whicii skirts Babylonia along the whole 
of its western border, stretching from the 
lower Euphrates to the mountains of 
Edom. 

(2. ) A district in Arabia-Felix. It is un- 
certain whether the tribe gave its name to 
this region or derived its name from it, 
and whether it was originally a Cushite 
(Gen. 10 : 7) or a Joktanite tribe (10 : 29 ; 
comp. 25 : 18), or whether there were both 
a Cushite and a Joktanite Havilah. It 
is the opinion of Kalisch, however, that 
Havilah "in both instances designates 
the same country, extending at least from 
the Persian to the Arabian Gulf, and on 
account of its vast extent easily divided 



HAVOTH-JAIR 



314 



HAZAR-HATTICON 



into two distinct parts." This opinion may 
be well vindicated. 

(3.) One of the sons of Cush (Gen. 10:7). 

(4.) A son of Joktan (Gen. 10 : 29; 1 Chr. 
1:20). 

Ha'voth-ja''ir — hamlets of the enlighteners 
— a district in the east of Jordan. (1. ) Jair, 
the son of Manasseh, took some villages of 
Gilead and called them by this name (Num. 
32 : 41). 

(2.) Again, it is said that Jair "took all 
the tract of Argob, " and called it Bashan- 
havoth-jair (Dent. 3 : 14). (See also Josh. 
13 : 30 ; 1 Kings 4 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 22, 23.) 

Hawk (Heb. netz, a word expressive of 
strong and rapid flight, and hence appro- 
priate to the hawk). It is an unclean bird 
(Lev. 11 : 16 ; Deut. 14 : 15). It is common 
in Syria and surrounding countries. The 
Hebrew word inchides various species of 
Falconidce, with special reference perhaps 
to the kestrel [Falco tinnunculus), the hobby 




{Hypotriorchis suhhideo), and the lesser kes- 
trel {Tin. Cenchris). The kestrel remains 
all the year in Palestine, but some ten or 
twelve other species are all migrants from 
the south. Of those summer visitors to 
Palestine special mention may be made of 
the Falco sacer and the Falco lanarius. 
(See Night-hawk.) 

Hay, properly so called, was not in use 
among the Hebrews ; straw was used in- 
stead. They cut the grass green as it was 
needed. The word rendered "hay" in 



Prov. 27 : 25 means the first shoots of the 
grass. In Isa. 15 : 6 the Revised Version 
has correctly ' ' grass, " where the Author- 
ized Version has ' ' hay. " 

Ha''zael — whom God beholds — an officer 
of Ben-hadad II., king of Syria, who ulti- 
mately came to the throne, according to 
the word of the Lord to Elijah (1 Kings 
19 : 15), after he had put the king to death 
(2 Kings 8 : 15). His interview with Elisha 
is mentioned in 2 Kings 8. The Assyrians 
soon after his accession to the throne came 
against him and defeated him with very 
great loss ; and three years afterwards again 
invaded Syria, but on this occasion Hazael 
submitted to them. He then turned his 
arms against Israel, and ravaged ' ' all the 
land of Gilead," etc. (2 Kings 10:33), which 
he held in a degree of subjection to him 
(13 : 3-7, 22). He aimed at the siibjugation 
also of the kingdom of Judah, when Joash 
obtained peace by giving him ' ' all the gold 
that was found in the treasures of the 
house of the Lord, and in the king's house" 
(2 Kings 12 : 18 ; 2 Chr. 24 : 24). He reigned 
about forty-six years (B.C. 88G-840), and 
was succeeded on the throne by his son 
Ben-hadad (2 Kings 13:22-25),' who on 
several occasions was defeated by Jehoash, 
the king of Israel, and compelled to restore 
all the land of Israel his father had taken. 

Ha'zar-ad'^dar — village of Addar — a 
place in the southern boundary of Palestine 
(Num. 34 : 4), in the desert to the west of 
Kadesh-barnea. It is called Adar in Josh. 
15:3. 

Ha^zar-e^nan — village of fountains — a 
place on the north-east frontier of Pales- 
tine (Num. 34 : 9, 10). Some have identified 
it with Aydn ed-Dara in the heart of the 
central chain of Anti-Libanus. More prob- 
ably, however, it has been identified with 
Kuryetein, about 60 miles east-north-east 
of Damascus. (Comp. Ezek. 47 : 17 ; 48:1.) 

Ha^zar-gad^dah — village of fortune —2^, 
city on the south border of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 27), midway between the Mediterranean 
and the Dead Sea. 

Ha^zar-hat^ticon — village of the midway 
— a place near Hamath in the confines of 
Hauran (Ezek. 47 : 16), probably on the 
north brow of Hennon. 



HAZAR-MAVETH 



315 



HEAD-BANDS 



Ha^zar-ma^veth — court of death — the 
third son of Joktan, and a region in Arabia- 
Felix settled by him (Gen. 10 : 26 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 20). It is probably the modern province 
of Hadramaut, situated on the Indian 
Ocean east of the modern Yemen. 

Ha'^zar-shu^al — village or enclosure of 
the jackals — a city on the south border of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 28 ; Neh. 11 : 26). It has 
been identified with the ruins of Sawch, 
half-way between Beersheba and Moladah. 

Ha^zar-su^sah — village of the horse — 
the same as Sansannah, one of Solomon's 
"chariot cities" (Josh. 15:31; 2 Chr. 
1 : 14), a depot in the south border of 
Judah. 

Ha'zel— Heb. luz— {Gen. 30 : 37), a nut- 
bearing tree. The Hebrew word is ren- 
dered in the Vulgate by amygdalinus, ' ' the 
almond-tree," which is probably correct. 
That tree flourishes in Syria. 

Haze^rim — villages — probably the name 
of the temporary villages in which the no- 
mad Avites resided (Deut. 2 : 23). 

Haze''roth, fenced enclosures consisting 
of "a low wall of stones in which thick 
bundles of thorny acacia are inserted, the 
tangled branches and long needle -like 
spikes forming a perfectly impenetrable 
hedge around the encampment" of tents 
and cattle which they sheltered. Such like 
enclosures abound in the wilderness of Pa- 
ran, which the Israelites entered after leav- 
ing Sinai (Num. 11 : 35 ; 12 : 16 ; 33 : 17, 18). 
This third encampment of the Israelites 
has been identified with the modern 'Ain el- 
Hudhera, some 40 miles north-east of Sinai. 
Here Miriam [q.v.), being displeased that 
Moses had married a Cushite wife (Num. 
12 : 1), induced Aaron to join with her in 
rebelling against Moses. God vindicated 
the authority of his " servant Moses," and 
Miriam was smitten with leprosy. Moses 
interceded for her, and she was healed 
(Num. 12 : 4-16). From this encampment 
the Israelites marched northward across 
the plateau of et-Tih, and at length reached 
Kadesh. 

Ha''zezon-ta''inar — pruning of the palm 
— the original name of the place afterwards 
called Engedi (g.v.)— Gen. 14 : 7 ; called also 
Hazazon-tamar (2 Chr. 20 : 2). 



Ha^zo— vision — one of the sons of Nahoi 
(Gen. 22 : 22). 

Ha^zor — enclosed ; fortified. (1. ) A strong- 
hold of the Canaanites in the mountains 
north of Lake Merom (Josh. 11 : 1-5). 
Jabin the king with his allied tribes here 
encountered Joshua in a great battle. 
Joshua gained a signal victory, which vir- 
tually completed his conquest of Canaan 
(11 : 10-13). This city was, however, after- 
wards rebuilt by the Canaanites, and was 
ruled by a king with the same hereditary 
name of Jabin. His army, under a noted 
leader of the name of Sisera, swept down 
upon the south, aiming at the complete 
subjugation of the country. This power- 
ful army was met by the Israelites under 
Barak, who went forth by the advice of 
the prophetess Deborah. The result was 
one of the mosi^ remarkable victories for 
Israel recorded in the Old Testament (Josh. 
19 : 36 ; Judg. 4 : 2 ; 1 Sam. 12 : 9). The city 
of Hazor was taken and occiipied by the 
Israelites. It was fortified by Solomon to 
defend the entrance into the kingdom from 
Syria and Assyria. When Tiglath-pileser, 
the Assyrian king, invaded the land, this 
was one of the first cities he captured, 
carrying its inhabitants captive into As- 
syria (2 Kings 15 : 29). It has been identi- 
fied with Khurhet Harrah, 2\ miles south- 
east of Kedesh. 

(2. ) A city in the south of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 23). The name here should probably 
be connected with the word following, 
Ithnan — Hazor-ithnan instead of "Hazor 
and Ithnan." 

(3.) A district in Arabia (Jer. 49 : 28-33), 
supposed by some to be Jetor — i.e., Itureea. 

(4.) "Kerioth and Hezron " (Josh. 15: 
25) should be " Kerioth-hezron " (as in the 
R. v.), the two names being joined together 
as the name of one place {e.g., like Kirjath- 
jearim) — "the same is Hazor" (R. V.). This 
place has been identified with el-Kuryetein, 
and has been supposed to be the home of 
Judas Iscariot. (See Kerioth.) 

Ha^zor-hadat^tah — Nevj Hazo — a city 
in the south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 25). It 
is probably identified with the ruins of 
el-Hazzdrah, near Beit Jebrin. 

Head^-bands (Heb. kishshHrtm), pro- 



HEAD-DKESS 



316 



HEART 



perly girdles or belts for the waist (Isa. 
3:20, R.V., "sashes;" Jer. 2:32, ren- 
dered "attire" — i.e., a girdle round the 
waist). 

Head''-dress. Not in common use among 
the Hebrews. It is first mentioned in Ex. 
28:40 (A. v., "bonnets;" R.V., "head- 
tires "). It was used especially for purposes 
of ornament (Job 29 : 14 ; Isa. 3 : 23 ; 62 : 3). 
The Hebrew word here used, tsaniph, pro- 
perly means a turban — folds of linen wound 
round the head. The Hebrew word veir. 



used in Isa. 61:3, there rendered "bea\ity" 
(A.V.) and "garland" (KV.), is a head- 
dress or turban worn by females (Isa. 3 : 
20, "bonnets"), priests (Ex. 39:28), a 
bridegroom (Isa. 61 :10, "ornament ;" R.V., 
' ' garland "). Ezek. 16 : 10 and Jonah 2 : 5 
are to be understood of the turban wrapped 
round the head. The Hebrew shebisim (Isa. 
3 :18), in the Authorized Version rendered 
"cauls," and marg. "networks," denotes 
probably a kind of netted head-dress. The 
"horn" (Heb. keren) mentioned in 1 Sam. 




HORNED HEAD-DRESS OF DRUSE LADIES. 



2 : 1 is the head-dress called by the Druses 
of Mount Lebanon the tantHra. 

Heap. When Joshua took the city of 
Ai (Josh. 8), he burned it and "made it 
an heap [Heb. tcl] for ever " (8 : 28). The 
ruins of this city were for a long time 
sought for in vain. It has been at length, 
however, identified with the mound which 
simply bears the name of ''Tel." "There 
are many Tels in modern Palestine, that 
land of Tels, each Tel with some other name 
attached to it to mark the former site. But 



the site of Ai has no other name ' unto this 
day.' It is simply ct-Tcl — 'the heap' par 
excellence. " 

Heart. According to the Bible, the 
heart is the centre not only of spiritual 
activity, but of all the operations of human 
life. "Heart " and "soul " are often used 
interchangeably (Deut. 6:5; 26:16; comp. 
Matt. 22 : 37 ; Mark 12 : 30, 33), but this is 
not generally the case. 

The heart is the " home of the personal 
life," and hence a man is designated, ac- 



HEARTH 



317 



HEATHEN 



cording to his heart, wise (1 Kings 5 : 12, 
etc.), pure (Ps. 41:12; Matt. 5:8, etc.), 
upright and righteous (Gen. 20 : 5, 6 ; Ps. 
11 : 2 ; 78 : 72), pious and good (Luke 8 : 15), 
etc. In these and such passages the word 
' ' soul " could not be substituted for ' ' heart. ' ' 

The heart is also the seat of the con- 
science (Rom. 2 : 15). It is naturally wicked 
(Gen. 8 : 21), and hence it contaminates the 
whole life and character (Matt. 12 : 34 ; 15 : 
18 ; comp. Eccl. 8 : 11 ; Ps. 73 : 7). Hence 
the heart must be changed, regenerated 
(Ezek. 36 : 26 ; 11 : 19 ; Ps. 51 : 12-14), be- 
fore a man can willingly obey God. 

The process of salvation begins in the 
heart by the believing reception of the tes- 
timony of God, while the rejection of that 
testimony hardens the heart (Ps. 96 : 8 ; 
Prov. 28 : 14 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 13). " Hardness 
of heart evidences itself by light views of 
sin ; partial acknowledgment and confes- 
sion of it ; pride and conceit ; ingratitude ; 
unconcern about the word and ordinances 
of God ; inattention to divine providences ; 
stifling convictions of conscience ; shunning 
reproof; presumption, and general igno- 
rance of divine things." 

Hearth— Heb. ah (Jer. 36:22, 23; R.V., 
"brazier"), meaning a large pot like a 
brazier, a portable furnace in which fire 
was kept in the king's winter apartment. 

Heb. ^-iydr (Zech. 12:6; R.V., "pan"), 
a fire-pan. 

Heb. moqH (Ps. 102:3; R.V., "fire- 
brand "), properly a fagot. 

Heb. yaqiid (Isa. 30 : 14), a burning mass 
on a hearth. 

He-ass— Heb. ^awdr- (Gen. 12:16), the 
general designation of the donkey used for 
carrying burdens (Ex. 42:26) and for 
ploughing (Isa. 30:24). Is described in 
Gen. 49 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 27. (See Ass. ) 

Heath— Heb. 'amr— ( Jer. 17 : 6 ; 48 : 6), a 
species of juniper called by the Arabs by the 
same name ^arar) — the Juniperus sabina or 
savin. "Its gloomy, stunted appearance, 
with its scale-like leaves pressed close to its 
gnarled stem, and cropped close by the wild 
goats, as it clings to the rocks about Petra, 
gives great force to the contrast suggested 
by the prophet, between him that trusteth 
in man, naked and destitute, and the man 



that trusteth in the Lord, flourishing as 
a tree planted by the waters " (Tristram, 
Natural History of the Bible). 




JUNIPERUS SABINA OR SAVIN. 

Hea'^then (Heb. plural goyim). At first 
the word gdyim denoted generally all the 
nations of the world (Gen. 18 : 18 ; comp. 
Gal. 3 : 6). The Jews afterwards became a 
people distinguished in a marked manner 
from the other goyim. They were a sepa- 
rate people (Lev. 20 : 23 ; 26 : 14-38 ; Deut. 
28), and the other nations — the Amorites, 
Hittites, etc. — were the goyim, the heathen, 
with whom the Jews were forbidden to be 
associated in any way (Josh. 23 : 7 ; 1 Kings 
11 : 2). The practice of idolatry was the 
characteristic of these nations, and hence 
the word came to designate idolaters (Ps. 
106 : 47 ; Jer. 46 : 28 ; Lam. 1:3; Isa. 36 : 
18), the wicked (Ps. 9 : 5, 15, 17). 

The corresponding Greek word in the 
New Testament, ethne, has similar shades 
of meaning. In Acts 22 : 26, Gal. 3 : 14, it 
denotes the people of the earth generally ; 
and in Matt. 6 : 7, an idolater. 

In modern usage the word denotes all na- 
tions that are strangers to revealed religion. 

21 



HEAVEN 



318 



HEBREW 



Heav^en. (1.) Definitions. — The phrase 
" heaven and earth" is used to indicate the 
whole universe (Gen. 1:1; Jer. 23 : 24 ; 
Acts 17 : 24). According to the Jewish 
notion there were three heavens, — 

(a) The firmament, as "fowls of the 
heaven " (Gen. 2 : 19 ; 7 : 3, 23 ; Ps. 8 : 8, 
etc.), "the eagles of heaven" (Lam. 4 : 19), 
etc. 

[h) The starry heavens (Deut. 17:3; Jer. 
8:2; Matt. 24 : 29). 

(c) "The heaven of heavens," or "the 
third heaven " (Deut. 10 : 14 ; 1 Kings 8 : 
27 ; Ps. 115 : 16 ; 148 : 4 ; 2 Gor. 12 : 2). 

(2.) Meaning of words in the original, — 

(a) The usual Hebrew Avord for "heavens" 
is shdmayim, a plural form meaning 
"heights," " elevations " (Gen. 1:1; 2:1). 

(6) The Hebrew word marom is also used 
(Ps. 68 : 18 ; 93 : 4 ; 102 : 19, etc.) as equiva- 
lent to shdmayim, "high places," "heights." 

(c) Heb. galgal, literally a "wheel," is 
rendered "heaven" in Ps. 77:18 (R.V., 
"whirlwind"). 

(c^) Heb. shahaTc, rendered "sky" (Deut. 
33:26; Job 37:18; Ps. 18:11), plural 
"clouds" (Job 35:5; 36:28; Ps. 68:34, 
marg. "heavens"), means probably the 
firmament. 

(e) Heb. raMa is closely connected with 
{d), and is rendered " fi7'ma')nentum " in the 
Vulgate, whence our "firmament" (Gen. 
1:6; Deut. 33 : 26, etc.), regarded as a solid 
expanse. 

(3.) il/e^aj97iori(?a^ meaning of term. Isa. 
14 : 13, 14 ; "doors of heaven" (Ps. 78 : 23) ; 
heaven " shut" (1 Kings 8 : 35) ; "opened " 
(Ezek. 1 : 1). (See 1 Chr. 21 : 16. ) 

(4.) Spiritual mesining. The place of the 
everlasting blessedness of the righteous ; 
the abode of departed spirits. 

(a) Christ calls it his " Father's house " 
(John 14 : 2). 

(6) It is called "paradise" (Luke 23:43; 
2 Cor. 12 : 4 ; Rev. 2 : 7 ; 22 : 2). 

(c) " The heavenly Jerusalem " (Gal. 4 : 
26 ; Heb. 12 : 22 ; Rev. 3 : 12). 

{d) The "kingdom of heaven" (Matt. 
25:1; James 2: 5). 

{e) The "eternal kingdom" (2 Pet. 1:11). 

(/) The "eternal inheritance" (1 Pet. 1: 
4; Heb. 9:15). 



(g) The "better country" (Heb, 11:14, 
16). 

[h) The blessed are said to "sit down 
with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob," and to 
be "in Abraham's bosom" (Luke 16:22; 
Matt. 8:11); to "reign with Christ" 
(2 Tim. 2 : 11) ; and to enjoy "rest " (Heb. 
4 : 10, 11). 

In heaven the blessedness of the righte- 
ous consists in the possession of "life ever- 
lasting," "an eternal weight of glory" 
(2 Cor. 4:17), an exemption from all suf- 
ferings for ever, a deliverance from all 
evils (2 Cor. 5:1, 2) and from the society 
of the wicked (2 Tim. 4 : 18), bliss with- 
out termination, the "fulness of joy" 
for ever (Luke 20:36; 2 Cor. 4:16, 18; 
1 Pet. 1:4; 5 : 10 ; 1 John 3 : 2). The be- 
liever's heaven is not only a state of ever- 
lasting blessedness, but also a " place " — a 
place "prepared " for them (John 14 : 2). 

Heave ©rfering — Heb. terilmah—['Ex. 
29 : 27) means simply an offering, a present, 
including all the offerings made by the Is- 
raelites as a present. This Hebrew word is 
frequently employed. Some of the rabbis 
attach to the word the meaning of elevation, 
and refer it to the heave offering, whicli 
consisted in presenting the offering by a 
motion up and down, distinguished from 
the xoave offering, which consisted in a 
repeated movement in a horizontal direc- 
tion — a " loave offering to the Lord as ruler 
of earth, a heave offering to the Lord as 
ruler of heaven." The right shoulder, 
which fell to the priests in presenting 
thank offerings, was called the heave 
shoulder (Lev. 7:34; Num. 6:20). The 
first fruits offered in harvest-time (Num. 
15 : 20, 21) were heave offerings. 

He^ber — community. (1. ) Son of Beriah 
and grandson of Asher (Gen. 46 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 
7 : 31, 32). 

(2.) The Kenite (Judg. 4:11, 17; 5:24), 
a descendant of Hobab. His Avife Jael 
received Sisera {q.v.) into her tent and then 
killed him. 

(3.) iChr. 4:18. 

(4.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 17). 

(5. ) A Gadite (5 : 13). (See Ebee.) 

He'brew, a name applied to the Israelites 
in Scripture only by one who is a foreigner 



HEBREW 



319 



HEBREWS 



(Gen. 39:14, 17; 41:12, etc.), or by the 
Israelites when they speak of themselves 
to foreigners (40 : 15 ; Ex. 1 : 19), or when 
spoken of as contrasted ■with other peoples 
(Gen. 43 : 32 ; Ex. 1 : 3, 7, 15 ; Deut. 15 : 12). 
In the New Testament there is the same 
contrast between Hebrews and foreigners 
(Acts 6:1; Phil. 3 : 5). 

Derivation. (1.) The name is derived, 
according to some, from Eber (Gen. 10 : 24), 
the ancestor of Abraham. The Hebrews 
are " sons of Eber " (10 : 21). 

(2.) Others trace the name to a Hebrew 
root-word signifying "to pass over," and 
hence regard it as meaning "the man who 
passed over," viz., the Eujohrates ; or to 
the Hebrew word meaning "the region "or 
* ' country beyond, " viz. , the land of Chaldea. 
This latter view is preferred. It is the more 
probable origin of the designation given to 
Abraham coming among the Canaanites as a 
man from the region beyond the Euphrates. 

(3. ) A third derivation of the word has 
been suggested — viz., that it is from the 
Hebrew word ''ahhar, "to pass over," 
whence *e6A«', in the sense of a "sojour- 
ner "or " passer through " as distinct from 
a " settler " in the land, and thus applies to 
the condition of Abraham (Heb. 11 : 13). 

He'brew of the Hebrews, one whose 
parents are both Hebrews (Phil. 3:5; 
2 Cor. 11 : 22) ; a genuine Hebrew. 

He'brews (Acts 6:1) were the Hebrew- 
speaking Jews, as distinguished from those 
who spoke Greek. (See Greeks.) 

He'brew language, the language of the 
Hebrew nation, and that in which the Old 
Testament is written, mth the exception of a 
few portions in Chaldee. In the Old Testa- 
ment it is only spoken of as "Jewish" 
(2 Kings 18 : 26, 28; Isa. 36 : 11, 13; 2 Chr. 
32 : 18). This name is first used by the 
Jews in times subsequent to the close of 
the Old Testament. 

It is one of the class of languages called 
Semitic, because they were chiefly spoken 
among the descendants of Shem. 

When Abraham entered Canaan it is 
obvious that he found the language of its 
inhabitants closely allied to his own. 
Isaiah (19:18) calls it "the language of 
Canaan." Whether this language, as seen 



in the earliest books of the Old Testament, 
was the very dialect which Abraham 
brought with him into Canaan, or whether 
it was the common tongue of the Canaan- 
itish nations which he only adopted, is un- 
certain ; probably the latter opinion is the 
correct one. Eor the thousand years be- 
tween Moses and the Babylonian exile the 
Hebrew language underwent little or no 
modification. It preserves all through a 
remarkable uniformity of structure. Erom 
the first it appears in its full maturity of 
development. But through intercourse 
with Damascus, Assyria, and Babylon, 
from the time of David, and more particu- 
larlj^ from the period of the Exile, it comes 
under the influence of the Aramaic idiom, 
and this is seen in the writings which date 
from this period. It was never spoken in 
its purity by the Jews after their return 
from Babylon. They now spoke Hebrew 
ivith a large admixture of Aramaic or Chal- 
dee, which latterly became the predominant 
element in the national language. 

The Hebrew of the Old Testament has 
only about six thousand words, all derived 
from about five hundred roots. Hence the 
same word has sometimes a great variety 
of meanings. So long as it was a living 
language, and for ages after, only the con- 
sonants of the words were Avritten. This 
also has been a source of difficulty in inter- 
preting certain words, for the meaning 
varies according to the vowels which may 
be supplied. The Hebrew is one of the 
oldest languages of which we have any 
knowledge. It is essentially identical with 
the Phoenician language. (See Moabite 
Stone.) The Semitic languages, to which 
class the Hebrew and Phoenician belonged, 
were spoken over a very wide area : in Baby- 
lonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and 
Arabia — in all the countries from the Medi- 
terranean to the borders of Assyria, and 
from the mountains of Armenia to the 
Indian Ocean. The rounded form of the 
letters, as seen in the Moabite stone, was 
probably that in which the ancient Hebrew 
was written down to the time of the Exile, 
when the present square or Chaldean form 
was adopted. 

He'brews, Epistle to. (1.) Its canon- 



HEBREWS 



320 



HEBRON 



icity. All the results of critical and histori- 
cal research to which this epistle has been 
specially subjected abundantly vindicate 
its right to a place in the New Testament 
canon among the other inspired books. 

(2.) Its authorship. A considerable 
variety of opinions on this subject has at 
different times been advanced. Some have 
maintained that its author was Silas, Paul's 
companion. Others have attributed it to 
Clement of Rome, or Luke, or Barnabas, 
or some unknown Alexandrian Christian, 
or Apollos ; but certainly the conclusion 
which is best supported, both from internal 
and external evidence, is that Paul was its 
author. There are, no doubt, many diffi- 
culties in the way of accepting it as Paul's ; 
but we may at least argue with Calvin that 
there can be no difficulty in the way of 
" embracing it without controversy as one 
of the apostolical epistles." 

(3. ) Date and place of writing. It was in 
all probability written at Rome, near the 
close of Paul's two years' imprisonment 
(Heb. 13 : 19, 21). It was certainly written 
before the destruction of Jerusalem (13 : 10). 

(4. ) To whom addressed. Plainly it was 
intended for Jewish converts to the faith 
of the gospel— probably for the church at 
Jerusalem. The subscription of this epistle 
is, of course, without authority. In this 
case it is incorrect, for obviously Timothy 
could not be the bearer of it (13 : 23). 

(5.) Its design was to show the true end 
and meaning of the Mosaic system, and its 
symbolical and transient character. It 
proves that the Levitical priesthood was a 
"shadow" of that of Christ, and that the 
legal sacrifices prefigured the great and all- 
perfect sacrifice he offered for us. It ex- 
plains that the gospel was designed, not to 
modify the law of Moses, but to supersede 
and abolish it. Its teaching was fitted, as 
it was designed, to check that tendency to 
apostatize from Christianity and to return 
to Judaism which now showed itself among 
certain Jewish Christians, The supreme 
authority and the transcendent glory of 
the gospel are clearly set forth, and in such 
a way as to strengthen and confirm their 
allegiance to Christ. 

(6.) It consists of two parts : {a) doctrinal 



(1-10 : 18), (6) and practical (10 : 19-ch. 13). 
There are found in it many references to 
portions of the Old Testament. It may be 
regarded as a treatise supplementary to 
the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, 
and as an inspired commentary on the book 
of Leviticus. 

He^bron-^a community ; alliance. (1.) A 
city in the south end of the valley of Esh- 
col, about midway between Jerusalem and 
Beersheba, from which it is distant about 
20 miles in a straight line. It was 
built "seven years before Zoan in Egypt " 
(Gen. 13 : 18 ; Num. 13 : 22). It still exists 
under the same name, and is one of the 
most ancient cities in the world. Its earlier 
name was Kirjath-arba (Gen. 23:2; Josh. 
14:15; 15:3). But "Hebron would ap- 
pear to have been the original name of the 
city, and it was not till after Abraham's 
stay there that it received the name 
Kirjath-arba, who [i.e., Arba] was not the 
founder but the conqueror of the city, 
having led thither the tribe of the Anakim, 
to which he belonged. It retained this 
name till it came into the possession of 
Caleb, when the Israelites restored the 
original name Hebron " (Keil, Com. ). The 
name of this city does not occur in any of 
the prophets or in the New Testament. It 
is found about forty times in the Old. It 
was the favourite home of Abraham. Here 
he pitched his tent under the oaks of 
Mamre, by which name it came afterwards 
to be known ; and here Sarah died, and 
was buried in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 
23 : 17-20), which he bought from Ephron 
the Hittite. Erom this place the patriarch 
departed for Egypt by way of Beersheba 
(37 : 14 ; 46 : 1). It was taken by Joshua 
and given to Caleb (Josh. 10:36, 37; 12:10; 
14 : 13). It became a Levitical city and a 
city of refuge (20 : 7 ; 21 : 11). When David 
became king of Judah this was his royal 
residence, and he resided here for seven 
and a half years (2 Sam. 5:5); and here 
he was anointed as king over all Israel 
(1 Sam. 2:1-4, 11; 1 Kings 2:11), It 
became the residence also of the rebellious 
Absalom (2 Sam. 15 : 10), who probably 
expected to find his chief support in the 
tribe of Judah, now called el-KhuliL 



HEGAI 



321 



HELBON 



In one part of the modern city is a great 
mosque, which is built over the grave of 
Machpelah. The first European who was 
permitted to enter this mosque was the 
Prince of Wales in 1862. It was also visited 
by the Marquis of Bute in 1866, and by the 
late Emperor Frederick of Germany (then 
Crown-Prince of Prussia) in 1869. 

One of the largest oaks in Palestine is 
found in the valley of Eshcol, about 3 
miles north of the town. It is sup^Dosed 
by some to be the tree under which Abra- 
ham pitched his tent, and is called "Abra- 
ham's oak." (See Oak.) 

(2.) The third son of Kohath the Levite 
(Ex. 6 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 2, 18). 



(3.) IChr. 2:42, 43. 

(4. ) A town in the north border of Asher 
(Josh. 19 : 28). 

He^gai — eunuch — had charge of the 
harem of Ahasuerus (Esther 2 : 3). 

Heirer— Heb. 'egldh—[J}e\\t. 21:4, 6; 
Jer. 46 : 20). Untrained to the yoke (Hos. 
10 : 11) ; giving milk (Isa. 7 : 21) ; ploughing 
( Judg. 14 : 18) ; treading out grain (Jer. 
50 : 11) ; unsubdued to the yoke an emblem 
of Judah (Isa. 15 : 5 ; Jer. 48 : 34). 

Heb. parcih (Gen. 41:2; Num. 19:2). 
Bearing the yoke (Hos. 4 : 16); "heifers of 
Bashan " (Amos 4 : 1), metaphorical for 
the voluptvious females of Samaria. The 
ordinance of sacrifice of the "red heifer" 




described in Num. 19 : 1-10 ; comp. Heb. 
9:13. 

Heir. Under the patriarchs the property 
of a father was divided among the sons of 
his legitimate wives (Gen. 21 : 10 ; 24 : 36 ; 
25 : 5), the eldest son getting a larger por- 
tion than the rest. The Mosaic law made 
specific regulations regarding the trans- 
mission of real property, which are given 
in detail in Deut. 21:17; Num. 27:8; 
36 : 6 ; 27 : 9-11. Succession to property 
was a matter of right and not of favour. 

Christ is the "heir of all things" (Heb. 
1:2; Col. 1 : 15). Believers are heirs of 
the "promise," "of righteousness," "of 
the kingdom," "of the world," "of God," 
"joint heirs " with Christ (Gal 3 : 29 ; Heb. 



6:17; 11:7; James 2:5; Rom. 4:13; 
8 : 17). 

Helah— rusiS— (1 Chr. 4 : 5, 7), one of the 
wives of Ashur. 

He^'lam — place of abundance — a j)lace on 
the east of Jordan and west of the Eu- 
phrates where David gained a great vic- 
tory over the Syrian army (2 Sam. 10 : 16), 
which was under the command of Shobach. 
Some would identify it with Alamata, near 
Nicephorium. 

Hel^bah — fatness — a town of the tribe of 
Asher (Judg. 1 : 31), in the plain of Phoe- 
nicia. 

Heinbon— /a^; i.e., "fertile"— (Ezek. 27: 
18 only), a place whence wine was brought 
to the great market of Tyre. It has been 



HELDAI 



322 



HELL 



usually identified with the modern Aleppo, 
called Haleb by the native Arabs, but is 
more probably to be found in one of the 
villages in the Wady Helbon, which is cele- 
brated for its grapes, on the east slope of 
Anti-Lebanon, north of the river Barada 
(Abana). 

Hel'dai— worWZ2/. (L) 1 Chr. 27:15; 
called also Heleb (2 Sam. 23 : 29) ; one of 
David's captains. 

(2. ) Zech. 6 : 10, one who returned from 
Babylon. 

He''leb— /aiwess — one of David's warriors 
(2 Sam. 23 : 29). 

HeFed — ^Ats world — [1 Chr. 11:30); 
called Heleb (2 Sam. 23 : 29). 

He''lek — a portion — (Josh. 17 : 2), de- 
scended from Manasseh. 

He^lem — a stroke — great - grandson of 
Asher (1 Chr. 7 : 35). 

He^leph — exchange — a city on the north 
border of NaphtaH (Num. 18 : 21, 31; Josh. 
19 : 33). 

He^lez — strong, or loin{^) (1.) One of 
Judah's posterity (1 Chr. 2:39). (2.) One 
of David's warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 26). 

He^li — elevation— isiAhev of Joseph in the 
line of our Lord's ancestry (Lvike 3 : 23). 

Hel'kai — Jehovah his portion — one of the 
chief priests in the time of Joiakim (Neh. 
12 : 15). 

HeFkath — smoothness — a town of Asher, 
on the east border (Josh. 19 : 25 ; 21 : 31) ; 
called also Hukok (1 Chr. 6 : 75). 

Hel^kath-haz^zurim — plot of the sharp 
blades, or the field of heroes — (2 Sam. 2:16). 
After the battle of Gilboa, so fatal to Saul 
and his house, David, as divinely directed, 
took up his residence in Hebron, and was 
there anointed king over Judah. Among 
the fugitives from Gilboa was Ish-bosheth, 
the only surviving son of Saul, whom 
Abner, Saul's uncle, took across the Jor- 
dan to Mahanaim, and there had him pro- 
claimed king. Abner gathered all the 
forces at his command and marched to 
Gibeon, with the object of wresting Judah 
from David. Joab had the command of 
David's army of trained men, Avho en- 
camped on the south of the pool, which 
was on the east of the hill on which the 
town of Gibeon was built, while Abner's 



army lay on the north of the pool. Abner 
proposed that the conflict should be de- 
cided by twelve young men engaging 
in personal combat on either side. So 
fiercely did they encounter each other that 
" they caught every man his fellow by the 
head, and thrust his sword in his fellow's 
side ; so they fell down together : where- 
fore that place was called Helkath-haz- 
zurim." The combat of the champions 
was thus indecisive, and there followed a 
severe general engagement between the 
two armies, ending in the total rout of 
the Israelites under Abner. The general 
result of this battle was that "David 
waxed stronger and stronger, and the 
house of Saul waxed weaker and weaker " 
(2 Sam. 3 : 1). (See Gibeon. ) 

Hell, derived from the Saxon helan, to 
cover ; hence the covered or the invisible 
place. In Scripture there are three words 
so rendered : — 

(1.) Sheol, occurring in the Old Testa- 
ment sixty-five times. This word sheol is 
derived from a root- word meaning "to 
ask," "demand;" hence insatiableness 
(Prov. 30 : 15, 16). It is rendered "grave" 
thirty-one times (Gen. 37 : 35 ; 42 : 38 ; 44 : 
29, 31; 1 Sam. 2:6, etc.). The Revisers 
have retained this rendering in the his- 
torical books with the original word in 
the margin, while in the poetical books 
they have reversed this rule. 

In thirty-one cases in the Authorized 
Version this word is rendered "hell," the 
place of disembodied spirits. The inhabit- 
ants of sheol are "the congregation of the 
dead" (Prov. 21 :16). It is (a) the abode 
of the wicked (Num. 16:33; Job 24:19; 
Ps. 9:17; 31:17, etc.); {b) of the good 
(Ps. 16 : 10 ; 30 : 3 ; 49 : 15 ; 86 : 13, etc.). 

Sheol is described as deep (Job 11 : 8), 
dark (10 : 21, 22), with bars (17 : 16). The 
dead "go down" to it (Num. 16:30, 33; 
Ezek. 31 : 15, 16, 17). 

(2.) The Greek word hades of the New 
Testament has the same scope of significa- 
tion as sheol of the Old Testament. It is 
a prison (1 Pet. 3 : 19), with gates and bars 
and locks (Matt. 16 : 18 ; Rev. 1 : 18), and 
it is downward (Matt. 11 : 23 ; Luke 10 : 15). 

The righteous and the wicked are sepa- 



HELMET 



323 



HERB 



rated. The blessed dead are in that part of 
hades called paradise (Luke 23 : 43). They 
are also said to be in Abraham's bosom 
(Luke 16 : 22). 

(3.) Gehenna, in most of its occurrences 
in the Greek New Testament, designates 
the place of the lost (Matt. 23 : 33). The 
fearful nature of their condition there is 
described in various figurative expressions 
(Matt. 8:12; 13:42; 22:13; 25:30; Luke 
16 : 24, etc. ). (See Hinnom. ) 

Hel'met (Heb. koVa), a cap for the de- 
fence of the head (1 Sam. 17 : 5, 38). In the 
New Testament the Greek equivalent is used 
(Eph. 6 : 17 ; 1 Thess. 5 : 8). (See Akms. ) 

He^lon — strong — father of Eliab, who 
was " captain of the children of Zebulun " 
(Num. 1 : 9 ; 2 : 7). 

Help-meet (Heb. '^ezer Jce-negdd; i.e., "a 
help as his counterpart "—a help suitable 
to him), a wife (Gen. 2 : 18-20). 

Helps (1 Cor. 12 : 28) may refer to help 
{i.e., by interpretation) given to him who 
speaks with tongues, or more probably 
simply help which Christians can render 
to one another, such as caring for the poor 
and needy, etc. 

Hem. of a garment, the fringe of a gar- 
ment. The Jews attached much import- 
ance to these, because of the regulations in 
Num. 15 : 38, 39. These borders or fringes 
were in process of time enlarged so as to 
attract special notice (Matt. 23 : 5). The 
hem of Christ's garment touched (9 : 20 ; 

14 : 36 ; Luke 8 : 44). 

He^msin— faithful. (1.) 1 Kings 4 : 31 ; 
1 Chr. 2 : 6, a son of Zerah, noted for his 
wisdom. 

(2.) Grandson of Samuel (1 Chr. 6:33; 

15 : 17), to whom the 88th Psalm probably 
was inscribed. He was one of the " seers " 
named in 2 Chr. 29 : 14, 30, and took a 
leading part in the administration of the 
sacred services. 

He'math, a Kenite (1 Chr. 2 : 55), the 
father of the house of Rechab. 

Hemlock. (L) Heb. rosh (Hos. 10:4 
rendered "gall" in Deut. 29:18; 32:32 
Ps. 69:21; Jer. 9:15; 23:15; "poison, 
Job 20:16; "venom," Deut. 32:33). 
"Edsh is the name of some poisonous plant 
which grows quickly and luxuriantly ; of 



a bitter taste, and therefore coupled with 
wormwood (Deut. 29 : 17 ; Lam. 3 : 19). 
Hence it would seem to be not the hem- 
lock cicuta, nor the colocynth or wild goiird, 
nor lolium darnel, but the poppy so called 
from its heads " (Gesenius, Lex.). 

(2.) Heb. la^andh, generally rendered 
"wormwood" (g.r.)— Deut. 29 : 18, Text 17; 
Prov. 5:4; Jer. 9 : 15 ; 23 : 15. Once it is 
rendered "hemlock" (Amos 6: 12; R.V., 
"wormwood"). This Hebrew word is 
from a root meaning "to curse," hence 
the accursed. 

Hen, common in later times among the 
Jews in Palestine (Matt. 23 : 37 ; Luke 
13 : 34). It is noticeable that this familiar 
bird is only mentioned in these passages 
in connection with our Lord's lamentation 
over the impenitence of Jerusalem. 

He^na, one of the cities of Mesopotamia 
destroyed by Sennacherib (2 Kings 18 : 34 ; 
19 : 33). It is identified with the modern 
Anak, lying on the right bank of the 
Euphrates, not far from Sexjharvaim. 

Hen'adad^arou?* of Hadad — the name 
of a Levite after the Captivity (Ezra 3 : 9). 

He^noch. See Enoch. 

He'pher — a well or stream. (1.) A royal 
city of the Canaanites taken by Joshua 
(12 : 17). 

(2.) The youngest son of Gilead (Num. 
26 : 32 ; 27 : 1). 

(3.) The second son of Asher (1 Chr. 
4 : 6). 

(4.) One of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11 : 36). 

Heph^zibah — my delight is in her. (1.) 
The wife of Hezekiah and mother of king 
Manasseh (2 Kings 21 : 1). 

(2.) A symbolical name of Zion, as repre- 
senting the Lord's favour toward her (Isa. 
62 : 4). 

Herb. (1. ) Heb. ''eseb, any green plant ; 
herbage (Gen. 1 : 11, 12, 29, 30 ; 2 : 5 ; 3 : 18, 
etc. ) ; comprehending vegetables and all 
green herbage (Amos 7:1, 2). 

(2. ) Yarak, green ; any green thing ; 
foliage of trees (2 Kings 19:26; 37:27, 
etc.) ; a plant ; herb (Deut. 11 : 10). 

(3.) Or, meaning "light." In Isa. 26 :1^ 
it means " green herbs ; " in 2 Kings 4 : 39 
probably the fruit of some plant. 

(4.) Merorim, plural, "bitter herbs, "eaten 



HERD 



324 



HERMONITES 



by the Israelites at the Passover (Ex. 12 : 8 ; 
Num. 9:11). They were bitter plants of 
various sorts, and referred symbolically to 
the oppression in Egypt, 

Herd, Gen. 13:2; Deut. 7:14. (See 
Cattle.) 

Herds^man. In Egypt herdsmen were 
probably of the lowest caste. Some of 
Joseph's brethren were made rulers over 
Pharaoh's cattle (Gen. 47 : 6, 17). The Is- 
raelites were known in Egypt as "keepers 
of cattle ; " and when they left it they took 
their flocks and herds with them (Ex. 12 : 
38). Both David and Saul came from 
"following the herd" to occupy the throne 
(1 Sam. 9; 11:5; Ps. 78:70). David's 
herd-masters were among his chief officers 
of state. The daughters also of wealthy 
chiefs were wont to tend the flocks of the 
family (Gen. 29 : 9 ; Ex. 2 : 16). The 
"chief of the herdsmen" was in the time 
of the monarchy an officer of high rank 
(1 Sam. 21 : 7 ; comp. 1 Chr. 27 : 29). The 
herdsmen lived in tents (Isa. 38 : 12 ; Jer. 
6:3); and there were folds for the cattle 
(Num. 32 : 16), and watch-towers for the 
herdsman, that he might therefrom observe 
any coming danger (Micah 4:8; Nah. 3:8). 

He^res — sun. (1.) "Mount Heres" 
(Judg. 1:35), Heb. Har-heres — i.e., "sun- 
mountain ; " probably identical with Ir- 
shemesh in Josh. 19 : 41. 

(2.) Isa. 19 : 18, marg. (See On.) 

Her^esy, from a Greek word signifying 
(1) a choice, (2) the opinion chosen, and 
(3) the sect holding the opinion. In the 
Acts of the Apostles (5 : 17 ; 15 : 4 ; 24 : 5 ; 
26 : 5, etc.) it denotes a sect, without refer- 
ence to its character. Elsewhere, however, 
in the New Testament it has a different 
meaning attached to it. Paul ranks 
"heresies " with crimes and seditions (Gal. 
5 : 20). This word also denotes divisions or 
schisms in the church (1 Cor. 11 : 9). In 
Titus 3 : 10 a "heretical person " is one who 
follows his own self-willed "questions," and 
who is to be avoided. Heresies thus came 
to signify self-chosen doctrines not emanat- 
ing from God (2 Pet. 2 : 1). 

Her'^mas — Mercury — a Roman Christian 
to whom Paul sends greetings (Rom. 16 : 
14). Some suppose him to have been 



the author of the celebrated religious ro- 
mance called The Shepherd, but it is very 
probable that that work is the production 
of a later generation. 

Her''ines — Mercury^o, Roman Christian 
(Rom. 16 : 14). 

Herinog''enes — Mercury-born — at one 
time Paul's fellow-labourer in Asia Minor, 
who, however, afterwards abandoned him, 
along with one Phygellus, probably on 
account of the perils by which they were 
beset (2 Tim. 1 : 15). 

Her^mon — apeak — the eastern prolonga- 
tion of the Anti-Lebanon range, reaching to 
the height of about 9,200 feet above the 
Mediterranean. It marks the north bound- 
ary of Palestine (Deut. 3:8; 4 : 48 ; Josh. 
11 : 3, 17 ; 13 : 11 ; 12 : 1), and is seen from 
a great distance. It is about 40 miles 
north of the Sea of Galilee. It is called 
"the Hermonites" (Ps. 42:7) because it 
has more than one summit. The Sidonians 
called it Sirion, and the Amorites Shenir 
(Deut. 3:9; Cant. 4 : 8). It is also called 
Baal-hermon (Deut. 3 : 3; 1 Chr. 5 : 23) and 
Sion (Deut. 4 : 48). There is every prob- 
ability that one of its three summits was 
the scene of the. transfiguration [q.v,). The 
" dew of Hermon " is referred to (Ps. 89 : 
12). Its modern name is Jebel-esh-Sheikh, 
"the chief mountain." It is one of the 
most conspicuous mountains in Palestine 
or Syria. " In whatever part of Palestine 
the Israelite turned his eye northward, 
Hermon was there, terminating the view. 
From the plain along the coast, from the 
Jordan valley, from the heights of Moab 
and Gilead, from the plateau of Bashan, 
the pale, blue, snow-capped cone forms the 
one feature in the northern horizon." 

Our Lord and his disciples climbed this 
"high mountain apart" one day, and re- 
mained on its summit all night, "weary 
after their long and toilsome ascent. " Dur- 
ing the night "he was transfigured before 
them; and his face did shine as the sun." 
The next day they descended to Csesarea 
Philippi. 

Her'monites, the (Ps. 42:6, 7)= "the 
Hermons" — i.e., the three peaks or sum- 
mits of Hermon, which are about a quarter 
of a mile apart. 



iT^. 



|iii!l|l|!!li|lllliljPII!!il|lil|il|||j|ll|{lljii 

l!"'ii!l!jli!Mii'|"i!i!|ill!!)!:i|!ll|l|l|l 



!i i II 






iilllli 




HEROD 



326 



HEROD 



Her'od the Great (Matt. 2 : 1-22 ; Luke 
1:5; Acts 23 : 35), the son of Antipater, an 
Idnmsean, and Cypros, an Arabian of noble 
descent. In the year B.C. 47 Julius Caesar 
made Antipater, a " wily Idumsean," 
procurator of Judea, who divided his 
territories between his four sons, Galilee 
falling to the lot of Herod, who was after- 
wards appointed tetrarch of Judea by Mark 
Antony (B.C. 40), and also king of Jtidea by 
the Roman senate. 

He was of a stern and cruel disposition. 
"He was brutish and a stranger to all 
humanity." Alarmed by the tidings of 
One "born King of the Jews," he sent 
forth and "slew all the children that were 
in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, 
from two years old and under " (Matt. 



2 : 16). He was fond of splendour, and 
lavished great sums in rebuilding and 
adorning the cities of his empire. He re- 
built the city of Csesarea {q.v.) on the 
coast, and also the city of Samaria {q.v.), 
which he called Sebaste, in honour of Au- 
gustus. He restored the ruined temple of 
Jerusalem ; a work which was begun B.C. 
20, but was not finished till after Herod's 
death, probably not till about A.D. 50 
(John 2 : 20). After a troubled reign of 
thirty-seven years, he died at Jericho 
amid great agonies both of body and 
mind, B.C. 4 — i.e., according to the common 
chronology, in the year in which Jesus 
was born. 

After his death his kingdom was divided 
among his sons. 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HEEODIAN FAMILY. 

Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1) 
married 



Mariamne, the Asmonean, 

grand-daughter of 

John Hyrcanus. 

I 
Akistobulus. 



Mariamne, 

daughter of Simon, 

a high priest. 



Malthace, 
a Samaritan. 



Cleopatra 
of Jerusalem. 



Herod Philip I. Herod Antipas Arche- Herod Philip II., 



AgRippa I. Herodias 
(Acts 12 : 1). (Matt. 14 : 2-11). 



(Matt. 14 ; 3). 

I 

Salome, 

by Herodias 

(Matt. 14:6; 

Luke 3 : 19). 



Agrippa II. Bernice Drusilla 
(Acts 25 : 13). (Acts 25 : 13). (Acts 24 : 24). 

Her'od An^tipas, Herod's son by Mal- 
thace (Matt. 14 : 1 ; Luke 3:1, 19 ; 9:7; 
Acts 13 : 1). (See Antipas.) 

Her^od Archela'us (Matt. 2:22), the 
brother of Antipas {q.v.). 

Her'od Philip I. (Mark 6 : 17), the son 
of Herod the Great by Mariamne, the 
daughter of Simon, the high priest. He 
is distinguished from another Philip called 
"the tetrarch." He lived at Rome as a 
private person with his wife Herodias and 
his daughter Salome. 

Hero'dias (Matt. 14:1-11; Mark 6: 
14-16 ; Luke 3 : 19), the daughter of Aris- 



(Luke 3 : 1, 19 ; 
9:7, etc.). 



LAUS 

(Matt. 2:22). 



tetrarch 

(Matt. 16 : 13 ; 

14 : 6-11). 



tobulus and Bernice. While residing at 
Rome with her husband Herod Philip I. 
and her daughter, Herod Antipas fell in 
with her during one of his journeys to 
Rome. She consented to leave her hus- 
band and become his wife. Some time 
after, Herod met John the Baptist, who 
boldly declared the marriage to be unlaw- 
ful. Por this he was "cast into prison," 
in the castle probably of Machserus {q.v.), 
and was there subsequently beheaded. 

Her^od Philip II., the son of Herod 
the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem. 
He was "tetrarch" of Batanea, Iturea, 



HEROD 



327 



HESHBON 



Traclionitis, and Auranitis. He rebuilt 
the city of Caesarea Philippi, calling it by 
his OA\'Ti name to distinguish it from the 
Caesarea on the sea-coast Avhich was the 
seat of the Roman government. He mar- 
ried Salome, the daughter of Herodias 
(Matt. 16 : 13 ; Mark 8 : 27 ; Luke 3:1). 

Her^od Agrip'pa I., son of Aristobulus 
and Bernice, and grandson of Herod the 
Great. He was made tetrarch of the 
provinces formerly held by Lysanias II., 
and ultimately possessed the entire king- 
dom of his grandfather, Herod the Great, 
with the title of king. He put the apostle 
James the elder to death, and cast Peter 
into prison (Luke 3:1; Acts 12 : 1-19). 
On the second day of a festival held in 
honour of the emi)eror Claiidius, he ap- 
peared in the great theatre of Csesarea. 
" The king came in clothed in magnificent 
robes, of which silver was the costly brill- 
iant material. It was early in the day, 
and the sun's rays fell on the king, so that 
the eyes of the beholders were dazzled ^^^.th 
the brightness which surrounded him. 
Voices from the crowd here and there 
exclaimed that it was the apparition of 
something di'sdne. And when he spoke 
and made an oration to them, they gave 
a shout, saying, ' It is the voice of a god, 
and not of a man.' But in the midst of 
this idolatrous ostentation an angel of God 
suddenly smote him. He was carried out 
of the theatre a dying man." He died 
(a.d. 44) of the same loathsome maladj^ 
which slew his grandfather (Acts 12 : 21-23), 
in the tifty-fourth year of his age, having 
reigned four years as tetrarch and three as 
king over the whole of Palestine. After 
his death his kingdom came under the 
control of the prefect of Syria, and Pales- 
tine was now fully incorporated with the 
empire. 

Her^od Agrip'pa II., the son of Herod 
Agrippa I. and Cypros. The emperor 
Claudius made laim tetrarch of the prov- 
inces of Philip and Lysanias, with the title 
of king (Acts 25 : 13 ; 26 : 2, 7). He en- 
larged the city of Caesarea Philippi, and 
called it Neronias, in honour of Nero. It 
was before him and his sister that Paul 
made his defence at Caesarea (25 : 12-27). 



He died at Rome a.d. 100, in the third 
year of the emperor Trajan. 

Hero'dians, a Jewish political party 
who sympathized with (Mark 3:6; 12 : 13 ; 
Matt. 22 : 16 ; Luke 20 : 20) the Herodian 
rulers in their general pohcy of govern- 
ment, and in the social customs which 
they introduced from Rome. They were 
at one with the Sadducees in holding the 
duty of submission to Rome, and of sup- 
porting the Herods on the throne. (Comj). 
Mark 8: 15; Matt. 16:6.) 

Hero''dion, a Christian at Rome whom 
Paul salutes and calls his "kinsman" 
(Rom. 16 : 11). 

Heron (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18), 
ranked among the unclean birds. The 
Hebrew name is 'andphah, and indicates 
that the bird so named is remarkable for 
its oMgry disposition. "The herons are 
wadi-ng-liirds, peculiarly irritable, remark- 




able for their voracitj^ frequenting marshes 
and oozy rivers, and spread over the regions 
of the East." The Ardea russeta, or little 
golden egret, is the commonest species in 
Asia. 

Hesh'bon — intelligence — a city ruled 
over by Sihon, king of the Amorites (Josh. 
3:10; 13:17). It was taken by Moses 



HESHMON 



328 



HIDDEKEL 



(Num. 21 : 23-26), and became afterwards 
a Levitical city (Josh. 21 : 39) in the tribe 
of Reuben (Num. 32 : 37). After the Exile 
it was taken possession of by the Moabites 
(Isa. 15 : 4 ; Jer. 48 : 2, 34, 45). The ruins 
of this town are still seen about 20 miles 
east of Jordan from the north end of the 
Dead Sea. There are reservoirs in this 
district, which are probably the "fish- 
pools " referred to in Cant. 7:4. 

Hesh^'mon — fatness — a town in the south 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 27). 

Heth — dread — a descendant of Canaan, 
and the ancestor of the Hittites (Gen. 
5 : 20 ; Deut. 7 : 1), who dwelt in the vicin- 
ity of Hebron (Gen. 23:3, 7). The Hittites 
were a Hamitic race. They are called 
" the sons of Heth " (23 : 3, 5, 7, 10, 16, 18, 
20). 

Heth''lon — wrapped up — a place on the 
north border of Palestine. The "way of 
Hethlon " (Ezek. 47 : 15 ; 48 : 1) is probably 
the pass at the end of Lebanon from the 
Mediterranean to the great plain of Ham- 
ath [q.v.), or the "entrance of Hamath." 

Hezeki''ah — lohom Jehovah has strength- 
ened. (1.) Son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:2; 
2 Chr. 29 : 1), whom he succeeded on the 
throne of the kingdom of Judah. He 
reigned twenty -nine years (B.C. 726-697). 
The history of this king is contained in 
2 Kings 18:20, Isa. 36-39, and 2 Chr. 
29-32. He is spoken of as a great and 
good king. In public life he followed the 
example of his great-grandfather Uzziah. 
He set himself to abolish idolatry from his * 
kingdom, and among other things which 
he did for this end, he destroyed the 
"brazen serpent," which had been removed 
to Jerusalem, and had become an object of 
idolatroiis worship (Num. 21 : 9). A great 
reformation was wrought in the kingdom 
in his day (2 Kings 18 : 4 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 20-36). 
On the death of Sargon and the accession 
of his son Sennacherib to the throne of 
Assyria, Hezekiah refused to pay the tri- 
bute which his father had paid, and "re- 
belled against the king of Assyria, and 
served him not, " but entered into a league 
with Egypt (Isa. 30; 31; 36:6-9). This 
led to the invasion of Judea by Senna- 
cherib (2 Kings 18 : 13-16), who took forty 



cities, and besieged Jerusalem with mounds. 
Hezekiah yielded to the demands of the 
Assyrian king, and agreed to pay him 
800 talents of silver and 30 of gold (18 : 14). 
But Sennacherib dealt treacherously with 
Hezekiah (Isa. 33 : 1), and a second time 
within two years invaded his kingdom 
(2 Kings 18:17; 2 Chr. 32:9; Isa. 36). 
This invasion issued in the destruction of 
Sennacherib's army. Hezekiah prayed to 
God, and "that night the angel of the 
Lord went out, and smote in the camp of 
the Assyrians 185,000 men." Sennacherib 
fled with the shattered remnant of his 
forces to Nineveh, where, seventeen years 
after, he was assassinated by his sons 
Adrammelech and Sharezer (2 Kings 19 : 
37). (See Sennacherib.) 

The narrative of Hezekiah's sickness and 
miraculous recovery is found in 2 Kings 
20:1, 2 Chr. 32:24, Isa. 38:1. Various 
ambassadors came to congratulate him on 
his recovery, and among them Merodach- 
baladan, the viceroy of Babylon (2 Chr. 
32:23; 2 Kings 20:12). He closed his 
days in peace and prosperity, and was 
succeeded by his son Manasseh. He was 
buried in the "chief est of the sepulchres 
of the sons of David " (2 Chr. 32 : 27-33). 
He had "after him none like him among 
all the kings of Judah, nor any that were 
before him " (2 Kings 18 : 5). (See Isaiah.) 

Hez^'ion — vision — the father of Tabri- 
mon, and grandfather of Ben-hadad, king 
of Syria (1 Kings 15 : 18). 

He^zir — swine or strong. (1.) The head 
of the seventeenth course of the priests 
(1 Chr. 24 : 15). (2.) Neh. 10 : 20, one who 
sealed Nehemiah's covenant. 

Hez'ro, a Carmelite, one of David's war- 
riors (1 Chr. 11 : 37). 

Hez'ron — enclosed. (1. ) One of the sons 
of Eeuben (Gen. 46:9; Ex. 6:14). (2.) 
The older of the two sons of Pharez (Gen. 
46 : 12). (3. ) A plain in the south of Judah, 
west of Kadesh-barnea (Josh. 15 : 3). 

Hid^dai — mighty ; exuberant — one of 
David's thirty-seven guards (2 Sam. 23 : 30). 

Hid^dekel — called by the Accadians id 
Idikla; i.e.., "the river of Idikla" — the 
third of the four rivers of Paradise (Gen. 
2 : 14). Gesenius interprets the word as 



HIEL 



329 



HIGH PRIEST 



meaning "the rapid Tigris." The Tigris 
rises in the mountains of Armenia, 15 miles 
south of the source of the Euphrates, which, 
after pursuing a south-east course, it joins 
at Kurnah, aboiit 50 miles above Bassorah. 
Its whole length Is about 1,150 miles. 

Hi^el — life of {i.e., from) God — a native 
of Bethel, who buiit (i.e., fortified) Jericho 
some seven hundred years after its destruc- 
tion by the Israelites. There fell on him 
for such an act the imprecation of Joshua 
(6 : 28). He laid the foundation in his first- 
bom, and set up the gates in his youngest 
son (1 Kings 16 :34) — i.e., during the pro- 
gress of the work all his children died. 

Hierap^olis — sacred city — a city of Phry- 
gia, where was a Christian church under 
the care of Epaphras (Col. 4 : 12, 13). This 
church was founded at the same time as 
that of Colosse. It now bears the name 
oi Pamhuk-Kalek — i.e., "Cotton Castle" — 
from the white appearance of the cliffs at 
the base of which the ruins are found. 

Higgai^on in Ps. 92 : 3 means the mur- 
muring tone of the harp. In Ps. 9 : 17 it 
is a musical sign, denoting probably a 
pause in the instrumental interlude. In 
Ps. 19:14 the word is rendered "medita- 
tion ; " and in Lam. 3 : 62, " device " (R.V., 
"imagination "). 

High place, an eminence, natural or 
artificial, where worship by sacrifice or 
offerings was made (1 Kings 13 : 32 ; 2 Kings 
16 : 29). The first altar after the Elood was 
built on a mountain (Gen, 8 : 20). Abra- 
ham also built an altar on a mountain 
(12 : 7, 8). It was on a mountain in Gilead 
that Laban and Jacob offered sacrifices 
(31 : 54). After the Israelites entered the 
Promised Land they were strictly enjoined 
to overthrow the high places of the Canaan- 
ites (Ex. 34 : 13 ; Deut. 7 : 5 ; 12 : 2, 3), and 
they were forbidden to worship the Lord 
on high places (Deut. 12 : 11-14), and were 
enjoined to use but one altar for sacrifices 
(Lev. 17 : 3, 4 ; Deut. 12 ; 16 : 21). The in- 
junction against high places Avas, however, 
very imperfectly obeyed, and we find again 
and again mention made of them (2 Kings 
14 : 4 ; 15 : 5, 35 ; 2 Chr. 15 : 17, etc.). 

High priest. Aaron was the first who 
was solemnly set apart to this oflSce (Ex. 



29:7; 30:23; Lev. 8:12). He wore a 
peculiar dress, which on his death passed 
to his successor in office (Ex. 29 : 29, 30). 
Besides those garments which he wore in 
common with all priests, there were four 
that were peculiar to himseK as high priest : 

(1.) The "robe" of the ephod, all of blue, 
of "woven work," worn immediately under 
the ephod. It was without seam or sleeves. 
The hem or skirt was ornamented with 
pomegranates and golden bells, seventy- 
two of each in alternate order. The sound- 
ing of the bells intimated to the people in 
the outer court the time when the high 
priest entered into the holy place to burn 
incense before the Lord (Ex. 28). 

(2.) The "ephod" consisted of two parts, 
one of which covered the back and the 
other the breast, which were united by the 
"curious girdle." It was made of fine 
twined linen, and ornamented with gold 
and purple. Each of the shoulder-straps 
was adorned with a precious stone, on 
which the names of the twelve tribes were 
engraven. This was the high priest's dis- 
tinctive vestment (1 Sam. 2 : 28 ; 14 : 3 ; 
21 : 9 ; 23 : 6, 9 ; 30 : 7). 

(3.) The "breastplate of judgment" (Ex. 
28 : 6-12, 25-28 ; 39 : 2-7) of ' ' cunning work. " 
It was a piece of cloth doubled, of one span 
square. It bore twelve precious stones, set 
in four rows of three in a row, which con- 
stituted the Urim and Thummim {q.v.). 
These stones had engraven on them the 
names of the twelve tribes. When the 
high priest, clothed with the ephod and 
the breastplate, inquired of the Lord, 
answers were given in some mysterious 
way by the Urim and Thmiunim (1 Sam. 
14:3, 18, 19; 23:2, 4, 9, 11, 12; 28:6; 
2 Sam. 5 : 23). 

(4.) The "mitre," or upper turban, a 
twisted band of eight yards of fine Unen 
coiled into a cap, with a gold plate in front, 
engraved with "Holiness to the Lord," 
fastened to it by a ribbon of blue. 

To the high priest alone it was permitted 
to enter the holy of holies, which he did 
only once a year, on the great Day of 
Atonement, for "the way into the holiest 
of all was not yet made manifest " (Heb. 
9 ; 10). Wearing his gorgeous priestly 



HIGH PRIEST 



330 



HIGH PRIEST 



vestments, he entered the temple before 
all the people, and then, laying them aside 
and assuming only his linen garments in 
secret, he entered the holy of holies alone, 
and made expiation, sprinkling the blood 
of the sin offering on the mercy seat, and 
offering np incense. Then resuming his 
splendid robes, he reappeared before the 



people (Lev. 16). Thus the wearing of 
these robes came to be identified with the 
Day of Atonement. 

The office, dress, and ministration of the 
high priest were typical o^_ the priesthood 
of our Lord (Heb.'4 : 14 ; 7 : 25 ; 9 : 12, etc.). 

It is supposed that there were in all 
eighty-three high priests, beginning with 




Aaron (b.c. 1G57) and ending with Phan- 
nias (a.d. 70). At its first institution the 
office of high priest was held for life (but 
comp. 1 Kings 2 : 27), and was hereditary 
in the family of Aaron (Num. 3 : 10). The 
office continued in the line of Eleazar, 
Aaron's eldest son, for two hundred and 
ninety-six j^ears, when it passed to Eli, the 



first of the line of Ithamar, who was the 
fourth son of Aaron. In this line it con- 
tinued to Abiathar, whom Solomon de- 
posed, and appointed Zadok, of the family 
of Eleazar, in his stead (1 Kings 2 : 35), in 
which it remained till the time of the Cap- 
tivity. After the Return, Joshua, the son 
of Josedek, of the family of Eleazar, was 



HIGHWAY 



331 



HINNOM 



appointed to this office. After him the 
succession was changed from time to time 
under priestly or political influences. 

High'way, a raised road for public use. 
Such roads were not found in Palestine ; 
hence the force of the language used to 
describe the return of the captives and the 
advent of the Messiah (Isa. 11 : 16 ; 35 : 8 ; 
40 : 3 ; 62 : 16) under the figure of the pre- 
paration of a grand thoroughfare for their 
march. 

During their possession of Palestine the 
Romans constructed several important 
highways, as they did in all countries 
which they ruled. 

HilkV ah— poi'tion of Jehovah. (1. ) 1 Chr. 
6:54. 

(2.) 26:11. 

(3.) The father of Eliakim (2 Kings 18 : 
18, 26, 37). 

(4.) The father of Gemariah (Jer. 29 : 3). 

(5.) The father of the prophet Jeremiah 

(1:1). 

(6. ) The high priest in the reign of Josiah 
(1 Chr. 6 : 13 ; Ezra 7 : 1). To him and his 
deputy (2 Kings 23 : 5), along Avith the 
ordinary priests and the Levites who had 
charge of the gates, was intrusted the 
purification of the temple in Jerusalem. 
While this was in progress, he discovered 
in some hidden corner of the building a 
book called the "book of the law" (2 
Kings 22:8) and the "book of the cove- 
nant " (23 : 2). Some have supposed that 
this "book" was nothing else than the 
original autograph copy of the Pentateuch 
written by Moses (Deut. 31 : 9-26). This 
remarkable discovery occurred in the eigh- 
teenth year of Josiah "s reign (b.c. 624) — a 
discovery which permanentlj^ affected the 
whole subsequent history of Israel. (See 
Josiah; Shaphan.) 

(7.) Neh. 12:7. 

(8.) Neh. 8:4. 

Hill. (1.) Heb. gib^'eah, a curved or 
rounded hill, such as are common to Pales- 
tine (Ps. 65 : 12 ; 72 : 3 ; 114 : 4, 6). 

(2.) Heb. hdr, properlj?- a mountain range 
rather than an individual eminence (Ex. 
24:4, 12, 13, 18; Num. 14:40, 44, 45). 
In Deut. 1:7; Josh. 9:1; 10 : 40 ; 11 : 16, 
it denotes the elevated district of Judah, 



Benjamin, and Ephraim, which forms the 
water-shed between the Mediterranean and 
the Dead Sea. 

(3.) Heb. ma''aleh in 1 Sam. 9 : 11. Au- 
thorized Version "hill" is correctly ren- 
dered in the Revised Version "ascent." 

(4.) In Luke 9:37 the "hill" is the 
Mount of Transfiguration. 

Hill of E^vil Coun^sel, on the south of 
the Valley of Hinnom. It is so called 
from a tradition that the house of the high 
priest Caiaphas, when the rulers of the 
Jews resolved to put Christ to death, stood 
here. 

Hil''lel — praising — a Pirathonite, father 
of the judge Abdon ( Judg. 12 : 13, 15). 

Hind. Heb. 'mjaldh (2 Sam. 22:34; 
Ps. 18:33, etc.) and 'ayeleth (Ps. 22, title), 
the female of the hart or stag. It is re- 
ferred to as an emblem of activity (Gen. 
49 : 21), gentleness (Prov. 5 : 19), feminine 
modesty (Cant. 2:7; 3:5), earnest longing 
(Ps. 42:1), timidity (Ps. 29:9). In the 
title of Ps. 22, the word probably refers to 
some tune bearing that name. 

Hinge (Heb. tstr), that on which a door 
revolves. " Doors in the East turn rather 
on pivots than on what we term hinges. In 
Syria, and especiallj^ in the Hauran, there 
are many ancient doors, consisting of stone 
slabs with pivots carved out of the same 
piece inserted in sockets above and below, 
and fixed during the building of the house " 
(Prov. 26 : 14). 

Hin'nom, a deep, narrow ravine sepa- 
rating Mount Zion from the so-called "Hill 
of E\T.l Counsel." It took its name from 
"some ancient hero, the son of Hinnom." 
It is first mentioned in Josh. 15 : 8. It had 
been the place where the idolatrous Jews 
burned their children alive to Moloch and 
Baal. A particular part of the valley was 
called Tophet, or the "fire-stove," where 
the children were burned. After the Exile, 
in order to show their abhorrence of the 
locality, the Jews made this valley the 
receptacle of the offal of the city, for the 
destruction of which a fire was, as is sup- 
posed, kept constantly burning there. 

The Jews associated with this valley 
these two ideas — (1) that of the sufferings 
of the victims that had there been sacri- 



HIRAM 



832 



HITTITES 



ficed ; and (2) that of filth and corruption. 
It became thus to the popular mind a sym- 
bol of the abode of the wicked hereafter. 
It came to signify hell as the place of the 
wicked. "It might be shown by infinite 
examples that the Jews expressed hell, or 
the place of the damned, by this word. 
The word Gehenna [the Greek contraction 
of Hinnom] was never used in the time of 
Christ in any other sense than to denote 
the place of future punishment." About 
this fact there can be no question. In this 
sense the word is used eleven times in our 
Lord's discourses (Matt. 23:33; Luke 12: 
15; Matt. 5:22, etc.). 

Hi^ram — high-horn. (1. ) Generally ' ' Hu- 
ram," one of the sons of Bela (1 Chr. 8:5). 

(2.) Also "Huram" and "Horam," king 
of Tyre. He entered into an alliance with 
David, and assisted him in building his 
palace by sending him able workmen, and 
also cedar-trees and fir-trees from Lebanon 
(2 Sam. 5 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 1). After the 
death of David he entered into a similar 
alliance with Solomon, and assisted him 
greatly in building the temple (1 Kings 
5:1; 9 : 10 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 3). He also took 
part in Solomon's traffic to the Eastern 
Seas (1 Kings 9 : 27 ; 10 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 18 ; 
9 : 10). 

(3.) The "master workman" whom Hi- 
ram sent to Solomon. He was the son of 
a widow of Dan, and of a Tyrian father. 
In 2 Chr. 2: 13 "Huram my father" should 
be Huram Abi — the word " Abi" (rendered 
here "my father") being regarded as a 
proper name, or it may perhaps be a title 
of distinction given to Huram, and equiv- 
alent to "master." (Comp. 1 Kings 7 : 14 ; 
2 Chr. 4:16.) He cast the magnificent 
brazen works for Solomon's temple in clay- 
beds in the valley of Jordan, between Suc- 
coth and Zarthan. 

Hire'ling, a labourer employed on hire 
for a limited time (Job 12 : 1 ; 14 : 6 ; Mark 
1 : 20). His wages were paid as soon as his 
work was over (Lev. 19 : 13). In the time of 
our Lord a day's wage was a "penny" {q.v.) 
— i.e., a Roman denarius (Matt. 20 : 1-14). 

Hiss, to express contempt (Job 27 : 23). 
The destruction of the temple is thus 
spoken of (1 Kings 9 : 8). Zechariah (10 : 8) 



speaks of the Lord gathering the house 
of Judah as it were with a hiss: "I will 
hiss for them." This expression may be 
" derived from the noise made to attract 
bees in hiving, or from the sound natu- 
rally made to attract a person's attention." 

Hit''tites. Palestine and Syria appear 
to have been originally inhabited by three 
different tribes. (1.) The Semites, living 
on the east of the isthmus of Suez. They 
were nomadic and pastoral tribes. (2. ) The 
Phoenicians, who were merchants and 
traders ; and (3. ) the Hittites, who were 
the warlike element of this confederation 
of tribes. They inhabited the whole 
region between the Euphrates and Damas- 
cus, their chief cities being Carchemish on 
the Euphrates, and Kadesh, now Tell 
Neby Mendeh, in the Orontes valley, 
about six miles south of the Lake of Horns. 
These Hittites seem to have risen to great 
power as a nation, as for a long time they 
were formidable rivals of the Egyptian 
and Assyrian empires. In the book of 
Joshua they always appear as the domi- 
nant race to the north of Galilee, 

Somewhere about the twenty-third cen- 
tury B.C. the Syrian confederation, led 
probably by the Hittites, marched against 
Lower Egypt, which they took possession 
of, making Zoan their capital. Their 
rulers were the Hyksos, or shepherd kings. 
They were at length finally driven out of 
Egypt. Rameses II. sought vengeance 
against the ' ' vile Kheta, " as he called 
them, and encountered and defeated them 
in the great battle of Kadesh, four cen- 
turies after Abraham. 

They are first referred to in Scripture in 
the history of Abraham, who bought from 
Ephron the Hittite the field and the cave of 
Machpelah (Gen. 15 : 20 ; 23 : 3-18). They 
were then settled at Kirjath-arba. Erom 
this tribe Esau took his first two wives (26 : 
34; 36:2). 

They are afterwards mentioned in the 
usual way among the inhabitants of the 
Promised Land (Ex. 23 : 28). They were 
closely allied to the Amorites, and are fre- 
quently mentioned along with them as 
inhabiting the mountains of Palestine. 
When the spies entered the land they 



HIVITES 



333 



HOLINESS 



seem to have occupied with the Amorites 
the mountain region of Judah (Num. 
13:29). They took part with the other 
Canaanites against the Israelites (Josh. 
9:1; 11:3). 

After this there are few references to 
them in Scripture. Mention is made of 
"Ahimelech the Hittite"(l Sam. 26:6), 
and of " Uriah the Hittite," one of David's 
chief officers (2 Sam. 23 : 39; 1 Chr. 11 : 41). 
In the days of Solomon they were a 
powerful confederation in the north of 
Syria, and were ruled by "kings." They 
are met with after the Exile still a dis- 
tinct people (Ezra 9:1; comp. Neh. 
13 : 23-28). 

The Hebrew merchants exported horses 
from Egypt not only for the kings of 
Israel, but also for the Hittites (1 Kings 
10 : 28, 29). From the Egyptian monuments 
we learn that ' ' the Hittites were a people 
with yellow skins and ' Mongoloid ' fea- 
tures, whose receding foreheads, oblique 
eyes, and protruding upper jaws are repre- 
sented as faithfully on their own monu- 
ments as they are on those of Egypt, so 
that we cannot accuse the Egyptian artists 
of caricaturing their enemies. The Amor- 
ites, on the contrary, were a tall and 
handsome people. They are depicted with 
white skins, blue eyes, and reddish hair — 
all the characteristics, in fact, of the white 
race" (Sayce's The Hittites). The original 
seat of the Hittite tribes was the mountain 
ranges of Taurus. They belonged to Asia 
Minor, and not to Syria. They pushed 
their way southward, and thus were found 
in Syria and Palestine. The Hittite empire 
was not like that of Rome, whose several 
provinces were consolidated under one 
great central authority. It consisted of a 
number of provinces whose inhabitants 
paid tribute and did homage to the king 
as a great conqueror whom they could not 
resist. They were not held together by 
any bond. 

Hi'^vites, one of the original tribes 
scattered over Palestine, from Hermon 
to Gibeon in the south. The name is in- 
terpreted as "midlanders" or "villagers" 
(Gen. 10:17; 1 Chr. 1:15). They were 
probably a branch of the Hittites. At the 



time of Jacob's return to Canaan, Hamor 
the Hivite was the "prince of the land" 
(Gen. 24 : 2-28). 

They are next mentioned during the 
Conquest (Josh. 9:7; 11 : 19). They prin- 
cipally inhabited the northern confines of 
Western Palestine (Josh. 11 : 3 ; Judg. 
3:3). A remnant of them still existed in 
the time of Solomon (1 Kings 9 : 20). 

Hizki^ah, an ancestor of the prophet 
Zephaniah (1 : 1). 

Hizki^jah (Neh. 10 : 17), one who sealed 
the covenant. 

Ho^bab — beloved — the Kenite, has been 
usually identified with Jethro [q.v.) — Ex. 
18:5, 27; comp. Num. 10:29, 30. In 
Judg. 4:11, the word rendered "father- 
in-law " means properly any male relative 
by marriage (comp. Gen. 19 : 14, " son-in- 
law," A. v.), and should be rendered 
" brother-in-law," as in the R.V. His de- 
scendants followed Israel to Canaan (Num. 
10 : 29), and at first pitched their tents near 
Jericho, but afterwards settled in the south 
in the borders of Arad (Judg. 1 : 8-11, 16). 

Ho^bah — hiding-place — a place to the 
north of Damascus, to which Abraham 
pursued Chedorlaomer and his confederates 
(Gen. 14 : 15). 

Hodi^jah — majesty of Jehovah. (1.) One 
of the Levites who assisted Ezra in ex- 
pounding the law (Neh. 8:7; 9:5). (2.) 
Neh. 10 : 18, a Levite who sealed the 
covenant. 

Hog'lah — partridge — one of the daugh- 
ters of Zelophehad the Gileadite, to whom 
portions were assigned by Moses (Num. 
26 : 33 ; 27 : 1 ; 36 : 11). 

Ho'haxn — Jehovah impels—the king of 
Hebron who joined the league against 
Gibeon. He and his allies were defeated 
(Josh. 10 : 3, 5, 16-27). 

Hold — a fortress — the name given to 
David's lurking-places (1 Sam. 22 : 4, 5 ; 
24 : 22). 

Ho'liness in the highest sense belongs 
to God (Isa. 6:3; Rev. 15 : 4), and to 
Christians as consecrated to God's service, 
and in so far as they are conformed in all 
things to the will of God (Rom. 6 : 19, 22 ; 
Eph. 1:4; Titus 1 : 8 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 15). Per- 
sonal holiness is a work of gradual devel- 

22 



HOLY GHOST 



334 



HONEY 



opment. It is carried on under many 
hindrances, hence the frequent admoni- 
tions to watchfulness, prayer, and perse- 
verance (1 Cor. 1 : 30 ; 2 Cor. 7:1; Eph. 
4:23, 24). (See Sanctification.) 

Holy Ghost, the third Person of the 
adorable Trinity. 

His personality is proved (1) from the 
fact that the attributes of personality, as 
intelligence and volition, are ascribed to 
him (John 14 : 17, 26 ; 15 : 26 ; 1 Cor. 2 : 10, 
11 ; 12 : 11). He reproves, helps, glorifies, 
intercedes (John 16:7-13; Rom. 8:26). 
(2) He executes the offices peculiar only to 
a person. The very nature of these offices 
involves personal distinction (Luke 12 : 12 ; 
Acts 5 : 32 ; 15 : 28 ; 16 : 6 ; 28 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 
2 : 13 ; Heb. 2 : 4 ; 3 : 7 ; 2 Pet. 1 : 21). 

His divinity is established (1) from the 
fact that the names of God are ascribed to 
him (Ex. 17 : 7 ; Ps. 95 : 7 ; comp. Heb. 3 : 7- 
11) ; and (2) that divine attributes are also 
ascribed to him— omnipresence (Ps. 139 : 7; 
Eph. 2 : 17, 18 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 13) ; omniscience 
(1 Cor. 2 : 10, 11); omnipotence (Luke 1 : 35 ; 
Rom. 8:11); eternity (Heb. 9:4). (3) 
Creation is ascribed to him (Gen. 1:2; 
Job 26 : 13 ; Ps. 104 : 30), and the working 
of miracles (Matt. 12 : 28 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 9-11). 
(4) Worship is required and ascribed to 
him (Isa. 6:3; Acts 28:25; Rom. 9:1; 
Rev. 1:4; Matt. 28 : 19). 

Holy place, one of the two portions 
into which the tabernacle was divided 
(Ex. 25 : 31 ; 37 : 17-25 ; Heb. 9 : 2). It was 
20 cubits long and 10 in height and breadth. 
It was illuminated by the golden candle- 
stick, as it had no opening to admit the 
light. It contained the table of show- 
bread (Ex. 25 : 23-29) and the golden altar 
of incense (30 : 1-11). It was divided from 
the holy of holies by a veil of the most 
costly materials and the brightest colours. 

The arrangement of the temple {q.v.) 
was the same in this respect. In it the 
walls of hewn stone were wainscotted with 
cedar and overlaid with gold, and adorned 
with beautiful carvings. It was entered 
from the porch by folding doors overlaid 
with gold and richly embossed. Outside 
the holy place stood the great tank or 
" sea " of molten brass, supported by twelve 



oxen, three turned each way, capable of 
containing two thousand baths of water. 
Besides this there were ten lavers and the 
brazen altar of burnt sacrifice. 

Holy of holies, the second or interior 
portion of the tabernacle. It was left in 
total darkness. No one was permitted to 
enter it except ithe high priest, and that 
only once a year. It contained the ark of 
the covenant only (Ex. 25 : 10-16). It Avas 
in the form of a perfect cube of 20 cubits. 
(See Tabernacle.) 

Ho^mer — heap — the largest of dry 
measures, containing about 8 bushels or 
1 quarter English = 10 epliahs (Lev. 
27 : 16 ; Num. 11 : 32) = a cor. (See Omkr. ) 

' ' Half a homer, " a grain measure men- 
tioned only in Hos. 3:3. 

Honey. (1.) Heb. ya'^ar, occurs only 
1 Sam. 14 : 25, 27, 29 ; Cant. 5 : 1, where it 
denotes the honey of bees. Properly the 
word signifies a forest or copse, and refers 
to honey found in woods. 

(2.) JVopheth, honey that drops (Ps. 
19 : 10 ; Prov. 5:3; Cant. 4 : 11). 

(3.) Debash denotes bee-honey (Judg. 
14 : 8) ; but also frequently a vegetable 
honey distilled from trees (Gen. 43 : 11 ; 
Ezek. 27 : 17). In these passages it may 
probably mean " dibs," or syrup of grapes, 
i.e., the juice of ripe grapes boiled down to 
one-third of its bulk. 

(4.) Tsiiph, the cells of the honey-comb 
full of honey (Prov. 16 : 24 ; Ps. 19 : 11). 

(5.) "Wild honey" (Matt. 3:4) may 
have been the vegetable honey distilled 
from trees, but rather was honey stored 
by bees in rocks or in trees (Deut. 22 : 13 ; 
Ps, 81 : 17 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 24-32). 

Canaan was a "land flowing with milk 
and honey" (Ex. 3:8). Milk and honey 
were among the chief dainties in the 
earlier ages, as they are now among the 
Bedawin ; and butter and honey are also 
mentioned among articles of food (Isa. 
7 : 15). The ancients used honey instead 
of sugar (Ps. 119 : 103 ; Prov. 24 : 13) ; but 
when taken in great quantities it caused 
nausea — a fact referred to in Prov. 25 : 16, 
17 to inculcate moderation in pleasures. 
Honey and milk also are put for sweet dis- 
course (Cant. 4 : 11). 



HOOD 



335 



HOR 



Hood (Heb. tsantph), a tiara round the 
head (Isa. 3:23; R.V., pL, "turbans"). 
Rendered "diadem," Job 29:14: high 
IDriest's "mitre," Zech. 3:5; "royal dia- 
dem, " Isa. 62 : 3. 

Hoof, a cleft hoof as of neat cattle (Ex. 
10:26; Ezek. 22, etc.); hence also of the 
horse, though not cloven (Isa. 5 : 28). The 
"parting of the hoof" is one of the dis- 
tinctions between clean and unclean ani- 
mals (Lev. 11 : 3 ; Deut. 4 : 5). 

Hook. (1.) Heb. hah, a "ring" inserted 
in the nostrils of animals to which a cord 
was fastened for the purpose of restraining 
them (2 Kings 19:28; Isa. 37:28, 29; 
Ezek. 29 : 4 ; 38 : 4). " The Orientals make 
use of this contrivance for curbing their 

work -beasts When a beast becomes 

unruly they have only to draw the cord on 
one side, which, by stopping his breath, 
punishes him so effectually tha.t after a 
few repetitions he fails not to become quite 
tractable whenever he begins to feel it" 
(Michaelis). So God's agents are never be- 
yond his control. 

(2.) Hakkdh, a fish " hook" (Job 41 : 2— 
Heb. Text, 40 : 25 : Isa. 19 : 8 ; Hab. 1 : 15). 

(3.) Vav, a " peg" on which the curtains 
of the tabernacle were hung (Ex. 26 : 32). 

(4.) Tsinndh, a fish-hook (Amos 4:2). 

(5.) MazUg, flesh-hooks (1 Sam. 2 :13, 14), 
a kind of fork %^'ith three teeth for turning 
the sacrifices on the fire, etc. 

(6.) Mazmeroth, pruning-hooks (Isa. 2:4; 
Joel 3: 10). 

(7.) 'Agmon (Job 41 : 2— Heb. Text 40: 
26), incorrectly rendered in the Authorized 
Version. Properly a rush-rope for binding 
animals, as in Revised Version margin. 

Hope, one of the three main elements of 
Christian character (1 Cor. 13 : 13). It is 
joined to faith and love, and is opposed to 
seeing or possessing (Rom. 8 : 24 ; 1 John 
3:2). "Hope is an essential and funda- 
mental element of Christian life, so essen- 
tial indeed, that, like faith and love, it can 
itself designate the essence of Christianity 
(1 Pet. 3 : 15 ; Heb. 10 : 23). In it the whole 
glory of the Christian vocation is centred 
(Eph. 1 : 18 ; 4:4)." Unbelievers are with- 
out this hope (Eph. 2 : 12 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 13). 
Christ is the actual object of the believer's 



hope, because it is in his second coming 
that the hope of glory will be fulfilled 
(1 Tim. 1:1; Col. 1 : 27 ; Titus 2 : 13). It is 
spoken of as "lively" — i.e., a living — hope, 
a hope not frail and perishable, but having 
a perennial life (1 Pet. 1 : 3). In Rom. 
5 : 2 the " hope" spoken of is probably ob- 
jective, i.e., " the hope set before us " 
— namely, eternal life (comp. 12:12). In 
1 John 3 : 3 the expression " hope in him " 
ought rather to be, as in the Revised Version, 
" hope on him," i.e., a hope based on God. 

Hoph'^ni — irugilist or client — one of the 
two sons of Eh, the high priest (1 Sam. 
1:3; 2:34), who, because he was "very 
old," resigned to them the active duties of 
his . office. By their scandalous conduct 
they brought doA\Ti a curse on their father's 
house (2 : 22, 12-17, 27-36 ; 3 : 11-14). Eor 
their wickedness they were called ' ' sons of 
Behal," i.e., worthless men (2 : 12). Thej^ 
both perished in the disastrous battle with 
the Philistines at Aphek (4 : 11). (See 
Phinehas.) 

Hoph^ra — i.e., Phaeaoh-hophea (called 
Apries by the Greek historian Herodotus) 
— king of Egypt (b.c. 591-572) in the time 
of Zedekiah, king of Judah ( Jer. 37 : 5 ; 
44 : 30 ; Ezek. 39 : 6, 7). 

Hor — mountain. (1.) One of the moun- 
tains of the chain of Seir or Edom, on the 
confines of Idumea (Num. 20 : 22 - 29 ; 
23 : 37). It was one of the stations of the 
Israelites in the wilderness (33 : 37), which 
they reached in the circviitous route they 
were obliged to take because the Edomites 
refused them a passage throiigh their terri- 
tory. It was during the encampment here 
that Aaron died (Num. 33 : 37-41). (See 
Aaeon. ) The Israelites passed this moun- 
tain several times in their wanderings. It 
bears the modern name of Jehel HarUn, 
and is the highest and most conspicuous of 
the whole range. It stands about midway 
between the Dead Sea and the Elanitic 
gulf. It has two summits, in the hollow 
between which it is supposed that Aaron 
died. Others, however, suppose that this 
mountain is the modem Jehel Madurah, on 
the opposite — i. c. , the western — side of the 
Arabah. 

(2.) One of the marks of the northern 



HOREB 



336 



HORN 



boundary of Palestine (Num. 34 : 7, 8). 
Nowhere else mentioned. Perhaps it is 
one of the peaks of Lebanon. 

Ho^reb — desert or mountain of the dried- 
up ground — a general name for the whole 
mountain range of which Sinai was one of 
the summits (Ex. 3:1; 17 : 6 ; 33 : 6 ; Ps. 
106 : 19, etc. ). The modern name of the 
whole range is Jebel MUsa. It is a huge 
mountain block, about 2 miles long by 
about 1 in breadth, with a very spacious 
plain at its north-east end, called the Er 
Rahah, in which the Israelites encamped 
for nearly a whole year. (See Sinai.) 

Ho^rem — consecrated — one of the fenced 
cities of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 38). 

Ho''rites — cave-men — a race of Troglo- 



dytes who dwelt in the limestone caves 
which abounded in Edom. Their ancestor 
v/as "Seir," who probably gave his name 
to the district where he lived. They were 
a branch of the Hivites (Gen. 14 : 6 ; 36 : 
20-36; 1 Chr. 38:42). They were dis- 
possessed by the descendants of Esau, and 
as a people gradually became extinct (Deut. 
2 : 12-22). 

Hor'^mah — banning; i.e., placing under 
a "ban," or devoting to utter destruction. 
After the manifestation of God's anger 
against the Israelites, on account of their 
rebellion and their murmurings when the 
spies returned to the camp at Kadesh, in 
the wilderness of Paran, with an evil re- 
port of the land, they quickly repented of 




MOUNT HOR. 



their conduct, and presumied to go up " to 
the head of the mountain," seeking to enter 
the Promised Land, but without the pres- 
ence of the Lord, without the ark of the 
covenant, and without Moses. The Amalek- 
ites and the Canaanites came down and 
"smote and discomfited them even unto 
Hormah " (Num. 14 : 45). This place, or 
perhaps the watch-tower commanding it, 
was originally called Zephath ( Judg. 1 : 17), 
the modern Sebaiteh. Afterwards (Num. 
21 : 1-3) Arad, the king of the Canaanites, 
at the close of the wanderings, when the 
Israelites were a second time encamped at 
Kadesh, "fought against them, and took 
some of them prisoners. " But Israel vowed 
a vow unto the Lord utterly to destroy the 
cities of the Canaanites; they "banned" 



them, and hence the place was now called 
Hormah. But this "ban" was not fully 
executed till the time of Joshua, who fin- 
ally conquered the king of this district, so 
that the ancient name Zephath became 
" Hormah " (Josh. 12:14; Judg. 1:17). 

Horn. Trumpets were at first horns 
perforated at the tip, used for various pur- 
poses (Josh. 6 : 4, 5). 

Flasks or vessels were made of horn (1 
Sam. 16 : 1, 13 ; 1 Kings 1 : 39). 

But the word is used also metaphorically 
to denote the projecting corners of the 
altar of burnt offerings (Ex. 27 : 2) and of 
incense (30 : 2). The horns of the altar of 
burnt offerings were to be smeared with 
the blood of the slain bullock (29 : 12 ; Lev. 
4 : 7-18). The criminal, when his crime 



HORNET 



337 



HOSEA 



was accidental, found an asylum by laying 
hold of the horns of the altar (1 Kings 1 : 
50 ; 2 : 28). 

The word also denotes the peak or sum- 
mit of a hill (Isa. 5 : 1, where the word 
" hill " is the rendering of the same Hebrew 
word). 

This word is used metaphorically also 
for strength (Deut. 32 : 17) and honour (Job 
16 : 15 ; Lam. 2:3). Horns are emblems 
of power, dominion, glory, and fierceness, 
as they are the chief means of attack and 
defence with the animals endowed with 
them (Dan. 8 : 5, 9 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 1 ; 16 : 1, 13; 
1 Kings 1:39; 22:11; Josh. 6:4, 5; Ps. 
75 : 5, 10 ; 132 : 17 ; Luke 1 : 69, etc.). The 
expression "horn of salvation," applied to 
Christ, means a salvation of strength, or a 
strong Saviour (Luke 1 : 69). To have the 
horn " exalted " denotes prosperity and 
triumph (Ps. 89 : 17, 24). To "lift up" the 
horn is to act proudly (Zech. 1 : 21). 

Horns are also the symbol of royal dig- 
nity and power ( Jer. 48 : 25 ; Zech. 1 : 18 ; 
Dan. 8 : 24). 

Hor^net — Heb. tsir^dh, "stinging" — 
(Ex. 23:28; Deut. 7:20; Josh. 24:12). 
The word is used in these passages as refer- 
ring ta some means by which the Canaan- 
ites were to be driven out from before the 
Israelites. Some have supposed that the 
word is used in a metaphorical sense as 
the symbol of some panic which would 
seize the people as a "terror of God" (Gen. 
35 : 5) — the consternation with which God 
would inspire the Canaanites. In Pales- 
tine there are four species of hornets, differ- 
ing from our hornets, being larger in size, 
and they are very abundant. They ' ' attack 
human beings in a very fxirious manner." 
"The furious attack of a swarm of hornets 
drives cattle and horses to madness, and 
has even caused the death of the animals." 

Horona^im — ttoo caverns — a city of 
Moab to the south of the Amon, built, 
apparently, upon an eminence, and a place 
of some importance (Isa. 15 : 5 ; Jer. 48 : 3, 
5, 34). 

Hor'^onite, the designation of Sanballat 
(Neh. 2 : 10, 19), a native of Horonaim, or 
of one of the two Beth-horons, the "upper" 
or the "nether," mentioned in Josh. 16 : 3, 5. 



Horse, always referred to in the Bible 
in connection with warlike operations, ex- 
cept Isa. 28 : 28. The war-horse is de- 
scribed Job 39 : 19-25. Eor a long period 
after their settlement in Canaan the Is- 
raelites made no use of horses, according 
to the prohibition, Deut. 17 : 16. David 
was the first to form a force of cavalry (2 
Sam. 8 : 4). But Solomon, from his con- 
nection -^vith EgyiDt, greatly multiplied 
their number (1 Kings 4 : 26 ; 10 : 26, 29). 
After this, horses were freely used in Israel 
(1 Kings 22 : 4 ; 2 Kings 3:7; 9 : 21, 33 ; 
11 : 16). The furniture of the horse con- 
sisted simply of a bridle (Isa. 30 : 28) and a 
curb (Ps. 32 : 9). 

Horse''-gate, a gate in the wall of Jeru- 
salem, at the west end of the bridge, lead- 
ing from Zion to the temple (Neh. 3 : 28 ; 
Jer. 31 : 40). 

Horse'-leech occurs only in Prov. 30 : 
15 (Heb. ^alukah) ; the generic name for 
any blood - sucking annelid. There are 
various species in the marshes and pools of 
Palestine. That here referred to, the 
Hoemopis, is remarkable for the coarseness 
of its bite, and is therefore not used for 
medical purj^oses. They are spoken of in 
the East with feelings of aversion and 
horror, because of their propensity to 
fasten on the tongue and nostrils of horses 
when they come to drink out of the pools. 
The medicinal leech [Hirudo medicinalis), 
besides other species of leeches, are com- 
mon in the waters of Syria. 

Horse'man — Heb. ta'aZparasA, "master 
of a horse." The " horsemen " mentioned 
Ex. 14 : 9 were "mounted men " — i.e., men 
who rode in chariots. The army of Pharaoh 
consisted of a chariot and infantry force. 
We find that at a later period, however, 
the Egyptians had cavalry (2 Chr. 12 : 3). 
(See HoESE.) 

Hosan'na— /Sare now! or Save, u-e 6e- 
seec^i— (Matt. 21 : 9). This was a customary 
form of acclamation at the feast of Taber- 
nacles. (Comp. Ps. 118:25.) 

Hose (Dan. 3:21), a tunic or under- 
garment. 

Hose^a — salvation — the son of Beeri, and 
author of the book of prophecies bearing 
his name. He belonged to the kingdom of 



HOSEA 



338 



HOST 



Israel. "His Israelitish origin is attested 
by the peculiar, rough, Aramaizing diction, 
pointing to the northern part of Palestine ; 
by the intimate acquaintance he evinces 
with the localities of Ephraim (5:1; 6:8, 
9 ; 12 : 12 ; 14 : 6, etc. ) ; by passages like 
1 : 2, where the kingdom is styled the land, 
and 7 : 5, where the Israelitish king is 
designated as our king." The period of 
his ministry is indicated in the superscrip- 
tion (Hos. 1 : 1, 2), extending to some sixty 
years, jjerhaps the longest ministry of Old 
Testament record. 

Hose^a, Prophecies of. This book 
stands first in order among the "Minor 
Prophets." "The probable cause of the 
location of Hosea may be the thoroughly 
national character of his oracles , their length, 
their earnest tone, and vivid representa- 
tions." This was thelongestof the prophetic 
books written before the Captivity. Hosea 
prophesied in a dark and melancholy period 
of Israel's history — the period of Israel's 
decline and fall. Their sins had brought 
upon them great national disasters. ' ' Their 
homicides and fornication, their perjury and 
theft, their idolatry and impiety, are cen- 
sured and satirized with a faithful sever- 
ity." He was a contemporary of Isaiah. 

The book may be divided into two iDarts, 
the first containing chapters 1-3, and sym- 
bolically representing the idolatry of Is- 
rael under imagery borrowed from the mat- 
rimonial relation. The figures of marriage 
and adultery are common in the Old Testa- 
ment writings to represent the spiritual 
relations between Jehovah and the peojDle 
of Israel. Here we see the apostasy of Is- 
rael and their pvmishment, with their future 
repentance, forgiveness, and restoration. 

The second part, containing 4-14, is a 
summary of Hosea's discourses, filled with 
denunciations, threatenings, exhortations, 
promises, and revelations of mercy. 

Quotations from Hosea are found in 
Matt. 2 : 15 ; 9 : 15 ; 12 : 7 ; Rom. 9 : 25, 26. 
There are, in addition, various allusions to 
it in other places (Luke 23 : 30 ; Rev. 6 : 16, 
comp. Hos. 10 : 18 ; Rom. 9 : 25, 26 ; 1 Pet. 
2 : 10, comp. Hos. 1 : 10, etc.). 

As regards the style of this writer, it has 
been said that "each verse forms a whole 



for itself, like one heavy toll in a funeral 
knell." " Inversions (7:8; 9 : 11, 13 ; 12 : 
8), anacolutha (9:6; 12:8, etc.), ellipses 
(9:4; 13 : 9, etc. ), paranomasias, and plays 
upon words, are very characteristic of Hosea 
(8:7; 9:15; 10:5; 11:5; 12:11)." 

Ho^shah — refuge. (1.) A place on the 
border of the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19 : 29), 
a little to the south of Zidon. 

(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari (1 
Chr. 16 : 38). 

Hoslie''a — salvation. (1.) The original 
name of the son of Nun, afterwards called 
Joshua (Num. 13 : 8, 16 ; Deut. 32 : 44). 

(2. ) 1 Chr. 27 : 20. The ruler of Ephraim 
in David's time. 

(3.) The last king of Israel. He con- 
spired against and slew his predecessor, 
Pekah (Isa. 7 : 16), but did not ascend the 
throne till after an interregnum of warfare 
of eight years (2 Kings 17 : 1, 2). Soon 
after this he submitted to Shalmaneser, 
the Assyrian king, who a second time in- 
vaded the land to punish Hoshea, because 
of his withholding tribute which he had 
promised to pay. A second revolt brought 
back the Assyrian king Sargon, who be- 
sieged Samaria, and carried the ten tribes 
away beyond the Euphrates, B.C. 720 (2 
Kings 17:5, 6; 18:9-12). No more is 
heard of Hoshea. He disappeared like 
" foam upon the water " (Hos. 10:7; 13:11). 

Host, an entertainer (Rom. 16 : 23) ; a 
tavern-keeper, the keeper of a caravansary 
(Luke 10 : 35). 

In warfare, a troop or military force. 
This consisted at fii-st only of infantry. 
Solomon afterwards added cavalry (1 Kings 
4 : 26 ; 10 : 26). Every male Israelite from 
twenty to fifty years of age was bound by 
the law to bear arms when necessary (Num. 
1 : 3 ; 26 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 5). 

Saul was the first to form a standing 
army (1 Sam. 13 : 2 ; 24 : 3). This example 
was followed by David (1 Chr. 27 : 1), and 
Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 26), and by the kings 
of Israel and Judah (2 Chr. 17 : 14 ; 26 : 11 ; 
2 Kings 11: 4, etc.). 

Host of heaven. The sun, moon, and 
stars are so designated (Gen. 2 : 1). When 
the Jews fell into idolatry they worshipped 
these (Deut. 4 : 19 ; 2 Kings 17 : 16 ; 21 : 3, 



HOSTAGE 



339 



HUMILIATION 



5; 23:5; Jer. 19:13; Zeph. 1:5; Acts 
7 : 42). 

Hos'tage, a person delivered into the 
hands of another as a security for the per- 
formance of some iDromise, etc. (2 Kings 
14 : 14 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 24). 

Hough, to hamstring — i.e., sever the 
"tendon of Achilles " of the hinder legs of 
captured horses (Josh. 11 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 8:4; 

1 Chr. 18 : 4), so as to render them useless. 
Hour. First found in Dan. 3:6; 4 : 19, 

33 ; 5 : 5. It is the rendering of the Chaldee 
shddh, meaning a ' ' moment, " a " look. " It is 
used in the New Testament frequently to 
denote some determinate season (Matt. 8 : 
13 ; Luke 12 : 39). 

With the ancient Hebrews the divisions 
of the day were "morning, evening, and 
noon-day " (Ps. 55 : 17, etc.). The Greeks, 
following the Babylonians, divided the day 
into twelve hours. The Jews, during the 
Captivity, learned also from the Babylo- 
nians this method of dividing time. When 
Judea became subject to the Romans, the 
Jews adopted the Roman mode of reckon- 
ing time. The night was divided into four 
watches (Luke 12 : 38 ; Matt. 14 : 25 ; 13 : 
35). Frequent allusion is also made to hours 
(Matt. 25 : 13 ; 26 : 40, etc. ). (See Day. ) 

An hour was the twelfth part of the day, 
reckoning from sunrise to sunset, and con- 
sequently it perpetually varied in length. 

House. Till their sojourn in Egypt the 
Hebrews dwelt in tents. They then for 
the first time inhabited cities (Gen. 47 : 3 ; 
Ex. 12 : 7 ; Heb. 11 : 9). Erom the earliest 
times the Assyrians and the Canaanites 
were builders of cities. The Hebrews 
after the Conquest took possession of the 
captured cities, and seem to have followed 
the methods of building that had been 
pursued by the Canaanites. Reference is 
made to the stone (1 Kings 7:9; Isa. 9 : 10) 
and marble (1 Chr. 29 : 2) used in building, 
and to the internal wood -work of the 
houses (1 Kings 6:15; 7:2; 10 : 11, 12 ; 

2 Chr. 3:5; Jer. 22 : 14). "Ceiled houses " 
were such as had beams inlaid in the walls 
to which wainscotting was fastened (Ezra 
6:4; Jer. 22:14; Hag. 1:4). "Ivory 
houses" had the upper parts of the walls 
adorned with figures in stucco with gold 



and ivory (1 Kings 22:39; 2 Chr. 3:6; 
Ps. 45 : 8). 

The roofs of the dwelling-houses were 
flat, and are often alluded to in Scrip- 
ture (2 Sam. 11 : 2 ; Isa. 22 : 1 ; Matt. 24 : 
17). Sometimes tents or booths were 
erected on them (2 Sam. 16:22). They 
were protected by parapets or low walls 
(Deut. 22 : 8). On the house-tops grass 
sometimes grew (Prov. 19 : 13 ; 27 : 15 ; Ps. 
129 : 6, 7). They were used, not only as 
l^laces of recreation in the evening, but 
also sometimes as sleeping-places at night 
(1 Sam. 9 : 25, 26 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 16 : 22 ; 
Dan. 4 : 29 ; Job 27 : 18 ; Prov. 21 : 9), and 
as places of devotion (Jer. 32 : 29 ; 19 : 13). 

Huk^kok — incised — a town near Zebu- 
lun, not far from Jordan, on the border of 
Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 24). (See Helkath.) 

HuI— circle — the second son of Aram 
(Gen. 10 : 23), and grandson of Shem. 

HvLVdah— weasel— Si prophetess ; the wife 
of Shallum. She was consulted regard- 
ing the "book of the law" discovered by 
the high priest Hilkiah (2 Kings 22 : 14-20; 
2 Chr. 34 : 22-28). She resided in that part 
of Jerusalem called the Mishneh (A.V., 
"the college;" R.V., "the second quar- 
ter "), supposed by some to be the suburb 
between the inner and the outer wall, the 
second or lower citj^, Akra. Miriam (Ex. 
15 : 20) and Deborah ( Judg. 4 : 4) are the 
only others who bear the title of "j)ro- 
phetess," for the word in Isa. 8:3 means 
only the prophet's wife. 

Humilia'tion of Christ (Phil. 2 : 8), 
seen in (1) his birth (Gal. 4:4; Luke 2:7; 
John 1:46; Heb. 2:9), (2) his circum- 
stances, (3) his repiTtation (Isa. 53 ; Matt. 
26:59, 67; Ps. 22:6; Matt. 22:68), (4) 
his soul (Ps. 21 : 1 ; Matt. 4 : 1-11 ; Luke 
22:43; Heb. 2:17, 18; 4:15), (5) his 
death (Luke 23 ; John 19 ; Mark 15 : 24, 
25), (6) and his burial (Isa. 53 : 10 ; Matt. 
13 : 46). 

His humiliation was necessary (1) to 
execute the jmrpose of God (Acts 2 : 23, 24 ; 
Ps. 40 : 6-8), (2) fulfil the Old Testament 
types and prophecies, (3) satisfy the law in 
the room of the guilty (Isa. 53 ; Heb. 9 : 
12, 15), i^rocure for them eternal redemp- 
tion, (4) and to show us an example. 



HUMILITY 



340 



HUSK 



Humil^ity, a prominent Christian grace 
(Rom. 12:3; 15 : 17, 18 ; 1 Cor. 3:5-7; 
2 Cor. 3:5; Phil. 4:11-13). It is a state 
of mind well j)leasing to God (1 Pet. 3:4); 
it preserves the soul in tranquillity (Ps. 69 : 
32, 33), and makes us patient under trials 
(Job 1 : 22). 

Christ has set us an example of humility 
(Phil. 2 : 6-8). We should be led thereto 
by a remembrance of our sins (Lam. 3 : 39), 
and by the thought that it is the way to 
honour (Prov. 16 : 18), and that the greatest 
promises are made to the humble (Ps. 147 : 6 ; 
Isa. 57 : 15 ; 56 : 2 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 5). It is a 
"great paradox in Christianity that it 
makes humility the avenue to glory." 

Hunfing, mentioned first in Gen. 10 : 9 
in connection with Nimrod. Esau was " a 
cunning hunter " (Gen. 25 : 27). Hunting 
was practised by the Hebrews after their 
settlement in the ' ' Land of Promise " 
(Lev. 17 : 15 ; Prov. 12 : 27). The lion and 
other ravenous beasts were found in Pales- 
tine (1 Sam. 17 : 34 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; 1 Kings 
13 : 24 ; Ezek. 19 : 3-8), and it must have 
been necessary to hunt and destroy them. 
Various snares and gins were used in hunt- 
ing (Ps. 91 : 3 ; Amos 3 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 20). 

War is referred to under the idea of 
hunting ( Jer. 16 : 16 ; Ezek. 32 : 30). 

Hur — a hole, as of a viper, etc. (1.) A 
son of Caleb (1 Chr. 2:19, 50; 4:1, 4; 
comp. 2 Chr. 1 : 5). 

(2.) The husband of Miriam, Moses' 
sister (Ex. 17 : 10-12). He was associated 
with Aaron in charge of the people when 
Moses was absent on Sinai (Ex. 25 : 14). 
He was probably of the tribe of Judah, 
and grandfather of Bezaleel (Ex. 31 : 2 ; 
35 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 19). 

(3.) One of the five princes of Midi an 
who were defeated and slain by the Israel- 
ites under the command of Phinehas (Num. 
31 : 8). 

Hu^rai — linen - worker — one of David's 
heroes, a native of the valley of Moiant 
Gaash (1 Chr. 11 : 32). 

Hus^band, i.e., the " house-band, " con- 
necting and keeping together the whole 
family. A man when betrothed was es- 
teemed from that time a husband (Matt. 
1 : 16, 20 ; Luke 2:5). A recently married 



man was exempt from going to war for 
"one year " (Deut. 20 : 7 ; 24 : 5). 

Hus''bandinan, one whose business it is 
to cultivate the ground. It was one of the 
first occupations, and was esteemed most 
honourable (Gen. 9 : 20 ; 26 : 12, 14 ; 37 : 7, 
etc.). All the Hebrews, except those en- 
gaged in religious services, were husband- 
men. (See Ageiculture.) 

Hu^shai— gwic^— " the Archite," "the 
king's friend " (1 Chr. 27 : 33). When 
David fled from Jerusalem, on account of 
the rebellion of Absalom, and had reached 
the summit of Olivet, he there met Hushai, 
whom he sent back to Jerusalem for the 
purpose of counteracting the influence of 
Ahithophel, who had joined the ranks of 
Absalom (2 Sam. 15 : 32, 37 ; 16 : 16-18). It 
was by his advice that Absalom refrained 
from immediately pursuing after David. 
By this delay the cause of Absalom was 
ruined, for it gave David time to muster 
his forces. 

Husk. In Num. 6 :4 (Heb. zdg) it means 
the "skin" of a grape. In 2 Kings 4:42 
(Heb. tsiqlon) it means a "sack" for grain, 
as rendered in the Revised Version. In 
Luke 15 : 16, in the parable of the Prodi- 
gal Son, it designates the beans of the 
carob tree, or Ceratonia siliqua. From 




POD, LEAVES, AND FLOWER OF CAKOB TREE. 

the supposition — mistaken, however — that 
it was on the husks of this tree that John 



HYMN 



341 



ICONIUM 



the Baptist fed, it is .called " St. John's 
bread" and "locust tree." This tree is 
in " Februar}" covered with innumerable 
puri^le-red pendent blossoms, which ripen 
in April and May into large crops of pods 
from 6 to 10 inches long — flat, brown, nar- 
row, and bent like a horn (whence the Greek 
name keratia, meaning 'little horns'), with 
a sweetish taste when still unripe. Enor- 
mous quantities of these are gathered for 
sale in various towns and for exportation." 
' ' They were eaten as food, though only by 
the poorest of the poor, in the time of our 
Lord." The bean is called a "gerah," which 
is used as the name of the smallest Hebrew 
^^■eight, twenty of these making a shekel. 

Hymn, occurs only Eph. 5 : 19 and Col. 
3 : 16. The verb to "sing an hjTnn " occurs 
Matt. 26 : 30 and Mark 14 : 26. The same 
Greek word is rendered to "sing praises" 
Acts 16:25 (R.V., "sing hymns") and 
Heb. 2 : 12. The "hymn " which our Lord 
sang with his disciples at the last Supper 
is generally supposed to have been the 
latter part of the Hallel, comprehending 
Ps. 113-118. It was thus a name given to 
a number of psalms taken together and 
forming a devotional exercise. 

The noun hymn is used only with refer- 
ence to the services of the Greeks, and Avas 
distinguished from the psalm. The Greek 



tunes required Greek hymns. Our infor- 
mation regarding the hjTiinology of the 
early Christians is very limited. 

Hyp'ocrite, one who puts on a mask 
and feigns himself to be what he is not ; a 
dissembler in religion. Our Lord severely 
rebuked the scribes and Pharisees for their 
hypocrisy (Matt. 6 : 2, 5, 16). "The hypo- 
crite's hof)e shall perish " (Job 8 : 13). The 
Hebrew word here rendered "hypocrite" 
rather means the "godless" or "profane," 
as it is rendered in Jer. 23 : 11 — i.e., jDolluted 
with crimes. 

Hys'sop (Heb. 'ezoh ; LXX. hyssopos), 
first mentioned in Ex. 12 : 22 in connection 
with the institution of the Passover. "We 
find it afterwards mentioned in Lev. 14 : 4, 
6, 52 ; Num. 19 : 6, 18 ; Heb. 9 : 19. It is 
sjDoken of as a plant "springing out of the 
wall " (1 Kings 4 : 33). Many conjectures 
have been formed as to what this plant 
really was. Some contend that it was a 
species of marjoram [origanum), six species 
of which are found in Palestine. Others 
with more probability think that it was 
the caper plant, the Capparis spinosa of 
Linnaeus. This plant grew in Egypt, in 
the desert of Sinai, and in Palestine. It 
was capable of producing a stem three or 
four feet in length (Matt. 27:48; Mark 
15 : 36. Comp. John 19 : 29). 



Ib'har — chosen — one of David's sons (1 
Chr. 3 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 5 : 15). 

Ibleam — people-waster — a city assigned 
to Manasseh (Josh. 17 : 11), from which the 
Israelites, however, could not expel the 
Canaanites (Judg. 1 : 27). It is also called 
Bileam (1 Chr. 6 : 70). It was probably 
the modem Jelamah, a village 2J miles 
north of Jenin, 

Ib^zan — illustrious — the tenth judge of 
Israel (Judg. 12 : 8-10). He ruled seven 
years. 

Ice, frequently mentioned (Job 6 : 16 ; 
38 : 29 ; Ps. 147 : 17, etc. ). (See Crystal. ) 

Ich^abod. When the tidings of the 



disastrous defeat of the Israelites in the 
battle against the Philistines near to 
Mizpeh were carried to Shiloh, the "wife 
of Phinehas " was near to be delivered. 
And when she heard the tidings that the 
ark of God was taken, and that her father- 
in-law and her husband were dead, she 
bowed herself and travailed " (1 Sam. 4 : 
19-22), In her great distress she regarded 
not "the women that stood by her," but 
named the child that was born " Ichabod " 
— i.e., no glory — saying, "The glory is de- 
parted from Israel ; " and with that word 
on her lips she expired. 

Ico^nium, the capital of ancient Lyca- 



IDALAH 



342 



IDOIATRY 



onia. It was first visited by Paul and 
Barnabas from Antioch-in-Pisidia during 
the apostle's first missionary journey (Acts 
13 : 50, 51). Here they were persecuted by 
the Jews, and being driven from the city, 
they fled to Lystra. They afterwards re- 
turned to Iconium, and encouraged the 
church which had been founded there (14 : 
21, 22). It was probably again visited by 
Paul during his third missionary journey 
along with Silas (18 : 23). It is the modern 
Konieh, at the foot of Mount Taurus, about 
120 miles inland from the Mediterranean. 

Id''alah — exalted — a city near the west 
border of Zebulun (Josh. 19 : 15). It has 
been identified with the modern Jeida, in 
the valley of Kishon. 

Id'do. (1.) Timely (1 Chr. 6:21). A 
Gershonite Levite. 

(2.) Lovely. The son of Zechariah (1 
Chr. 27 : 21), the ruler of Manasseh in 
David's time. 

(3.) Timely. The father of Ahinadab, 
who was one of Solomon's purveyors (1 
Kings 4 : 14). 

(4.) Lovely. A prophet of Judah who 
wrote the history of Rehoboam and Abijah 
(2 Chr. 12 : 15). He has been identified 
with Oded (2 Chr. 15 : 1). 

(5.) Lovely. The father of Berachiah, 
and grandfather of the i^rophet Zechariah 
(Zech. 1 : 1, 7). He returned from Babylon 
(Neh. 12 : 4). 

Idol. (1.) Heb. avert, "nothingness;" 
"vanity " (Isa. 66 : 3 ; 41 : 29 ; Deut. 32 : 21 ; 
1 Kings 16 : 13 ; Ps. 31 : 6 ; Jer. 8 : 19, etc.). 

(2.) 'Elil, " a thing of naught " (Ps. 97 : 7 ; 
Isa. 19 : 3) ; a word of contempt, used of 
the gods of Noph (Ezek. 30 : 13). 

(3.) 'Emdh, "terror," in allusion to the 
hideous form of idols (Jer. 50 : 38). 

(4.) Bliphlctzeth, "a fright;" "horror" 
(1 Kings 15 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 15 : 16). 

(5.) Bosheth, " shame ; " " shameful 
thing " (Jer. 11 : 13 ; Hos. 9 : 10) ; as 
characterizing the obscenity of the wor- 
ship of Baal. 

(6.) Gilltllim, also a word of contempt, 
"dung;" "refuse" (Ezek. 16:36; 20:8; 
Deut. 29:17, marg.). 

(7.) ShikMts, "filth;" "impurity" 
(Ezek. 37 : 23 ; Nah. 3 : 6). 



(8.) Semel, "likeness;" "a carved image" 
(Deut. 4 : 16). 

(9.) Tselem, "a shadow" (Dan. 3:1; 
1 Sam. 6 : 5), as distinguished from the 
"likeness," or the exact counterpart. 

(10.) Temundh, "similitude" (Deut. 4: 
12-19). Here Moses forbids the several 
forms of Gentile idolatry. 

(11.) ''Atsah, "a figure;" from the root 
"to fashion," " to labour ; " denoting that 
idols are the result of man's labour (Isa. 
48 : 5 ; Ps. 139 : 24, ' ' wicked way ; " literally, 
as some translate, "way of an idol"). 

(12.) Tsir, "a form;" "shape" (Isa. 
45 : 16). 

(13.) Matzizihdh, a " statue " set up 
(Jer. 43 : 13) ; a memorial stone like that 
erected by Jacob (Gen. 28 : 18 ; 31 : 45 ; 
35 : 14, 20), by Joshua (4 : 9), and by Samuel 
(1 Sam. 7 : 12). It is the name given to 
the statues of Baal (2 Kings 3:2; 10: 
27). 

(14.) Hammdnim, "sun-images." Ham- 
man is a synonym of Baal, the sun-god of 
the Phoenicians (2 Chr. 34 : 4, 7 ; 14 : 3, 5 ; 
Isa. 17 : 8). 

(15.) MasJctth, " device '' (Lev. 26 : 1 ; 
Num. 33 : 52). In Lev. 26 : 1, the words 
"image of stone" (A.V.) denote "a stone 
or cippus with the image of an idol, as 
Baal, Astarte, etc." In Ezek. 8:12, "cham- 
bers of imagery" {maskith), are "chambers 
of which the walls are painted with the 
figures of idols ; " comp. ver. 10, 11. 

(16. ) Pesel, " a graven " or " carved image " 
(Isa. 44 : 10-20). It denotes also a figure 
cast in metal (Deut. 7 : 25 ; 27 : 15 ; Isa. 
40 : 19 ; 44 : 10). 

(17.) MassekoA, "a molten image" (Deut. 
9 : 12 ; Judg. 17 : 3, 4). 

(18.) Terdphim, pi., "images," family 
gods {penates) worshipped by Abram's kin- 
dred (Josh. 24 : 14). Put by Michal in 
David's bed (Jiidg. 17:5; 18:14, 17, 18, 
20; ISam. 19:13). 

"Nothing can be more instructive and 
significant than this multiplicity and vari- 
ety of words designating the instruments 
and inventions of idolatry. " 

Idol^atry, image - worship or divine 
honour paid to any created object, Paul 
describes the origin of idolatry in Rom. 



IDOLATRY 



343 



ILLYRICUM 



1 : 21-25 : men forsook God, and sank into 
ignorance and nioi'al corruption (1 : 28). 

The forms of idolatry are — (1.) Fetishism, 
or the worship of trees, rivers, hills, stones, 
etc. 

(2.) Nature icorship, the worship of the 
sun, moon, and stars, as the supiDOsed 
powers of nature. 

(3.) Hero worship, the worship of de- 
ceased ancestors, or of heroes. 

In Scri^Dture, idolatry is regarded as of 
heathen origin, and as being imported 
among the Hebrews through contact with 
heathen nations. The first allusion to 
idolatry is in the account of Rachel steal- 
ing her father's terai^him (Gen. 31 : 19), 
which were the relics of the worship of 
other gods by Laban's progenitors "on the 
other side of the river in old time " (Josh. 
24 : 2). During their long residence in 
Egypt the HebreAvs fell into idolatr}^, and 
it was long before they were delivered from 
it (Josh. 24 : 14 ; Ezek. 20 : 7). Many a 
token of God's displeasure fell upon them 
because of this sin. 

The idolatry learned in Egypt was prob- 
ably rooted out from among the jDeople 
during the forty years' wanderings ; but 
when the Jews entered Palestine, they 
came into contact "\Adth the monuments 
and associations of the idolatry of the 
old Canaanitish races, and showed a con- 
stant tendency to depart from the living 
God and follow the idolatrous practices 
of those heathen nations. It was their 
great national sin, Avhich was only effectu- 
ally rebuked by the Babylonian exile. 
That exile finally purified the Jews of all 
idolatrous tendencies. 

The first and second commandments are 
directed against idolatry of every form. 
Individuals and communities were equally 
amenable to the rigorous code. The indi- 
vidual offender was devoted to destruction 
(Ex. 22 : 20). His nearest relatives were 
not only bound to denounce him and de- 
liver him \xp to punishment (Deut. 13 : 2- 
10), but their hands were to strike the first 
blow when, on the evidence of two wit- 
nesses at least, he was stoned (Deut. 17 : 
2-5). To attempt to seduce others to false 
worship was a crime of equal enormity (13 : 



6-10). An idolatrous nation shared the 
same fate. No facts are more strongly 
declared in the Old Testament than that 
the extermination of the Canaanites was 
the punishment of their idolatry (Ex. 34 : 
15, 16; Deut. 7; 12:29-31; 20:17), and 
that the calamities of the Israelites were 
due to the same cause (Jer. 2 :17). "A city 
guilty of idolatry was looked upon as a 
cancer in the state ; it was considered to 
be in rebellion, and treated according to 
the laws of Avar. Its inhabitants and all 
their cattle were put to death." Jehovah 
was the theocratic King of Israel, the civil 
Head of the commonwealth, and therefore 
to an Israelite idolatry was a state offence 
(1 Sam. 15 : 23), high treason. On taking 
possession of the land, the Jews were com- 
manded to destroy all traces of every kind 
of the existing idolatry of the Canaanites 
(Ex. 23:24, 32; 34:13; Deut. 7:5, 25; 
12 : 1-3). 

In the New Testament the term idolatry 
is used to designate covetousness (Matt. 
6 : 24 ; Luke 16 : 13 ; Col. 3:5; Eph. 5 : 5). 

Iduinde''a, the Greek form of Edom (Isa. 
34 : 5, 6 ; Ezek. 35 : 15 ; 36 : 5, but in R. V. 
"Edom"). (See Edom.) 

I^gal — avengers. (1.) Num. 13 : 7, one of 
the spies of the tribe of Issachar. (2.) Son 
of Nathan of Zobah, and one of David's 
warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 36). (3. ) 1 Chr. 3 : 22. 

I^im — ruins. (1. ) A city in the south of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 29). 

(2. ) One of the stations of the Israelites 
in the wilderness (Num. 33 : 45). 

I'je-ab^arim — ruins of Abarirn — the 
forty-seventh station of the Israelites in 
the wilderness, "in the border of Moab " 
(Num. 33 : 44). 

I''jon — a ruin — a city of NaphtaH, cap- 
tured by Ben-hadad of Syria at the instance 
of Asa (1 Kings 15 : 20), and afterwards by 
Tiglath-pileser of Assyria (2 Kings 15 : 29) 
in the reign of Pekah ; now el-Khtam. 

I''lai, an Ahohite, one of David's chief 
warriors (1 Chr. 11 : 29) ; called also Zalmon 
(2 Sam. 23 : 28). 

Illyr''icuni, a country to the north-west 
of Macedonia, on the eastern shores of the 
Adriatic, now almost whollj" comprehended 
in Dalmatia, a name formerly given to the 



IMAGERY 



344 



INN 



southern part of lUyricum (2 Tim. 4 : 10). 
It was traversed by Paul in his third mis- 
sionary journey (Rom. 15 : 19). It was the 
farthest district he had reached in preach- 
ing the gospel of Christ. This reference 
to Illyricum is in harmony with Acts 20 : 2, 
inasmuch as the apostle's journey over the 
parts of Macedonia would bring him to the 
borders of Illyricum. 

Im'agery, only in the phrase "chambers 
of his imagery " (Ezek. 8 : 12). (See Cham- 

BEK.) 

Iin''la — replenishei — the father of Mica- 
iah the prophet (2 Chr. 18 : 7, 8). 

Imman'uel— G^oc^ with us. In the Old 
Testament it occurs only in Isa. 7 : 14 and 
8 : 8. Most Christian interpreters have 
regarded these words as directly and ex- 
clusively a prophecy of our Saviour — an 
interpretation borne out by the words of 
the evangelist Matthew (1 : 23). 

Iin''mer — talkative. (1. ) The head of the 
sixteenth priestly order (1 Chr. 24 : 14). 

(2.) Jer. 20:1. 

(3.) Ezra 2: 37; Neh. 7:40. 

(4.) Ezra2:o9; Neh. 7:61. 

(5.) The father of Zadok (Neh. 3 : 29). 

Immortal^ity, perpetuity of existence. 
The doctrine of immortality is taught in 
the Old Testament. It is plainly implied 
in the writings of Moses (Gen. 5 : 22, 24 ; 
25:8; 37:35; 47:9; 49:29, comp. Heb. 11: 
13-16 ; Ex. 3 : 6, comp. Matt. 22 : 23). It 
is more clearly and fully taught in the 
later books (Isa. 14 : 9 ; Ps. 17 : 15 ; 49 : 15 ; 
73 : 24). It was thus a doctrine obviously 
well known to the Jews. 

With the full revelation of the gospel this 
doctrine was "brought to light" (2 Tim. 
1 : 10 ; 1 Cor. 15 ; 2 Cor. 5:1-6; 1 Thess. 
4 : 13-18). 

Imputa^tion is used to designate any 
action or word or thing as reckoned to a 
person. Thus in doctrinal langiiage (1) the 
sin of Adam is imputed to all his descend- 
ants — i.e., it is reckoned as theirs, and they 
are dealt with therefore as guilty ; (2) the 
righteousness of Christ is imputed to them 
that believe in him, or so attributed to them 
as to be considered their own ; and (3) our 
sins are imputed to Christ — i.e., he assumed 
our "law-place," undertook to answer the 



demands of justice for our sins. In all these 
cases the nature of imputation is the same 
(Rom. 5 : 12-19 ; comp. Philemon 18, 19). 

Incarna^tion, that act of grace whereby 
Christ took our human nature into union 
Avith his Divine Person — became man. 
Christ is both God and man. Human 
attributes and actions are predicated of 
him, and he of whom they are predicated 
is God. A Divine Person was united to a 
human nature (Acts 20 : 28 ; Rom. 8 : 32 ; 
1 Cor. 2:8; Heb. 2 : 11-14 ; 1 Tim. 3 : 16 ; 
Gal. 4 : 4, etc.). The union is hypostatical 
— i.e., is personal ; the two natures are not 
mixed or confounded — and it is perpetual. 

In^'cense, a fragrant composition pre- 
pared by the "art of the apothecary." 
It consisted of four ingredients "beaten 
small" (Ex. 30:34-36). That which was 
not thus prepared was called ' ' strange in- 
cense " (30 : 9). It was offered along with 
every meat-offering ; and besides was daily 
offered on the golden altar in the holy 
place, and on the great day of atonement 
was burnt by the high priest in the holy 
of holies (30 : 7, 8). It was the symbol of 
prayer (Ps. 141 : 1, 2 ; Rev. 5 : 8 ; 8 : 3, 4). 

In^dia occurs only in Esther 1 : 1 and 
8 : 9, where the extent of the dominion of 
the Persian king is described. The coun- 
try so designated here is not the peninsula 
of Hindustan, but the country surrounding 
the Indus — the Punjab. 

The people and the products of India 
were well known to the Jews, who seem 
to have carried on an active trade with 
that country (Ezek. 27 : 15, 24). 

Inn, in the modern sense, unknown in 
the East. The khans or caravanserais, 
which correspond to the European inn, 
are not alluded to in the Old Testament. 
The "inn" mentioned in Ex. 4:24 was 
just the halting-place of the caravan. In 
later times khans were erected for the ac- 
commodation of travellers. In Luke 2 : 7 
the word there so rendered denotes a place 
for loosing the beasts of their burdens. It 
is rendered "guest-chamber" in Mark 14 : 
14 and Luke 22 : 11. In Luke 10 : 34 the 
word so rendered is different. That inn 
had an "inn-keeper," who attended to the 
wants of travellers. 



INKHORN 



345 



INSPIRATION 



Ink^'horn. The Hebrew word so ren- 
dered means simply a round vessel or cup 
for containing ink, which was generally 
worn by writers in the girdle (Ezek. 9 : 2, 
3, 11). The word "inkhorn" was used by 




INKHORX AND REED PEX. 

the translators, because in former times in 
this country horns were used for contain- 
ing ink. 

Inspira''tion, that extraordinary or 
supernatural divine influence vouchsafed 
to those who wrote the Holy Scriptures, 
rendering their writings infallible. "All 
scripture is given by inspiration of God " 
(R.V., "Every scripture inspired of God"), 
2 Tim. 3 : 16. This was spoken of the Old 
Testament, but it is equally applicable to 
the New Testament. 

The Bible consists, as regards the Old 
Testament, of those books only which 
Christ and his disciples recognized as the 
Word of God. In numberless instances 
they refer to these sacred writings as a 
volume then well known. That volume, 
as a matter of historical fact, consisted of , 
those books and no others which are now 
recognized as constituting the Scriptures 
of the Old Testament. As regards the 
New Testament, the books, and those only, 
which were written by the apostles or re- 
ceived their sanction are to be regarded as 
of divine authority. All these books of 
the Old and New Testaments are inspired. 
We do not say that they contain, but that 
they are, the Word of God. The gift of 
inspiration rendered the Avriters the or- 
gans of God, for the infallible communi- 
cation of his mind and will, in the very 



form and words in which it was originally 
given. 

As to the nature of inspiration, we have 
no information. This only we know, it 
rendered the writers infallible. They were 
all equally inspired, and are all equally in- 
fallible. There are other divine influences 
which operate among men from which this 
gift is to be distinguished. Thus (1) it 
is distinguished from God's providential 
agency, which is always and everywhere 
operative ; (2) it is distinguished also from 
his gracious operation on the hearts of 
men. Inspiration is a supernatural agency, 
^^L only rendering those who are the sub- 
'^'^: jects of it infallible in their character 
as teachers — infallible only when thus 
acting as the spokesmen of God, Their 
inspiration was limited to the work to 
which they were specially called — namely, 
the communication of God's will to men ; 
and in this they were infallible and per- 
fect, so that the books they wrote consti- 
tute the very Word of God. 

The inspiration of the sacred writers 
' ' did not change their characters. It did 
not make them more refined or cultivated, 
more intellectual or logical, more impas- 
sioned and eloquent. They retained all 
their peculiarities as thinkers or writers. 
If the writer was a Hebrew, he wrote in 
the Hebrew language ; if a Greek, he wrote 
in that language. If he lived in the time 
of Moses or Isaiah, he wrote Hebrew in its 
purity. If he belonged to the time of the 
Captivity, he wrote Hebrew with all the 
idiomatic and grammatical peculiarities 
which the language had at that time as- 
sumed. If he A^Tote Greek, it was the 
Greek which he and his contemporaries 
Avere accustomed to use. If the subject 
of inspiration was a shepherd, he wrote as 
a shepherd ; if a man of education, he 
wrote as an educated man. If his mind 
was logical and his style of writing argu- 
mentative, he retained this characteristic 
when writing under the guidance of the 
Spirit. And so of other mental qualities 
and peculiarities. Hence it is that the 
Bible, containing as it does the writings 
of about forty different writers, presents 
the same diversity of style and manner as 



INTERCESSION 



346 



IRRIGATION 



the productions of any like number of un- 
inspired men. The effect of inspiration 
was only to preserve the writers from error 
— to make them infallible as teachers." 
(See Bible.) 

Interces^sion of Christ. Christ's 
priestly office consists of these two parts — 
(1) the offering up of himself as a sacrifice, 
and (2) making continual intercession for 
us. 

When on earth he made intercession for 
his people (Luke 23 : 34 ; John 17 : 20 ; Heb. 
5:7); but now he exercises this function 
of his priesthood in heaven, where he is 
said to appear in the presence of God for 
us (Heb. 9 : 12, 24). 

His advocacy with the Father for his 
people rests on the basis of his own all- 
perfect sacrifice. Thus he pleads for and 
obtains the fulfilment of all the promises of 
the everlasting covenant (1 John 2:1; 
John 17:24; Heb. 7:25). He can be 
"touched with the feeling of our infirmi- 
ties," and is both a merciful and a faith- 
ful high priest (Heb. 2 : 17, 18 ; 4 : 15, 16). 

This intercession is an essential part of 
his mediatorial work. Through him we 
have "access'" to the Father (John 14:6; 
Eph. 2 : 18 ; 3 : 12). " The communion of 
his people with the Father will ever be 
sustained through him as mediatorial 
Priest " (Ps. 110 : 4 ; Rev. 7 : 17). 

Interces^sion of the Spirit (Rom. 8 : 
26, 27; John 14:26). "Christ is a royal 
Priest (Zech. 6 : 13). From the same 
throne, as King, he dispenses his Spirit to 
all the objects of his care, while as Priest 
he intercedes for them. The Spirit acts 
for him, taking only of his things. They 
both act with one consent — Christ as prin- 
cipal, the Spirit as his agent. Christ inter- 
cedes for us, without us, as our advocate in 
heaven, according to the provisions of the 
everlasting covenant. The Holy Spirit 
works upon our minds and hearts, en- 
lightening and quickening, and thus de- 
termining our desires ' according to the 
will of God,' as our advocate within us. 
The work of the one is complementary to 
that of the other, and together they form 
a complete whole." — Hodge's Outlines of 
Theology. 



Iphedei^ah — set free hy Jehovah — a chief 
of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8 : 25). 

I'ra — citizen; wakeful. (1.) A Tekoite, 
one of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 
26). 

(2.) An Ithrite, also one of David's 
heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 38). 

(3.) A Jairite and priest, a roj^al chap- 
lain (2 Sam. 20 : 26) or confidential adviser 
(comp. 2 Sam. 8 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 17). 

I^rad — runner; tvild ass — one of the 
antediluvian patriarchs, the father of Me- 
hujael (Gen. 4 : 18), and grandson of Cain. 

I'ram — citizen — chief of an Edomite 
tribe in Mount Seir (Gen. 36 : 43). 

'Ir'ha-he'res — according to some MSS., 
meaning "city of destrviction. " Other 
MSS. read 'Irhahdrcs ; rendered "city of 
the sun " — Isa. 19 : 18, where alone the word 
occurs. This name may probably refer to 
Heliopolis. The prophecy here points to 
a time when the Jews would so increase in 
number there as that the city would fall 
under their influence. This might be in 
the time of the Ptolemies. (See On.) 

I'ron. Tubal-Cain is the first-mentioned 
worker in iron (Gen. 4 : 22). It was a metal 
well known (Job 28 : 2) in early times. 
David prepared it in great abundance for 
the temple (1 Chr. 22:3: 29:7). The 
merchants of Dan and Javan brought it 
to the market of Tyre (Ezek. 27:19). 
Various instruments are mentioned as 
made of iron (Deut. 27 : 5 ; 19 : 5 ; Josh. 17 : 
16, 18 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 7 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 
2 Kings 6 : 5, 6 ; 1 Chr. 22 : 3 ; Isa. 10 : 34). 

Figuratively, a yoke of iron (Deut. 28 : 
48) denotes hard service ; a rod of iron 
(Ps. 2:9), a stern government ; a pillar of 
iron (Jer. 1 : 18), a strong support ; a fur- 
nace of iron (Deut. 4 : 20), severe labour ; 
a bar of iron (Job 40 : 18), strength ; fetters 
of iron (Ps. 107 : 10), affliction ; giving silver 
for iron (Isa. 60 : 17), prosperity. 

Irriga'tion. As streams were few in 
Palestine, water was generally stored up 
in winter in reservoirs, and distributed 
through gardens in numerous rills, which 
could easily be turned or diverted by the 
foot (Deut." 11 : 10). 

For purposes of irrigation, water was 
raised from streams or pools by water- 



I 



ISAAC 



847 



ISAIAH 



wheels, or by a shadHf, commonly used on 
the banks of the Nile to the present day. 

I'saac — laughter. (1.) Israel, or the king- 
dom of the ten tribes (Amos 7 : 9, 16). 

(2.) The only son of Abraham by Sarah, 
He was the longest lived of the three 
patriarchs (Gen. 21 : 1-3). He was cir- 
cumcised when eight days old (4-7) ; and 
when he was probably two years old a 
great feast was held in connection with his 
being weaned. 

The next memorable event in his life is 
that connected with the command of God 
given to Abraham to offer him up as a 
sacrifice on a mountain in the land of 
Moriah (Gen. 22). (See Abkaham.) When 
he was forty years of age Hebekah was 
chosen for his Avife (Gen. 24). After the 
death and burial of his father he took up 
his residence at Beer-lahai-roi (25 : 7-11), 
where his two sons, Esau and Jacob, were 
born (21-26), the former of whom seems to 
have been his favourite son (27, 28). 

In consequence of a famine (Gen. 26 : 1) 
Isaac went to Gerar, where he practised 
deception as to his relation to Rebekah, 
imitating the conduct of his father in 
Egypt (12:12-20) and in Gerar (20:2). 
The Philistine king rebuked him for his 
prevarication. 

After sojourning for some time in the 
land of the Philistines, he returned to Beer- 
sheba, where God gave him fresh assurance 
of covenant blessing, and where Abimelech 
entered into a covenant of peace with him. 

The next chief event in his life was the 
blessing of his sons (Gen. 27 : 1). He died 
at Mamre, "being old and full of days" 
(35 : 27-29) — one hundred and eighty years 
old — and was buried in the cave of Mach- 
pelah. 

In the New Testament reference is made 
to his having been "offered up" by his 
father (Heb. 11 : 17 ; James 2 : 21), and to 
his blessing his sons (Heb, 11 : 20). As the 
child of promise, he is contrasted with Ish- 
mael (Rom. 9 : 7, 10 ; Gal. 4 : 28 ; Heb. 11 : 
18). 

Isaac is "at once a counterpart of his 
father in simple devoutness and purity of 
life, and a contrast in his passive weakness 
of character, which in j)art, at least, may 



have sprung from his relations to his mother 
and wife. After the expulsion of Ishmael 
and Hagar, Isaac had no competitor, and 
grew up in the shade of Sarah's tent, 
moulded into feminine softness by habitual 
submission to her strong, loving will." 
His life was so quiet and uneventful that 
it was spent "within the circle of a few 
miles ; so guileless that he let Jacob over- 
reach him rather than disbelieve his assur- 
ance ; so tender that his mother's death 
was the poignant sorrow of years ; so 
patient and gentle that peace with his 
neighbours was dearer than even such a 
coveted possession as a well of living water 
dug by his own men ; so grandly obedient 
that he put his life at his father's disposal ; 
so firm in his reliance on God that his 
greatest concern through life was to honour 
the divine promise given to his race." — 
Geikie's Hours, etc. 

Isa^iah (Heb. Yesha^ydhu — i.e., "the 
salvation of Jehovah"), (1,) The son of 
Amoz (Isa. 1:1; 2:1), who was apparently 
a man of humble rank. His wife was called 
"the prophetess " (8 : 3), either because she 
was endowed with the prophetic gift, like 
Deborah ( Judg. 4 : 4) and Huldah (2 Kings 
22 : 14-20), or simply because she was the 
wife of "the prophet" (Isa. 38:1). He 
had two sons, who bore symbolical nanaes. 

He exercised the functions of his office 
during the reigns of Uzziah (or Azariah), 
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (1 : 1), Uz- 
ziah reigned fifty-two years (B.C. 810-759), 
and Isaiah must have begun his career a 
few years before Uzziah's death — prob- 
ably B.C. 762. He lived till the fourteenth 
year of Hezekiah, and in all likelihood out- 
lived that monarch (who died B.C. 698), and 
may have been contemporary for some years 
with Manasseh. Thus Isaiah may have 
prophesied for the long period of at least 
sixty -four years. 

His first call to the prophetical office is not 
recorded. A second call came to him "in 
the year that King Uzziah died " (Isa. 6 : 1). 
He exercised his ministry in a spirit of un- 
compromising firmness and boldness in 
regard to all that bore on the interests of 
religion. He conceals nothing and keeps 
nothing back from fear of man. He was 



ISAIAH 



348 



ISAIAH 



also noted for his spirituality and for his 
deep-toned reverence toward "the holy 
One of Israel." 

In early youth Isaiah must have been 
moved by the invasion of Israel by the As- 
syrian monarch Pul {q.v.) — 2 Kings 15 : 19; 
and again, twenty years later, when he had 
already entered on his office, by the inva- 
sion of Tiglath-pileser and his career of 
conqiiest. Ahaz, king of Judah, at this 
crisis refused to co-operate with the kings 
of Israel and Syria in opposition to the As- 
syrians, and was on that account attacked 
and defeated by Rezin of Damascus and 
Pekah of Samaria (2 Kings 16 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 
28 : 5, 6). Ahaz, thus humbled, sided with 
Assyria, and sought the aid of Tiglath- 
pileser against Israel and Syria. The con- 
sequence was that Rezin and Pekah were 
conquered and many of the people carried 
captive to Assyria (2 Kings 15 : 29 ; 16 : 
9; 1 Chr. 5:26). Soon after this Shal- 
maneser determined wholly to subdue the 
kingdom of Israel. Samaria was taken 
and destroyed (B.C. 722). So long as Ahaz 
reigned, the kingdom of Judah was un- 
molested by the Assyrian power ; but on 
his accession to the throne, Hezekiah (B.C. 
726), who "rebelled against the king of 
Assyria " (2 Kings 18 : 7), in which he was 
encouraged by Isaiah, who exhorted the 
people to place all their dependence on 
Jehovah (Isa. 10 : 24 ; 37 : 6), entered into 
an alliance with the king of Egypt (Isa. 
30 : 2-4). This led the king of Assyria to 
threaten the king of Judah, and at length 
to invade the land. Sennacherib (B.C. 701) 
led a powerful army into Palestine. Heze- 
Ifiah was reduced to despair, and submitted 
to the Assyrians (2 Kings 18 : 14-16). But 
after a brief interval war broke out again, 
and again Sennacherib {q.v.) led an army 
into Palestine, one detachment of which 
threatened Jerusalem (Isa. 36 : 2-22 ; 37 : 8). 
Isaiah on that occasion encouraged Heze- 
kiah to resist the Assyrians (37 : 1-7), 
whereupon Sennacherib sent a threatening 
letter to Hezekiah, which he "spread be- 
fore the Lord " (37 : 14). The judgment of 
God now fell on the Assyrian host. " Like 
Xerxes in Greece, Sennacherib never re- 
covered from the shock of the disaster in 



Judah. He made no more expeditions 
against either Southern Palestine or 
Egypt." The remaining years of Heze- 
kiah's reign were peaceful (2 Chr. 32:23, 
27-29), Isaiah probably lived to its close, 
and possibly into the reign of Manasseh, 
but the time and manner of his death are 
unknown. There is a tradition that he 
suffered martyrdom in the heathen re- 
action in the time of Manasseh {q.v.). 

(2. ) One of the heads of the singers in the 
time of David (1 Chr. 25 : 3, 15, " Jeshaiah "). 

(3.) A Levite (1 Chr. 26 : 25). 

(4.) Ezra 8: 7. 

(5.) Neh. 11:7. 

Isaiah, The Book of, consists of pro- 
phecies delivered (Isa. 1) in the reign of Uz- 
ziah (1-5), (2) of Jotham (6), (3) Ahaz (7- 
14 : 27), (4) the first half of Hezekiah's reign 
(14 : 28-35), (5) the second half of Hezekiah's 
reign (36-66). Thus, counting from the 
fourth year before Uzziah's death (B.C. 762) 
to the last year of Hezekiah (B.C. 698), 
Isaiah's ministry extended over a period of 
sixty-four years. He may, however, have 
survived Hezekiah, and may have perished 
in the way indicated above. 

The book, as a whole, has been divided 
into three main parts : (1.) The first thirty- 
five chapters, almost wholly prophetic — 
Israel's enemy Assyria — present the Mes- 
siah as a mighty Ruler arid King. (2.) 
Eour chapters are historical (36-39), relat- 
ing to the times of Hezekiah. (3. ) Propheti- 
cal (40-66) — Israel's enemy Babylon — de- 
scribing the Messiah as a suffering victim, 
meek and lowly. 

The genuineness of the section Isa. 40-66 
has been keenly opposed by able critics. 
They assert that it must be the production 
of a deutero-Isaiah, who lived toward the 
close of the Babylonian captivity. There 
are other portions of the book also {e.g., 13 ; 
24-27 ; and certain verses in ch. 14 and 21) 
which they attribxite to some other prophet 
than Isaiah. Thus they say that some 
four or five unknown prophets had a hand 
in the production of this book as well as 
Isaiah. The considerations which have led 
these critics to such a result are : — (1.) That 
they cannot, they say, conceive it possible 
that Isaiah, living in B.C. 700, could fore- 



ISCAH 



349 



ISHMAEL 



tell the appearance and the exploits of a 
prince called Cyrus, who would set the 
Jews free from captivity one hundred and 
seventy years after; that is, they simply 
deny that a prophet can foretell the distant 
future, an assumption which is groundless 
and contrary to facts. (2.) It is further 
alleged that there is such a difference be- 
tween the style and language of the closing 
section (40-66) and those of the preceding 
chapters as to necessitate a different author- 
ship, and lead to the conclusion that there 
were at least two Isaiahs. But even 
granting the fact of a great diversity of 
style and language, this will not necessitate 
the conclusion attempted to be drawn fi'om 
it. The diversity of subjects treated of and 
the peculiarities of the prophet's position 
at the time the prophecies were uttered 
will sufficiently account for this. 

The arguments in favour of the unity of 
the book are most conclusive. When the 
LXX. version was made (about B.C. 250) 
the entire contents of the book were 
ascribed to Isaiah, the son of Amoz. It 
is not called in question, moreover, that in 
the time of our Lord the book existed in 
the form in which we now have it. Many 
prophecies in the disputed portions are 
quoted in the New Testament as the words 
of Isaiah (Matt. 3:3; Luke 3:4-6; 4: 
16-20; John 12:38; Acts 8:28; Rom. 
10 : 16-21). Universal and persistent tra- 
dition has ascribed the whole book to one 
author. 

Besides this, the internal evidence — the 
similaritj'- in the language and style, in the 
thoughts and images and rhetorical orna- 
ments — all points to the same conclusion. 
The theory therefore of a double author- 
ship of the book, which was originated at 
the close of the last century by Koppe, a 
German rationalist, may be dismissed as 
untenable. The book, with all the diver- 
sity of its contents, is one, and is, we be- 
lieve, wholly the production of the great 
prophet whose name it bears. 

Is'^cah — spy— the daughter of Haran and 
sister of Milcah and Lot (Gen. 11 : 29, 31). 

Iscar''iot — man of Kcrioth — the surname 
of Judas the traitor (Matt. 10:4). (See 
Judas. ) i 



Ish''bak — leaving — one of Abraham 's sons 
by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 2). 

Ish^bi-be'nob — my seat at Nob — one of 
the Rephaim, whose spear was three hun- 
dred shekels in weight. He was slain by 
Abishai (2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17). 

Ish-bo^sheth — man of shame or humilia- 
tion — the youngest of Saul's four sons, and 
the only one who survived him (2 Sam. 
2-4). His name was originally Eshbaal 
(1 Chr. 8 : 33 ; 9 : 39). He was about forty 
j^ears of age when his father and three 
brothers fell at the battle of Gilboa. 
Through the influence of Abner, Saul's 
cousin, he was acknowledged as successor 
to the throne of Saul, and ruled over all 
Israel, except the tribe of Judah (over 
whom David was king), for two years, hav- 
ing Mahanaim, on the east of Jordan, as 
his capital (2 Sam. 2 : 9). After a troubled 
and uncertain reign he was murdered by his 
guard, who stabbed him while he was asleep 
on his couch at mid-day (2 Sam. '4 : 5-7) ; 
and having cut off his head, presented it 
to David, who sternly rebuked them for 
this cold-blooded miirder, and ordered 
them to be immediately executed (9-12). 

I^'shi — m?/ husband — a symbolical name 
used in Hos. 2 : 16. (See Baali. ) 

Ish^mael — God hears. (1.) Abraham's 
eldest son, by Hagar the concubine (Gen. 
16 : 15 ; 17 : 23). He was born at Mamre, 
when Abraham was eighty-six years of 
age, eleven years after his arrival in Ca- 
naan (16 : 3 ; 21 : 5). At the age of thirteen 
he was circumcised (17 : 25). He grew up 
a true child of the desert, ^vild and way- 
ward. On the occasion of the weaning of 
Isaac his rude and wayward spirit broke out 
in expressions of insult and mockery (21 : 
9, 10) ; and Sarah, discovering this, said to 
Abraham, "Expel this slave and her son." 
Influencedby a divineadmonition, Abraham 
dismissed Hagar and her son with no more 
than a skin of water and some bread. The 
narrative describing this act is one of the 
most beautiful and touching incidents of 
patriarchal life (Gen. 21 : 14-16). (See 
Hagar.) 

Ishmael settled in the land of Paran, a 
region lying between Canaan and the moun- 
tains of Sinai ;. and "God was with him, 

23 



ISHMAIAH 



350 



ISRAEL 



and he became a great archer " (Gen. 21 : 
9-21). He became a great desert chief, but 
of his history little is recorded. He was 
about ninety j'^ears of age when his father 
Abraham died, in connection with whose 
burial he once more for a moment re- 
appears. On this occasion the two brothers 
met after being long separated. "Isaac 
with his hundreds of household slaves, 
Ishmael with his troops of wild retainers 
and half-savage allies, in all the state of a 
Bedouin prince, gathered before the cave 
of Machpelah, in the midst of the men of 
Heth, to pay the last duties to the ' father 
of the faithful, ' would make a notable sub- 
ject for an artist" (Gen. 25:9). Of the 
after events of his life but little is known. 
He died at the age of one hundred and 
thirty-seven years, but where and when 
are unknown (25 : 17). He had twelve sons, 
who became the founders of so many Arab 
tribes or colonies — -the Ishmaelites — who 
spread over the wide desert spaces of Nor- 
thern Arabia from the Red Sea to the Eu- 
phrates (Gen. 37 : 25, 27, 28 ; 39 : 1), " their 
hand against every man, and every man's 
hand against them." 

(2.) The son of Nethaniah, "of the seed 
royal " ( Jer. 40 : 8, 15). He plotted against 
Gedaliah, and treacherously put him and 
others to death. He carried off many 
captives, "and departed to go over to the 
Ammonites. " 

Ishvasi^isib.— heard hy Jehovah. (1.) A 
Gibeonite who joined David at Ziklag, "a 
hero among the thirty and over the thirty" 
(1 Chr. 12 : 4). 

(2. ) Son of Obadiah, and viceroy of Zebu- 
lun under David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27:19). 

Ish^meelites (Gen. 37 : 28 ; 39 : 1, A.V.) 
should be "Ishmaelites," as in the Revised 
Version. 

Ish^tob — man of Tdb — one of the small 
Syrian kingdoms which together consti- 
tuted Aram (2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8). 

Island (Heb. H, "dry land," as opposed 
to water) occurs in its usual signification 
(Isa. 42 : 4, 10, 12, 15, comp. Jer. 47 : 4), but 
more frequently simply denotes a maritime 
region or sea-coast (Isa. 20:6, R.V., "coast- 
land ; " 23 : 2, 6 ; Jer. 2 : 10 ; Ezek. 27 : 6, 7). 
(See Chittim.) The shores of the Medi- 



terranean are called, the "islands of the 
sea " (Isa. 11 : 11), or the "isles of the Gen- 
tiles " (Gen. 10 : 5), and sometimes simply 
"isles " (Ps. 72 : 10 ; Ezek. 26 : 15, 18 ; 27 : 
3, 35 ; Dan. 11 : 18). 

Is''rael, the name conferred on Jacob 
after the great prayer-struggle at Peniel 
(Gen. 32 : 28), because "as a prince he had 
power with God and prevailed." (See 
Jacob.) This is the common name given 
to Jacob's descendants. The whole people 
of the twelve tribes are called "Israelites," 
the "children of Israel" (Josh. 3:17; 7: 
25; Judg. 8:27; Jer. 3:21), and the 
"house of Israel " (Ex. 16 : 31 ; 40 : 38). 

This name Israel is sometimes used em- 
jjhatically for the true Israel (Ps. 73 : 1 ; 
Isa. 45 : 17 ; 49 : 3 ; John 1 : 47 ; Rom. 9:6; 
11 : 26). 

After the death of Saul the ten tribes 
arrogated to themselves this name, as if 
they were the whole nation (2 Sam. 2 : 9, 
10, 17, 28 ; 3 : 10, 17 ; 19 : 40-43), and the 
kings of the ten tribes were called ' ' kings 
of Israel," while the kings of the two tribes 
were called "kings of Judah." 

After the Exile the name Israel was as- 
sumed as designating the entire nation. 

Is^rael, Kingdom of (b.c. 975-b.c. 722). 
Soon after the death of Solomon, Ahijah's 
prophecy (1 Kings 11 : 31-35) was fulfilled, 
and the kingdom was rent in twain. Reho- 
boam, the son and successor of Solomon, 
was scarcely seated on his throne when the 
old jealousies between Judah and the other 
tribes broke out anew, and Jeroboam was 
sent for from Egypt by the malcontents 
(12 : 2, 3). Rehoboam insolently refused to 
lighten the burdensome taxation and ser- 
vices which his father had imposed on his 
subjects (12 : 4), and the rebellion became 
complete. Ephraim and all Israel raised 
the old cry, "Every man to his tents, O 
Israel" (2 Sam. 20 : 1). Rehoboam fled to 
Jerusalem (1 Kings 12 : 1-18 ; 2 Chr. 10), 
and Jeroboam was proclaimed king over 
all Israel at Shechem, Judah and Benja- 
min remaining faithful to Solomon's son. 
War, with varying success, was carried on 
between the two kingdoms for about sixty 
years, till Jehoshaphat entered into an 
alliance with the house of Ahab. 




THE KINGDOMS OF jUDAh AND ISRAEL.. 



Dura- 
tion 
of 


Kings of Israel. 


Commence- 
ment of Reign. 


Kings ok Judah. 


Dura- 
tion 
of 






Reign 




Margin 
of A.V. 


Ussher 




Reign 


22 


Jeroboam (1 Kings 12 : 20, 25- 
33; 13:1-34; 14:1-20). 


975 


976 


Rehoboam (1 Kings 12 : 21-24 ; 
14 : 21-31 ; 2 Chr. 10:17-ch. 12). 


17 






958 


959 


Abijah (1 Kings 15 : 1-8 ; 
2 Chr. 13). 


3 






955 


956 


Asa (1 Kings 15:9-24; 2 Chr. 


41 


2 


Nadab (1 Kings 15 : 25-27, 31). 


954 


955 


14 : 1 to 16 : 14). 




24 


Baasha (1 Kings 15 : 28-34 ; 16 : 

1-7). 
Elah (1 Kings 16 : 8-14). 


953 


954 






2 


930 


930 









Zimri (1 Kings 16 : 11, 12, 15 -20) 


929 


930 






12 


Omri (1 Kings 16 : 23-28). 


929 


930 






22 


Ahab (1 Kings 16 : 29 to 22 : 40). 


918 


919 










914 


915 


Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22 : 41-50; 


25 


2 


Ahaziah (1 Kings 22:51-53; 
2 Kings 1). 


898 


896 


2 Chr. 17 : 1 to 21 : 1). 




12 


Jehoram (2 Kings 3 : 1 to 9 : 26). 


896 


895 










892 


891 


Jehoram (2 Kings 8:16-24; 
2 Chr. 21). 


8 






885 


884 


Ahaziah (2 Kings 8:25-29; 
9 : 16-29 ; 2 Chr. 22 : 1-9). 


1 


28 


Jehu (2 Kings 9 : 1-37 ; 10 : 1-36). 


884 


883 


Athaliah (2 Kings 11:1-3; 
2 Chr. 22 : 10-12). 


6 






878 


877 


Jehoash (2 Kings 11 : 4-ch. 12 ; 


40 


17 


Jehoahaz (2 Kings 13 : 1-9). 


856 


855 


2 Chr. 23, 24). 




16 


Jehoash (2 Kings 13 : 10-25 ; 
14 : 8-16). 


841 


839 










839 


837 


Amaziah (2 Kings 14:1-20; 
2 Chr. 25). 


29 


41 


Jeroboam II. (2 Kin. 14 : 23-29). 


825 


823 










810 


808 


Uzziah or Azariah (2 Kings 14 : 


52 


11 


Interregnum. 






21, 22; 15: 1-7; 2 Chr. 26). 







Zachariah (2 Kings 15 : 8-12). 


773 


771 









Shallum (2 Kings 15 : 13-15). 


772 


770 






10 


Menahem (2 Kings 15 : 16-22). 


772 


770 






2 


Pekahiah (2 Kings 15 : 23-26). 


761 


759 






20 


Pekah (2 Kin. 15 : 27-31 ; 16 : 5). 


759 


757 










758 


756 


Jotham (2 Kings 15:32-38; 
2 Chr. 27). 


16 






742 


741 


Ahaz (2 Kings 16; 2 Chr. 28). 


16 


9 


Second Interregnum. 










9 


Hoshea (2 Kings 17 : 1-6). 


730 


730 










726 


726 


Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:1 to 


29 




Samai'ia taken (2 Kings 17, 18). 


721 


721 


20 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 1 to 32 : 33). 








698 


697 


Manasseh (2 Kings 21:1-18; 
2 Chr. 33 : 1-20). 


55 






643 


642 


Amon (2 Kings 21:19-26; 
2 Chr. 33 : 21-25). 


2 






641 


640 


Josiah (2 Kings 22:1-20; 23: 
1-30 ; 2 Chr. 34, 35). 


31 






610 


609 


Jehoahaz (2 Kings 23:31-33; 
2 Chr. 36:1-4). 









610 


609 


Jehoiachim (2 Kings 23 : 34-37 ; 
24 : 1-6 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 5-8). 


11 




. 


606 


606 


Captivity of two tribes (2 Kin. 24) 








599 


599 


Jehoiachin or Coniah (2 Kings 
24 : 8-16 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 9, 10). 









599 


599 


Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:17-20; 
25 : 1-7 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 11-21). 


11 






588 


588 


Jerusalem destroyed (2 Kin. 25) 





ISRAEL 



351 



ITHAMAR 



Extent of the kingdom. In the time of 
Solomon the area of Palestine, excluding 
the Phoenician territories on the shore of 
the Mediterranean, did not much exceed 
13,000 square miles. The kingdom of Is- 
rael comprehended about 9,375 square 
miles. Shechem was the first capital of 
this kingdom (1 Kings 12 : 25), afterwards 
Tirza (14 : 17). Samaria was subsequently 
chosen as the capital (16 : 24), and con- 
timied to be so till the destruction of the 
kingdom by the Assyrians (2 Kings 17 : 5). 
During the siege of Samaria (which lasted 
for three years) by the Assyrians, Shal- 
maneser died and was succeeded by Sar- 
gon, who himseK thus records the capture 
of that city: — "Samaria I looked at, I 
captured ; 27,280 men who dwelt in it I 
carried away " (2 Kings 17 : 6) into Assyria. 
Thus after a duration of two hundred and 
fifty-three years the kingdom of the ten 
tribes came to an end. They were scat- 
tered throughout the East. (See Cap- 
tivity. ) 

" Judah held its ground against Assyria 
for yet one hundred and twenty - three 
years, and became the raUying-point of 
the dispersed of every tribe, and eventually 
gave its name to the Avhole race. Those of 
the people who in the last struggle escaped 
into the territories of Judah or other neigh- 
bouring countries naturally looked to Judah 
as the head and home of their race. And 
when Judah itself was carried off to Baby- 
lon, many of the exiled Israelites joined 
them from Assyria, and swelled that im- 
mense population which made Babylonia a 
second Palestine." 

After the deportation of the ten tribes, 
the deserted land was colonized by various 
eastern tribes, whom the king of Assyria 
sent thither f Ezra 4 : 2, 10 ; 2 Kings 17 : 24- 
29). (See Kings.) 

In contrast with the kingdom of Judah 
is that of Israel. (1.) " There was no fixed 
capital and no religious centre. (2.) The 
army was often insubordinate. (3.) The 
succession was constantly interrupted, so 
that out of nineteen kings there were no less 
than nine dynasties, each ushered in by a 
revolution. (4. ) The authorized priests left 
the kingdom in a body, and the priesthood 



established by Jeroboam had no divine 
sanction and no promise ; it was corrupt 
at its very source." — (Maclean's O. T. 
Hist.) 

Is'sachar— Aw-etZ— (Gen. 30 : 18). " God 
hath given me," said Leah, "my hire 

(Heb. sekhdri) and she called his name 

Issachar." He was Jacob's ninth son, and 
was born in Padan-aram (comp. 29 : 35). 
He had four sons at the going do"\\Ti into 
Egypt (46 : 13 ; Num. 26 : 23, 25). 

Issachar, Tribe of, during the journey 
through the wilderness, along with Judah 
and Zebulun (Num. 2 : 5), marched on the 
east of the tabernacle. This tribe contained 
54,400 fighting men when the census was 
taken at Sinai. After the entrance into 
the Promised Land, this tribe was one of 
the six which stood on Gerizim during the 
ceremony of the blessing and cursing (Deut. 
27 : 12). The allotment of Issachar is de- 
scribed in Josh. 19 : 17-23. It included 
the plain of Esdraelon (=Jezreel), which 
was and still is the richest portion of Pales- 
tine (Deut. 33 : 18, 19 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 40). 

The prophetic blessing pronounced by 
Jacob on Issachar corresponds ^^dth that of 
Moses (Gen. 49 : 14, 15 ; comp. Deut. 33 : 
18, 19). 

Ital^ian band, the name of the Roman 
cohort to which Corneliiis belonged (Acts 
10 : 1), so called probably because it con- 
sisted of men recruited in Italy. 

It'aly (Acts 18:2; 27:1, 6; Heb. 13:24), 
like most geographical names, was differ- 
ently used at different periods of history. 
As the power of Rome advanced, nations 
were successively conquered and added to 
it till it came to designate the whole coun- 
try to the south of the Alps. There was 
constant intercourse between Palestine and 
Italy in the time of the Romans. 

Ith'amar — palm isle — the fourth and 
youngest son of Aaron (1 Chr. 6:3). He 
was consecrated to the priesthood along 
with his brothers (Ex. 6 : 23) ; and after the 
death of Nadab and Abihu, he and Eleazar 
alone <iischarged the functions of that office 
(Lev. 10 : 6, 12 ; Num. 3 : 4). He and his 
family occupied the position of common 
priests till the high priesthood passed into 
his family in the person of Eli (1 Kings 2 : 



ITHRITE 



352 



JAAZER 



27), the reasons for which are not recorded. 
(See Zadok.) 

Ith^rite, two of David's warriors so 
designated (2 Sam. 23 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 40). 

It^tai — near; timely ; or, loith the Lord. 
(1.) A Benjamite, one of David's thirty 
heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 29). 

(2. ) A native of Gath, a Philistine, who 
had apparently the command of the six 
hundred heroes who formed David's band 
during his wanderings (2 Sam. 15 : 19-22 ; 
comp. 1 Sam. 23:13; 27:2; 30:9, 10). 
He is afterwards with David at Maha- 
naim, holding in the army equal rank with 
Joab and Abishai (2 Sam. 18:2, 5, 12). 
He then passes from view. 

Iturae^a, a district in the north-east of 
Palestine, forming, along with the adjacent 
territory of Trachonitis, the tetrarchy of 
Philip (Liike 3 : 1). The present Jedur 
comprehends the chief part of Ituraea. It 
is bounded on the east by Trachonitis, on 
the south by Gaulanitis, on the west by 
Hermon, and on the north by the plain of 
Damascus. 

I''vah — overturning — a city of the As- 
syrians, whence colonists were brought to 
Samaria (2 Kings 18 : 34 ; 19 : 13). It lay 



on the Euphrates, between Sepharvaim 
and Henah, and is supposed by some to 
have been the Ahava of Ezra (8 : 15). 

I^vory (Heb. pi. shenhahbtm, the "tusks 
of elephants ") was early used in decorations 
by the Egyptians, and a great trade in it 
was carried on by the Assyrians (Ezek. 
27 : 6 ; Rev. 18 : 12). It was used by the 
Phoenicians to ornament the box -wood 
rowing-benches of their galleys, and Hi- 
ram's skilled workmen made Solomon's 
throne of ivory (1 Kings 10 : 18). It was 
brought by the caravans of Dedan (Isa. 
21 : 13), and from the East Indies by the 
navy of Tarshish (1 Kings 10 : 22). Many 
specimens of ancient Egyptian and As- 
syrian ivory -work have been j^reserved. 
The word habbim is derived from the San- 
scrit ibhas, meaning "elephant," preceded 
by the Hebrew article {ha) ; and hence it is 
argued that Ophir, from which it and the 
other articles mentioned in 1 Kings 10 : 22 
were brought, was in India. 

Iz^har — oil — one of the sons of Kohath, 
and grandson of Levi (Ex. 6 : 18, 21 ; Num. 
16 : 1). 

Iz'rahite, the designation of one of 
David's officers (1 Chr. 27 : 8). 



Ja'akan — he twists — one of the sons of 
Ezer, the son of Seir the Horite (1 Chr. 1 : 
42). 

Jaako''bah — heel-catcher — a form of the 
name Jacob, one of the descendants of 
Simeon (1 Chr. 4 : 36). 

Ja''ala— a toild she -goat — one of the 
Nethinim, whose descendants returned from 
the Captivity (Neh. 7 : 58). 

Ja^alanx— concealer— the second of Esau's 
three sons by Aholibamah (Gen. 36 : 5, 14). 

Ja''anai — mourner — one of the chief 
Gadites (1 Chr. 5 : 12). 

Ja^are-or^egim— forests of the weavers — 
a Bethlehemite (2 Sam. 21 : 19), and the 
father of Elhanan, who slew Goliath. In 
1 Chr. 20 : 5 called Jair. 

Ja^asau — fabricator — an Israelite who 



renounced his Gentile wife after the Re- 
turn (Ezra 10 : 37). 

Ja^'asiel — made by God— one of David's 
body-guard, the son of Abner (1 Chr. 27 : 
21), called Jasiel in 1 Chr. 11 : 47. 

Jaaz-ani^ah — heard by Jehovah. (1. ) The 
son of Jeremiah, and one of the chief Re- 
chabites ( Jer. 35 : 3). 

(2.) The son of Shaphan (Ezek. 8 : 11). 

(3. ) The son of Azur, one of the twenty- 
five men seen by Ezekiel (11 : 1) at the 
east gate of the temple. 

(4.) A Maachathite (2 Kings 25 :23 ; Jer. 
40 : 8 ; 42 : 1). He is also called Azariah 
(Jer. 43 : 2). 

Ja^azer — he (God) helps — a city of the 
Amorites on the east of Jordan, and as- 
signed, with neighbouring places in Gilead, 



JAAZIAH 



353 



JABIN 



to Gad (Num. 32 : 1, 3, 35 ; Josh. 13 : 25). 
It was allotted to the Merarite Levites 
(21 : 39). In David's time it was occupied 
by the Hebronites — i.e., the descendants of 
Kohath (1 Chr. 26 : 31). It is mentioned in 
the "burdens" proclaimed over Moab (Isa. 
16 : 8, 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32). Its site is marked 
by the modern ruin called Sar or Seir, 
about 10 miles west of Amman, and 12 
from Heshbon. "The vinej'ards that once 
covered the hill-sides are gone; and the 
wild Bedawin from the eastern desert make 
cultivation of any kind imiDossible. " 

Jaazi^ah — comforted hy Jehovah — a de- 
scendant of Merari the Le^^.te (1 Chr. 24 : 
26, 27). 

Jaazi''el — coraforted hy God — a Levitical 
musician (1 Chr. 15 : 18). 

JaHbal — a stream — a descendant of Cain, 
and brother of Jubal; " the father of such 
as dwell in tents and have cattle " (Gen. 

4 : 20). This description indicates that he 
led a wandering life. 

Jab'''bok — a, pouring out, or a lorestUwj— 
one of the streams on the east of Jordan, 
into which it falls about midway between 
the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea, or 
about 45 miles below the Sea of Galilee. 
It rises on the eastern side of the moun- 
tains of Gilead, and runs a course of about 

05 miles in a wild and deep ravine. It was 
the boundary between the territory of the 
Ammonites and that of Og, king of Bashan 
(Josh. 12 : 1-5 ; Num. 21 : 24) ; also between 
the tribe of Reuben and the half tribe of 
Manasseh (21:24; Deut. 3:16). In its 
course westward across the plains it passes 
more than once underground. "The 
scenery along its banks is probably the 
most picturesque in Palestine; and the 
ruins of town and village and fortress 
which stud the surrounding mountain-side 
render the country as interesting as it is 
beautiful." This river is now called the 
Zerka, or blue river. 

Ja'besh— c?r^. (1. ) For Jabesh-Gilead 
(1 Sam. 11 : 3, 9, 10). 

(2.) The father of Shallum (2 Kings 15 : 
10, 13, 14), who usurped the throne of 
Israel on the death of Zachariah. 

Ja^besh-Gil^ead, a town on the east of 
Jordan, on the top of one of the green 



hills of Gilead, within the limits of the 
half tribe of Manasseh, and in full view of 
Beth-shan. It is first mentioned in con- 
nection with the vengeance taken on its 
inhabitants because they had refused to 
come up to Mizpeh to take part with Israel 
against the tribe of Benjamin ( Judg. 21 : 
8-14). After the battles at Gibeah, that 
tribe was almost extinguished, only six 
hundred men remaining. An expedition 
went against Jabesh-Gilead, the whole of 
whose inhabitants were put to the sword, 
except four hundred maidens, whom they 
brought as prisoners and sent to "pro- 
claim peace" to the Benjamites who had 
fled to the crag Rimmon. These captives 
were given to them as wives, that the tribe 
might be preserved from extinction (1-25). 

This city M-as afterwards taken by Na- 
hash, king of the Ammonites, but was 
delivered by Saul, the newly-elected king 
of Israel. In gratitude for this deliver- 
ance, forty years after this, the men of 
Jabesh-Gilead took down the bodies of 
Saul and of his three sons from the walls of 
Beth-shan, and after burning them, buried 
the bones under a tree near the city (1 Sam. 
31 : 11-13). David thanked them for this 
act of piety (2 Sam. 2 : 4-6), and afterwards 
transferred the remains to the royal sepul- 
chre (21 : 14). It is identified wdth the ruins 
of ed-Deir, about 6 miles south of Bella, on 
the north of the Wady Yabis. 

Ja'bez — affliction. (1.) A descendant of 
Judah, of whom it is recorded that ' ' God 
granted him that which he requested " (1 
Chr. 4 : 9, 10). 

(2. ) A place inhabited by several families 
of the scribes (1 Chr. 2 : 55). 

Ja'bin — discerner; the wise. (1.) A king 
of Hazor, at the time of the entrance of 
Israel into Canaan (Josh. 11 : 1-14), whose 
overthrow and that of the northern chief 
with whom he had entered into a con- 
federacy against Joshua was the crowning 
act in the conquest of the land (11 : 21- 
23; comp. 14:6-15). This great battle, 
fought at Lake Merom, was the last of 
Joshua's battles of which we have any 
record. Here for the first time the Israel- 
ites encountered the iron chariots and 
horses of the Canaanites. 



JABNEEL 



354 



JACOB 



(2.) Another king of Hazor, called "the 
king of Canaan," who overpowered the 
Israelites of the north one hundred and 
sixty years after Joshua's death, and for 
twenty years held them in painful subjec- 
tion. The whole population were para- 
lyzed with fear, and gave way to hopeless 
despondency ( Judg. 5 : 6-11), till Deborah 
and Barak aroused the national spirit, and 
gathering together ten thousand men, 
gained a great and decisive victory over 
Jabin in the plain of Esdraelon (Judg. 4 : 
10-16; comp. Ps. 83:9). This was the 
first great victory Israel had gained since 
the days of Joshua. They never needed 
to fight another battle with the Canaanites 
(Judg. 5 : 31). 

Jab^neel — hidlt by God. (1.) A town in 
the north boundary of Judah (Josh. 15 : H), 
called afterwards by the Greeks Jamnia, 
the modern Yebna, 11 miles south of Jaffa. 
After the fall of Jerusalem (a.d. 70), it 
became one of the most populous cities of 
Judea, and the seat of a celebrated school. 

(2.) A town on the border of Naphtali 
(Josh. 19 : 33). Its later name was Kefr 
Yemmah, "the village by the sea," on the 
south shore of Lake Merom. 

Jab^neh — building — (2 Chr. 26 : 6), iden- 
tical with Jabneel (Josh. 15 : 13 ). 

Ja'chan — mourner — one of the chief 
Gadite "brothers" in Bashan (1 Chr. 5: 
13). 

Jsi'daxa—firm. (1.) The fourth son of 
Simeon (Gen. 46 : 10), called also Jarib (1 
Chr. 4 : 24). 

(2. ) The head of one of the courses (the 
twfjity-first) of pries"ts (1 Chr. 24 : 17). 

(3.) One of the priests who returned 
from the Exile (1 Chr. 9 : 10). 

Ja^chin and Boaz, the names of two 
brazen columns set up in Solomon's temple 
(1 Kings 7 : 15-22). Each was eighteen 
cubits high and twelve in circumference 
(Jer. 52 : 21, 23; 1 Kings 7 : 17-21). They 
had doubtless a symbolical import. 

Ja'^cinth, properly a flower of a reddish 
blue or deep purple [hyacinth), and hence 
a precious stone of that colour (Rev. 21 : 
20). It has been supposed to designate the 
same stone as the ligure (Heb. leshem) 
mentioned in Ex. 28 : 19 as the first stone 



of the third row in the high priest's breast- 
plate. In Rev. 9 : 17 the word is simply 
descriptive of colour. 

Ja'^cob — one tvho folloivs on another^ s 
heels; supplanter — (Gen, 25:26; 27:36; 
Hos. 12 : 2-4), the second born of the twin 
sons of Isaac by Rebekah. He was born 
probably at Lahai-roi, when his father was 
fifty-nine and Abraham one hundred and 
fifty-nine years old. Like his father, he 
was of a quiet and gentle disposition, and 
when he grew up followed the life of a 
shepherd, while his brother Esau became 
an enterprising hunter. His dealing with 
Esau, however, showed much mean selfish- 
ness and cunning (Gen. 25 : 29-34). 

When Isaac was near the end of his life, 
Jacob and his mother conspired to deceive 
the aged patriarch (Gen. 27), with the view 
of procuring the transfer of the birthright 
to himself. The birthright secured to him 
who possessed it (1) superior rank in his 
family (Gen. 49 : 3) ; (2) a double portion 
of the paternal inheritance (Deut. 21 : 17) ; 
(3) the priestly office in the family (Num. 
8 : 17-19) ; and (4) the promise of the Seed in 
which all nations of the earth were to be 
blessed (Gen. 22 : 18). 

Soon after his acquisition of his father's 
blessing (Gen. 27), Jacob became conscious 
of his guilt ; and afraid of the anger of 
Esau, at the suggestion of Rebekah Isaac 
sent him away to Haran, 400 miles or 
more, to find a wife among his cousins, the 
family of Laban, the Syrian (28). There 
he met with Rachel (29). Laban would 
not consent to give him his daughter in 
marriage till he had served seven years; 
but. to Jacob these years "seemed but a 
few days, for the love he had to her. " But 
when the "seven years were expired, Laban 
craftily deceived Jacob, and gave him his 
daughter Leah. Other seven years of ser- 
vice had to be completed probably before 
he obtained the beloved Rachel. But ' ' life- 
long sorrow, disgrace, and trials, in the re- 
tributive providence of God, followed as a 
consequence of this double union." 

At the close of the fourteen years of ser- 
vice, Jacob desired to return to his parents, 
but at the entreaty of Laban he tarried yet 
six years with him, tending his flocks (31 : 



JACOB 



355 



JACOB 



41). He then set out with his family 
and property " to go to Isaac his father in 
the land of Canaan " (Gen, 31). Laban was 
angry when he heard that Jacob had set 
out on his journey, and i^ursued after him, 
overtaking him in seven days. The meet- 
ing was of a painful kind. After much re- 
crimination and reproach directed against 
Jacob, Laban is at length pacified, and 
taking an affectionate farewell of his 
daughters, returns to his home in Padan- 
aram. And now all connection of the 
Israelites with Mesopotamia is at an end. 

Soon after parting with Laban he is met 
by a company of angels, as if to greet him 
on his return and welcome him back to the 
Land of Promise (32 : 1, 2). He called the 
name of the place Mahanaim, i.e., "the 
double camp," probably his own camp and 
that of the angels. The vision of angels 
was the counterpart of that he had formerly 
seen at Bethel, when, twenty years before, 
the weary, solitary traveller, on his way to 
Padan-aram, saw the angels of God ascend- 
ing and descending on the ladder w^hose 
top reached to heaven (28 : 12). 

He now hears with dismay of the ap- 
proach of his brother Esau with a band of 
400 men to meet him. In great agony of 
mind he prepares for the worst. He feels 
that he must now depend only on God, 
and he betakes himself to him in earnest 
prayer, and sends on before him a muni- 
ficent present to Esau — "a present to my 
lord Esau from thy servant Jacob. " Jacob's 
family were then transported across the 
Jabbok ; \>\\t he himself remained behind, 
spending the night in communion with 
God. While thus engaged, there appeared 
one in the form of "a man who wrestled 
Avith him. In this mysterious contest 
Jacob prevailed, and as a memorial of it 
his name was changed to Israel (lorestler 
with God); and the place where this oc- 
curred he called Peniel, "for," said he, 
"I have seen God face to face, and my 
life is preserved " (32 : 25-31). 

After this anxious night, Jacob went 
on his way, halting, mysteriously weakened 
by the conflict, but strong in the assurance 
of the divine favour. Esau came forth 
and met him ; but his spirit of revenge was 



appeased, and the brothers met as friends, 
and during the remainder of their lives 
they maintained friendly relations. After 
a brief sojourn at Succoth, Jacob moved 
forward and pitched his tent near Shechem 
{q.v.) — 33 : 18 ; but at length, under divine 
directions, he moved to Bethel, where he 
made an altar unto God (35 : 6, 7), and where 
God appeared to him and renewed the 
Abrahamic covenant. While journeying 
from Bethel to Ephrath (the Canaanitish 
name of Bethlehem), Rachel died in giv- 
ing birth to her second son Benjamin (35 : 
16-20), fifteen or sixteen years after the 
birth of Joseph. He then reached the old 
family residence at Mamre, to wait on 
the djnng bed of his father Isaac. The 
complete reconciliation between Esau and 
Jacob was shown by their uniting in the 
burial of the patriarch (35 : 27-29). 

Jacob was soon after this deeply grieved 
by the loss of his beloved son Joseph 
through the jealousy of his brothers (37 : 
33). Then follows the story of the famine, 
and the successive goings doAvn into Egypt 
to buy corn (42), which led to the discovery 
of the long-lost Joseph, and the patriarch's 
going down with all his household, num- 
bering about seventy souls (Ex. 1:5; 
Num. 26:28-37), to sojourn in the land 
of Goshen. Here Jacob, "after being 
strangely tossed about on a very rough 
ocean, found at last a tranquil harbour, 
where all the best affections of his nature 
were gently exercised and largely unfolded " 
(Gen. 48). At length the end of his check- 
ered course draws nigh, and he summons 
his sons to his bedside that he may bless 
them. Among his last words he repeats 
the story of Rachel's death, although 
forty years had passed away since that 
event took place,' as tenderly as if it had 
happened only yesterday; and when "he 
had made an end of charging his sons, he 
gathered up his feet into the bed, and 
yielded up the ghost " (49 : 33). His body 
was embalmed and carried with great 
pomp into the land of Canaan, and buried 
beside his wife Leah in the cave of Mach- 
pelah, according to his dying charge. 
There, probably, his embalmed body re- 
mains to this day (50 : 1-13). (See Hebeox. ) 



JACOB 



356 



JAEL 



The history of Jacob is referred to by 
the prophets Hosea (12 : 3, 4, 12) and Mal- 
achi (1 : 2). In Micah 1 : 5 the name is a 
poetic synonym for Israel, the kingdom 




JACOB S WELL. 



of the ten tribes. There are, besides the 
mention of his name along with those of 
the other patriarchs, distinct references to 
events of his life in Pavil's epistles (Rom. 



9 : 11-13 ; Heb. 12 : 16 ; 11 : 21). See refer- 
ences to his vision at Bethel and his posses- 
sion of land at Shechem, in John 1 : 51 ; 4:5, 
12 ; also to the famine which was the occa- 
sion of his going down into 
Egypt, in Acts 7:12. (See 
Luz; Bethel.) 

Jacob's Well (John 4: 5,6). 
This is one of the few sites in 
Palestine about which there 
is no disp)ute. It was dug by 
Jacob, and hence its name, in 
the "parcel of ground" which 
he purchased from the sons 
of Hamor (Gen. 33:19). It 
still exists, but although after 
copious rains it contains a 
little water, it is now usually 
quite dry. It is at the en- 
trance to the valley between 
Ebal and Gerizim, about 2 
miles south-east of Shechem. 
It is about 9 feet in diameter 
and about 75 feet in depth, 
though in ancient times it 
was no doubt much deeper, 
probably twice as deep. The 
digging of such a well must 
have been a very laborious 
and costly undertaking. 

Jad^dua — knoivn. (l.)One 
of the chiefs who subscribed 
the covenant (Neh. 10 : 21). 

(2.) The last high priest 
mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment (Neh. 12:11, 22), the 
son of Jonathan. 

J a,^ don— judge — a Merono- 
thite who assisted in rebuild- 
ing the walls of Jerusalem 
(Neh. 3 : 7). 

Ja''el — mo untain -goat — the 
wife of Heber the Kenite 
( Judg. 4 : 17-22). When the 
Canaanites were defeated by 
Barak, Sisera, the captain of 
Jabin's army, fled and sought 
refuge with the friendly tribe 
of Heber, beneath the oaks of Zaanaim. As 
he drew near, Jael invited him to enter her 
tent. He did so, and as he lay wearily on 
the floor he fell into a deep sleep. She then 



JAGUR 



357 



JAKIM 



took in her left hand one of the great 
wooden pins ("nail ") which fastened down 
the cords of the tent, and in her right 
hand the mallet, or "hammer," used for 
driving it into the ground, and stealthily- 
approaching her sleeping guest, with one 
Avell-directed blow drove the nail through 
his temples into the earth { Judg. 5 : 27). 
She then led Barak, who was in pursuit, 
into her tent, and boastfully showed him 
what she had done. (See Sisera ; Deb- 
orah. ) 

Ja''gur — place of sojourn — a city on the 
southern border of Judah (Josh. 15 : 21). 

Jah, a contraction for Jehovah (Ps. 68 : 4). 

Ja^'hath — union. (1.) A son of Shimei, 
and grandson of Gershom (1 Chr. 23 : 10). 

(2. ) One of the sons of Shelomoth, of the 
family of Kohath (1 Chr. 24 : 22). 

(3.) A Levite of the familj'- of Merari, 
one of the overseers of the repairs of the 
temple under Josiah (2 Chr. 34 : 12). 

Ja'haz — trodden doxon (called also Ja- 
haza. Josh. 13 : 18 ; Jahazah, 21 : 36 ; Jah- 
zah, 1 Chr. 6 : 78) — a town where Sihon 
was defeated, in the borders of Moab and 
in the land of the Ammonites beyond Jor- 
dan, and north of the river Arnon (Num. 
21 : 23 ; Deut. 2 : 32). It was situated in 
the tribe of Reuben, and was assigned to 
the Merarite Levites (Josh. 13 :18 ; 21 : 36). 
Here was fought the decisive battle in 
which Sihon {q.v.) was completely routed, 
and his territory (the modern Belka) came 
into the possession of Israel. This town is 
mentioned in the denunciations of the 
prophets against Moab (Isa. 15:4; Jer. 
48 : 34). 

Jaha'ziel— fte^ieZc? hy God. (1.) The 
third son of Hebron (1 Chr. 23 : 19). 

(2.) A Benjamite chief who joined David 
at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 4). 

(3.) A priest who accompanied the re- 
moval of the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 16 : 6). 

(4.) The son of Zechariah, a Levite of 
the family of Asaph (2 Chr. 20:14-17). 
He encouraged Jehoshaphat against the 
Moabites and Ammonites. 

Jah^dai — graspo — a descendant of Ca- 
leb, of the family of Hezron (1 Chr, 2 : 47). 

Jah''zeel — allotted hy God — the first of 
the sons of Naphtali (Gen. 46 : 24). 



Jah'zerah — returner— the son of Mesh- 

ullam, and father of Adiel (1 Chr. 9 : 12). 

Jailer (of Philippi)— Acts 16 : 23. The 
conversion of the Roman jailer, a man be- 
longing to a class "insensible as a rule and 
hardened by habit, and also disjDosed to 
despise the Jews, who were the bearers of 
the message of the gosjDel," is one of those 
cases which illustrate its universality and 
power. 

Ja^ir — enlightener. (1.) The son of Se- 
gub. He was brought up with his mother 
in Gilead, where he had possessions (1 
Chr. 2 : 22). He distinguished himself in 
an expedition against Bashan, and settled 
in the x>art of Argob on the borders of 
Gilead. The small towns taken by him 
there are called Havoth-jair — i.e., " Jair's 
villages" (Num. 32 : 41 ; Deut. 3 : 14 ; Josh. 
13 : 30). 

(2.) The eightli judge of Israel, wliich he 
ruled for twenty -two years. His opulence 
is described in Judg. 10 : 3-5. He had 
thirty sons, each riding on "ass colts." 
They had possession of thirty of the sixty 
cities (1 Kings 4:13; 1 Chr. 2:23) which 
formed the ancient Havoth-jair. 

(3.) A Benjamite, the father of Mordecai, 
Esther's uncle (Esther 2 : 5), 

(4.) The father of Elhanan, who slew 
Lachmi, the brother of Goliath (1 Chr. 20 : 
5). 

Jai'rus, a ruler of the synagogue at 
Capernaum, whose only daughter Jesus 
restored to life (Mark 5 : 22; Luke 8 : 41). 
Entering into the chamber of death, ac- 
companied by Peter and James and John 
and the father and mother of the maiden, 
he went forward to the bed whereon the 
corpse lay, and said, Talitha curai — i.e., 
"Maid, arise," and immediately the spirit 
of the maiden came to her again, and 
she arose straightway; and "at once to 
strengthen that life which had come back 
to her, and to prove that she was indeed 
no ghost, but had returned to the realities 
of a mortal existence, ' he commanded to 
give her meat ' " (Mark 5 : 43). 

Ja''keh — pious — the father of Agur 
(Prov, 30 : 1). Nothing is knowoi of him. 

Ja^kim — establisher. (1.) Chief of the 
twelfth priestly order (1 Chr. 24 : 12). 



JALON 



358 



JAPHETH 



(2.) A Benjamite (1 Clir. 8 : 19). 

(3. ) Margin in Matt. 1 : 11 means Jeho- 
iakim. 

Ja''lon — lodger — the last of the four sons 
of Ezra, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 4 : 17). 

Jam'bres, one of those who opposed 
Moses in Egypt (2 Tim. 3 : 8). (See Jannes.) 

James. (1.) The son of Zebedee and 
Salome; an elder brother of John the 
apostle. He was one of the twelve. He 
was by trade a fisherman, in partnership 
with Peter (Matt. 20 : 20 ; 27 : 56). With 
John and Peter he was present at the 
transfiguration (Matt. 17 : 1 ; Mark 9 : 2), 
at the raising of Jairus's daughter (Mark 
5 : 37-43), and in the garden with our Lord 
(14 : 33). Because, probably, of their bold- 
ness and energy, he and John were called 
Boanerges — i.e., "sons of thunder." He 
was the first martyr among the apostles, 
having been beheaded by King Herod 
Agrippa (Acts 12 : 1, 2), a.d. 44. (Comp. 
Matt. 4:21; 20:20-23.) 

(2.) The son of Alj)haeus, or Cleopas, 
"the brother" or near kinsman or cousin 
of our Lord (Gal. 1 : 18, 19), called James 
"the Less," or "the Little," probably be- 
cause he was of low stature. He is men- 
tioned along with the other apostles (Matt. 
10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 18 ; Luke 6 : 15). He had 
a separate interview with our Lord after 
his resurrection (1 Cor. 15 : 7), and is men- 
tioned as one of the apostles of the circum- 
cision (Acts 1 : 13). He appears to have 
occupied the position of head of the Church 
at Jerusalem, where he presided at the 
council held to consider the case of the 
Gentiles (Acts 12 : 17 ; 15 : 13-29 ; 21 : 18-24). 
This James was the author of the epistle 
which bears his name. 

James, Epistle of. (1.) Author of, was 
James the Less, the Lord's brother, one of 
the twelve apostles. He was one of the 
three pillars of the Church (Gal. 2 : 9). 

(2. ) It was addressed to the Jews of the 
dispersion — "the twelve tribes scattered 
abroad. " 

(3. ) The place and time of the writing of 
the epistle were Jerusalem, where James 
was residing, and, from internal evidence, 
the period between Paul's two imprison- 
ments at Pome, probably about a.d. G2. 



(4.) The object of the writer was to enforce 
the practical duties of the Christian life. 
' ' The Jewish vices against which he warns 
them are — formalism, which made the ser- 
vice of God consist in washings and out- 
ward ceremonies, whereas he reminds them 
(1 : 27) that it consists rather in active love 
and purity ; fanaticism, which, under the 
cloak of religious zeal, was tearing Jeru- 
salem in pieces (1 : 20) ; fatalism, which 
threw its sins on God (1 : 13) ; meanness, 
which crouched upon the rich (2:2); false- 
hood, which had made words and oaths play- 
things (3 : 2-12) ; partisanship (3 : 14) ; evil 
speaking (4 : 11) ; boasting (4 : 16) ; oppres- 
sion (5 : 4). The great lesson which he 
teaches them as Christians is patience — 
patience in trial (1 : 2), patience in good 
works (1 : 22-25), patience under provoca- 
tion (3 : 17), patience under oppression (5 : 
7), patience under persecution (5 : 10) ; and 
the ground of their patience is that the 
coming of the Lord draweth nigh, which 
is to right all wrong (5 : 8)." 

"Justification by works," which James 
contends for, is justification before man — 
the justification of our profession of faith 
by a consistent life. Paul contends for the 
doctrine of "justification by faith;" but 
that is justification before God — a being 
regarded and accepted as just by virtue of 
the righteousness of Christ, which is re- 
ceived by faith. 

Jan^nes, one of the Egyptians who 
"withstood Moses " (2 Tim. 3 : 8). 

Jano^ah or Jano^hah — rest. (1. ) A town 
on the north-eastern border of Ephraim, 
in the Jordan valley (Josh. 16 : 6, 7). Iden- 
tified with the modern YdnUn, 8 miles 
south-east of NabMs. 

(2. ) A town of Northern Palestine, within 
the boundaries of Naphtali. It was taken 
by the king of Assyria (2 Kings 15 : 29). 

Ja^num — slumber — a town in the moun- 
tains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 53). 

Ja^pheth — wide spreading: "God shall 
enlarge Japheth " (Heb. Yaphat Elohim 
le- Yephet — Gen. 9 : 27. Some, however, 
derive the name from yaphah, "to be 
beautiful ; " hence tvhite) — one of the sons 
of Noah, mentioned last in order (Gen. 5 : 
32 ; 6 : 10 ; 7 : 13), but the first by birth (10 : 



JAPHETH 



359 



JARMUTH 



21 ; comp. 9 : 24). He and his vnfe were 
two of the eight saved in the ark (1 Pet, 
3 : 20). He was the progenitor of many 
tribes inhabiting the east of Europe and 
the north of Asia (Gen. 10 : 2-5). An act of 
filial piety (9 : 20-27) was the occasion of 
Noah's prophecy of the extension of his 
posterity. 

After the Flood the earth was re-peopled 
by the descendants of Noah — "the sons of 
Japheth " (Gen. 10 : 2), " the sons of Ham " 
(6), and "the sons of Shem" (22). It is 
important to notice that modem ethno- 
logical science, reasoning from a careful 
analysis of facts, has arrived at the conclu- 
sion that there is a three-fold division of 
the human family, corresponding in a re- 
markable way with the great ethnological 
chapter of the book of Genesis (10). The 
three great races thus distinguished are 
called the Semitic, Aryan, and Turanian 
(Allophylian). "Setting aside the cases 
where the ethnic names employed are of 
doubtful application, it cannot reasonably 
be questioned that the author [of Gen. 10] 



has in his account of the sons of Japheth 
classed together the Cymry or Celts 
(Gomer), the Medes (Madai), and the 
lonians or Greeks (Javan), thereby antici- 
pating what has become known in modem 
times as the 'Indo-European Theory,' or 
the essential unity of the Aryan (Asiatic) 
race with the principal races of Europe, 
indicated by the Celts and the lonians. 
Nor can it be doubted that he has thrown 
together under the one head of 'children 
of Shem ' the Assyrians (Asshur), the 
Syrians (Aram), the Hebrews (Eber), and 
the Joktanian Arabs ( Joktan)— four of the 
principal races which modern ethnology 
recognizes under the heading of ' Semitic' 
Again, under the heading of 'sons of Ham,' 
the author has arranged ' Cush ' — i.e., the 
Ethiopians; 'Mizraim,' the people of 
Egypt; 'Sheba and Dedan,' or certain of 
the Southern Arabs; and 'Nimrod,' or the 
ancient people of Babylon,— four races be- 
tween which the latest linguistic researches 
have established a close affinity " (Rawlin- 
son's Hist. Illustrations). 



DESCENDANTS OF JAPHETH (Gen. 10:1-5). 



Japheth. 



Gomer. Magog. 



Madai. 



Javax. 



I I 

Tubal. Meshech. 



TiRAS. 



I I i 

ASHKENAZ. ElPHATH. TOGARMAH. 



I I I I 

Elishah. Tarshish. Kitttm. Dodanim. 



Japhi^a — splendid. (1.) The king of 
Lachish, who joined in the confederacy 
against Joshua (Josh. 10 : 3), and was de- 
feated and slain. 

(2. ) One of the sons of David (2 Sam. 5 : 
15), born in Jerusalem. 

(3. ) A town in the southern boundary of 
Zebulun (Josh. 19 : 12) ; now Yafa, 2 miles 
south-west of Nazareth. 

Ja''pho— 6eaM^?/— a sea-port in Dan (Josh. 
19 : 46) ; called Joppa {q.v.) in 2 Chr. 2 : 16 ; 
Ezra 3:7; Jonah 1:3; and in New Testa- 
ment. 

Ja^reb — contentious — probably the fig- 
urative title of the king of Assyria (Hos. 
5 : 13 ; 10 : 6). 

Jsi^red— descent. (1.) The fourth ante- 



diluvian patriarch in descent from Seth 
(Gen. 5 : 15-20 ; Luke 3 : 37), the father of 
Enoch ; called Jered in 1 Chr. 1 : 2. 

(2. ) A son of Ezra probably (1 Chr. 4 : 
18). 

Jsi^rib—an adversary. (1.) A son of 
Simeon (1 Chr. 4 : 24). 

(2. ) One of the chiefs sent by Ezra to 
bring up the priests to Jerusalem (Ezra 8 : 
16). 

(3.) Ezra 10: 18. 

Jar^muth — height. (1.) A town in the 
plain of Judah (Josh. 15 : 35), originally the 
residence of one of the Canaanitish kings 
(10 : 3, 5, 23). It has been identified with 
the modern YarmHTc, a village about 7 
miles north-east of Beit-Jibrln. 



JASHEN 



360 



JEALOUSY 



(2.) A Levitical city of the tribe of 
Issachar (Josh. 21 : 29), supposed by some 
to be the Ramah of Samuel (1 Sam. 19 : 22). 

Ja^shen — sleeping — called also Hashem 
(1 Chr. 11 : 34) ; a person, several of whose 
sons were in David's body-guard (2 Sam. 
23 : 32). 

Ja^sher — upright. "The Book of 
Jasher," rendered in the LXX. "the Book 
of the Upright One," by the Vulgate "the 
Book of Just Ones, " was probably a kind 
of national sacred song-book — a collection 
of songs in praise of the heroes of Israel, 
a "book of golden deeds," a national an- 
thology. We have only two specimens 
from the book — (1) the words of Joshua 
which he spake to the Lord at the crisis of 
the battle of Beth-horon (Josh. 10 : 12, 13) ; 
and (2) " the Song of the Bow," that beau- 
tiful and touching mournful elegy which 
David composed on the occasion of the 
death of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1 : 
18-27). 

Jasho^beam — dweller among the people ; 
or to lohom the people turn — the Hachmonite 
(1 Chr. 11 : 11), one of David's chief heroes 
who joined him at Ziklag (12 : 6). He was 
the first of the three who broke through the 
host of the Philistines to fetch water to 
David from the well of Bethlehem (2 Sam. 
23 : 13-17). He is also called Adino the 
Eznite (8). 

Jash'^ub — returner. (1.) The third of 
Issachar's four sons (1 Chr. 7:1); called 
also Job (Gen. 46 : 13). 

(2.) Ezra 10: 29. 

Ja'son — he that will cure — the host of 
Paul and Silas in Thessalonica. The Jews 
assaulted his house in order to seize Paul, 
but failing to find him, they dragged 
Jason before the ruler of the city (Acts 17 : 
5-9). He was apparently one of the kins- 
men of Paul (Rom. 16 : 21), and accom- 
panied him from Thessalonica to Corinth. 

Jas^per (Heb. yashpheh, "glittering"), a 
gem of various colours, one of the twelve 
inserted in the high priest's breast-plate 
(Ex. 28 : 20). It is named in the building of 
the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 18, 19). It was 
"most precious," "like crystal" (21:11). 
It was emblematical of the glory of God 
(4:3). 



Jat'tir — pre-eminent — a city in the 
mo\intains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 48 ; 21 : 
14). 

Ja'van. (1.) The fourth "son" of 
Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2), whose descendants 
settled in Greece — i.e., Ionia, which bears 
the name of Javan in Hebrew. Alexander 
the Great is called the ' ' king of Javan " 
(rendered "Graecia," Dan. 8:21; 10:20; 
comp. 11 : 2 ; Zech. 9 : 13). This word was 
universally used by the nations of the East 
as the generic name of the Greek race. 

(2. ) A town or district of Arabia Felix, 
from which the Syrians obtained iron, 
cassia, and calamus (Ezek. 27 : 19). 

Jav'elin. (1.) Heb. hanith, a lance, 
from its flexibility (1 Sam. 18 : 10, 11 ; 19 : 
9, 10 ; 20 : 33). 

(2.) Heb. rdmaJi, a lance for heavy- 
armed troops, so called from its piercing 
(Num. 25:7). (See Arms.) 

Jaw-bone of an ass afforded Samson a 
weapon for the great slaughter of the 
Philistines ( Judg. 15 . 15), in which he 
slew a thousand men. In verse 19 the 
Authorized Version reads, " God clave a 
hollow place that was in the jaw, and there 
came water thereout." This is a mis- 
translation of the words. The rendering 
should be as in the Revised Version, "God 
clave the hollow place that is in Lehi," etc., 
Lehi {q.v.) being the name of the hill where 
this conflict was waged, possibly so called 
because it was in shape like a jaw-bone. 

JeaFousy, suspicion of a wife's purity, 
one of the strongest passions (Num. 5 : 14 ; 
Prov. 6 : 34 ; Cant. 8 : 6) ; also an intense 
interest for another's honour or prosperity 
(Ps. 79 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 22 ; Zech. 1 : 14). 

Jeal^ousy, Image of, an idolatrous ob- 
ject, seen in vision by Ezekiel (Ezek. 8 :3, 
5), which stood in the priests' or inner court 
of the temple. Probably identical with the 
statue of Astarte (2 Kings 21 : 7). 

Jeal^ousy oflfering, the name of the 
offering the husband was to bring when he 
charged his wife with adultery (Num. 5: 
11-15). 

Jeal^ousy, Waters of, water which the 
suspected wife was required to drink, so 
that the result might prove her guilt or 
innocence (Num. 5 : 12-17, 27). We have 



JEARIM 



361 



JEHIEL 



no record of this form of trial having been 
actually resorted to. 

Je^arim — forests — a mountain on the 
border of Judah (Josh. 15 : 10). 

Je^bus — trodden hard, or fastness, or 
"i/ie tvaterless hill" — the name of the 
Canaanitish city which stood on Mount 
Zion (Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 : 16, 28). It is iden- 
tified with Jerusalem {q. v. ) in Judg. 19 : 10, 
and with the castle or city of David (1 Chr. 
11 : 4, 5). It was a place of great natural 
strength, and its capture was one of David's 
most brilliant achievements (2 Sam. 5 : 8). 

Jeb''usites, the name of the original in- 
habitants of Jebus, mentioned frequently 
among the seven nations doomed to de- 
struction (Gen. 10:16; 15:21; Ex. 3:8, 
17 ; 13 : 5, etc.). At the time of the arrival 
of the Israelites in Palestine they were 
ruled by Adonizedek (Josh. 10:1, 23). 
They were defeated by Joshua, and their 
king was slain ; but they were not entirely 
driven out of Jebus till the time of David, 
who made it the capital of his kingdom 
instead of Hebron. The site on which the 
temple was afterwards built belonged to 
Araunah, a Jebusite, from whom it was 
purchased by David, who refused to accept 
it as a free gift (2 Sam. 24 : 16-25 ; 1 Chr. 
21 : 24, 25). 

Jecoli^ah — able through Jehovah — the 
wife of King Amaziah, and mother of King 
Uzziah (2 Chr. 26 : 3). 

Jedai^ah. (1. ) Invoker of Jehovah. The 
son of Shimri, a chief Simeonite (1 Chr. 
4 : 37). 

(2. ) One of those who repaired the walls 
of Jerusalem after the return from Baby- 
lon (Neh. 3 : 10). 

(3. ) Knowing Jehovah. The chief of one 
of the courses of the priests (1 Chr. 24 : 7). 

(4.) A priest in Jerusalem after the Exile 
(1 Chr. 9 : 10). 

Jedi^ael — known by God. (1. ) One of the 
sons of Benjamin, whose descendants num- 
bered 17,200 warriors (1 Chr. 7 : 6, 10, 11). 

(2.) A Shimrite, one of David's body- 
guard (1 Chr. 11 : 45). Probably same as 
in 12 : 20. 

(3. ) A Korhite of the family of Ebiasaph, 
and one of the gate-keepers to the temple 
(1 Chr. 26 : 2). 



Jedidi^ah — beloved by Jehovah — the name 
which, by the mouth of Nathan, the Lord 
gave to Solomon at his birth as a token of 
the divine favour (2 Sam. 12 : 25). 

Jedu^thun — lauder ; praising — a Levite 
of the family of Merari, and one of the 
three masters of music appointed by David 
(1 Chr. 16 : 41, 42 ; 25 : 1-6). He is called in 
2 Chr. 35:15 "the king's seer." His de- 
scendants are mentioned as singers and 
Xjlayers on instruments (Neh. 11 : 17). He 
was probably the same as Ethan (1 Chr. 
15 : 17, 19). In the superscriptions to Ps. 
39, 62, and 77, the words "upon Jeduthun"' 
probably denote a musical instrument ; or 
they may denote the style or tune invented 
or introduced by Jeduthun, or that the 
psalm was to be sung by his choir. 

Je'gar-sahadu^tha — pile of testimony— 
the Aramaic or Syriac name which Laban 
gave to the pile of stones erected as a 
memorial of the covenant between him 
and Jacob (Gen. 31 : 47), who, however, 
called it in Hebrew by an equivalent name 
— Galeed {q.v.). 

Jehal^eleel— praise?' of God. (1.) A de- 
scendant of Judah (1 Chr. 4 : 16). 

(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari 
(2 Chr. 29 : 12). 

Jehdei^ah — rejoicer in Jehovah. (1. ) One 
of the Levitical attendants at the temple, 
a descendant of Shubael (1 Chr. 24 : 20). 

(2.) A Meronothite, herdsman of the 
asses under David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27 : 
30). 

Jehi^el — God's living one. (1. ) The father 
of Gibeon (1 Chr. 9 : 35). 

(2.) One of David's guard (1 Chr. 11:44). 

(3.) One of the Levites "of the second 
degree," appointed to conduct the music on 
the occasion of the ark's being removed to 
Jerusalem (1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20). 

(4.) A Hachmonite, a tutor in the family 
of David toward the close of his reign (1 
Chr. 27 : 32). 

(5. ) The second of Jehoshaphat's six sons 
(2 Chr. 21 : 2). 

(6.) One of the Levites of the family of 
Heman who assisted Hezekiah in his work 
of reformation (2 Chr. 29 : 14). 

(7.) A " prince " and " ruler of the house 
of God " who contributed liberally to the 



JEHIZKIAH 



362 



JEHOIADA 



renewal of the temple sacrifices under 
Josiah (2 Chr. 35 : 8). 

(8.) The father of Gbadiah (Ezra 8 : 9). 

(9.) One of the "sons" of Elam (Ezra 
10:26). 

(10.) Ezra 10: 21. 

Jehizki'^ah — Jehovah strengthens — one of 
the chiefs of Ephraim (2 Chr. 28 : 12). 

Jehoad''dan — Jehovah his ornament — 
the wife of King Jehoash, and mother of 
King Amaziah (2 Kings 14 : 2). 

Jeho''ahaz — Jehovah his sustainer, or he 
xvhom Jehovah holdeth. (1.) The youngest 
son of Jehoram, king of Judah (2 Chr. 21 : 
17 ; 22 : 1, 6, 8, 9) ; usually Ahaziah (g.r.). 

(2. ) The son and successor of Jehu, king 
of Israel (2 Kings 10 : 35). He reigned 
seventeen years, and followed the evil ways 
of the house of Jeroboam. The Syrians, 
under Hazael and Benhadad, prevailed 
over him, but were at length driven out 
of the land by his son Jehoash (13:1-9, 25). 

(3.) Josiah's third son, usually called Shal- 
lum (1 Chr. 3 : 15). He succeeded his father 
on the throne, and reigned over Judah for 
three months (2 Kings 23 : 31, 34). He fell 
into the idolatrous ways of his predecessors 
(23 : 32), was deposed by Pharaoh-Necho 
from the throne, and carried away prisoner 
into Egypt, where he died in captivity (23 : 
33, 34 ; Jer. 22 : 10-12 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 1-4). 

Jeho^ash — Jehovah-given. (1.) The son 
of King Ahaziah. While yet an infant, he 
was saved from the general massacre of the 
family by his aunt Jehosheba, and was 
apparently the only surviving descendant 
of Solomon (2 Chr. 21 : 4, 17). His uncle, 
the high priest Jehoiada, brought him forth 
to public notice when he was eight years of 
age, and crowned and anointed him king 
of Judah with the usual ceremonies. 
Athaliah was taken by surprise when she 
heard the shout of the people, "Long live 
the king ; " and when she appeared in the 
temple, Jehoiada commanded her to be 
led forth to death (2 Kings 11:13-20). 
While the high priest lived, Jehoash fav- 
oured the worship of God and observed the 
law ; but on his death he fell away into evil 
courses, and the land was defiled with 
idolatry. Zechariah, the son and successor 
of the high priest, was put to death. These 



evil deeds brought down on the land the 
judgment of God, and it was oppressed by 
the Syrian invaders. He is one of the three 
kings omitted by Matthew (1:8) in the 
genealogy of Christ, the other two being 
Ahaziah and Amaziah. He was buried in 
the city of David (2 Kings 12 : 21). (See 

JOASH [4]. ) 

(2. ) The son and successor of Jehoahaz, 
king of Israel (2 Kings 14 : 1 ; comp. 12 : 1 ; 
13 : 10). When he ascended the throne the 
kingdom was suffering from the invasion 
of the Syrians. Hazael "was cutting Israel 
short." He tolerated the worship of the 
golden calves, yet seems to have manifested 
a character of sincere devotion to the God of 
his fathers. He held the prophet Elisha in 
honour, and wept by his bedside when he was 
dying, addressing him in the words Elisha 
himself had used when Elijah was carried 
up into heaven : " O my father, my father, 
the chariot of Israel and the horsemen 
thereof." He was afterwards involved in 
war with Amaziah, the king of Judah (2 
Chr. 25 : 23-24), whom he utterly defeated 
at Beth-shemesh, on the borders of Dan 
and Philistia, and advancing on Jerusalem, 
broke down a portion of the wall, and 
carried away the treasures of the temple 
and the palace. He soon after died (B.C. 
825), and was buried in Samaria (2 Kings 
14 : 1-17, 19, 20). He was succeeded by his 
son. (See Joash [5].) 

Jeho'^hanan — Jehovah-granted — Jerobo- 
am II. (1.) A Korhite, the head of one of 
the divisions of the temple porters (1 Chr. 
26 : 3). 

(2.) One of Jehoshaphat's "captains" 
(2 Chr. 17 : 15). 

(3. ) The father of Azariah (2 Chr. 28 : 12). 

(4.) The son of Tobiah, an enemy of the 
Jews (Neh. 6 : 18). 

(5.) Neh. 12:42. 

(6.) Neh. 12:13. 

Jehoi^ada — Jehovah-Jcnoivn. (1.) The 
father of Benaiah, who was one of David's 
chief warriors (2 Sam. 8 : 18 ; 20 : 23). 

(2. ) The high priest at the time of Atha- 
liah's usurpation of the throne of Judah. 
He married Jehosheba, or Jehoshabeath, 
the daughter of king Jehoram (2 Chr. 22 : 
11), and took an active part along with his 



JEHOIAKIM 



363 



JEHONADAB 



wife in the preservation and training of 
Jehoash when Athaliah slew all the royal 
family of Judah. 

The plans he adopted in replacing Jeho- 
ash on the throne of his ancestors are 
described in 1 Kings 14 : 26, 27 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 
7-11 ; 26 : 20-28. He was among the fore- 
most of the benefactors of the kingdom, 
and at his death was buried in the city of 
David among the kings of Judah (2 Chr. 
24 : 15, 16). He is said to have been one 
hundred and thirty years old. 

Jehoi^akiin — he whom Jehovah has set up 
— the second son of Josiah, and eighteenth 
king of Judah, which he ruled over for 
eleven years (b.c. 610-599). His original 
name was Eliakim [q.v.). 

On the death of his father his younger 
brother Jehoahaz (= Shall um, Jer. 22 : 11), 
who favoured the Chaldeans against the 
Egyptians, was made king by the people ; 
but the king of Egypt, Pharaoh-Necho, 
invaded the land and deposed Jehoahaz 
{2 Kings 23 : 33, 34; Jer. 22 : 10-12), setting 
Eliakim on the throne in his stead, chang- 
ing his name to Jehoiakim. 

After this the king of Egypt took no 
part in Jewish politics, having been de- 
feated by the Chaldeans at Carchemish (2 
Kings 24 : 7 ; Jer. 46 : 2). Palestine was 
now invaded and conquered by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Jehoiakim was taken prisoner and 
carried captive to Babylon (2 Chr. 36 : 6, 7). 
It was at this time that Daniel also and 
his three companions were taken captive to 
Babylon (Dan. 1 : 1, 2). 

Nebuchadnezzar reinstated Jehoiakim on 
his throne, but treated him as a vassal king. 
In the year after this Jeremiah caused his 
prophecies to be read by Baruch in the 
court of the temple. Jehoiakim, hearing of 
this, had them also read in the royal palace 
before himself. The words displeased him, 
and taking the roll from the hands of 
Baruch he cut it in pieces and threw it into 
the fire (Jer. 36 : 23). During his disastrous 
reign there was a return to the old idolatry 
and corruption of the days of Manasseh. 

After three years of subjection to Baby- 
lon, Jehoiakim withheld his tribute, and 
threw off the yoke (2 Kings 24 : 2), hoping 
to make himself independent. Nebuchad- 



nezzar sent bands of Chaldeans, Syrians, 
and Ammonites (2 Kings 24 : 7) to chastise 
his rebellious vassal. They cruelly harassed 
the whole country (comp. Jer. 49 : 1-6). 
The king came to a violent death, and his 
bodj'^ having been thrown over the wall of 
Jerusalem, to convince the besieging army 
that he was dead, after having been dragged 
away, was buried beyond the gates of Jeru- 
salem "with the burial of an ass," B.C. 599 
(Jer. 22 : 18, 19 ; 36 : 30). Nebuchadnezzar 
placed his son Jehoiakin on the throne, 
wishing still to retain the kingdom of Judah 
as tributary to him. 

Jehoi^akin succeeded his father Jehoi- 
akim (B.C. 599) when only eighteen years of 
age, and reigned for one himdred days (2 
Chr. 36 : 9). He is also called Jeconiah 
(Jer. 24:1; 27:20, etc.), and Coniah (22: 
24; 37 : 1). He was succeeded by his uncle, 
Mattaniah = Zedekiah {q.v.). He was the 
last direct heir to the Jewish crown. He 
was carried captive to Babylon by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, along with the flower of the 
nobility, all the leading men in Jerusalem, 
and a great body of the general population, 
some thirteen thousand in all (2 Kings 24 : 
12-16 ; Jer. 52 : 28). After an imprisonment 
of thirty-seven years (Jer. 52:31, 33) he 
was liberated by Evil-Merodach, and per- 
mitted to occupy a place in the king's 
household and sit at his table, receiving 
"every day a portion until the day of his 
death, all the days of his life " (52 : 32-34). 

Jehoia'rib — Jehovah defends — a priest at 
Jerusalem, head of one of the sacerdotal 
courses (1 Chr. 9 : 10 ; 24 : 7). His " course " 
went up from Babylon after the Exile (Ezra 
2 : 36-39 ; Neh. 7 : 39-42). 

Jehon''adab — Jehovah is liberal; or, 
whom Jehovah im2oels. (1.) A son of 
Shimeah, and nephew of David. It was he 
that gave the fatal wicked advice to Am- 
non, the heir to the throne (2 Sam. 13 : 3-6). 
He was very "subtil," but unx3rincipled. 

(2.) A son of Rechab, the founder of a 
tribe who bound themselves by a vow to 
abstain from wine (Jer. 35 : 6-19). There 
were different settlements of Rechabites 
(Judg. 4:11; 1:16; 1 Chr. 2:55). (See 
Rechabite.) His interview and alliance 
with Jehu are mentioned in 2 Kings 10 : 

24 



JEHONATHAN 



364 



JEHOSHAPHAT 



15-23. He went with Jehu in his chariot 
to Samaria. 

Jehon^athan — whom Jehovah gave. (1.) 
One of the stewards of David's store-houses 
(1 Chr. 27 : 25). 

(2.) A Levite who taught the law to the 
people of Judah (2 Chr. 17 : 8). 

(3.) Neh. 10:18. 

Jeho^ram — Jehovah-exalted. (1.) Son of 
Toi, king of Hamath, sent by his father to 
congratulate David on the occasion of his 
victory over Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8 : 10). 

(2. ) A Levite of the family of Gershom 
(1 Chr. 26 : 25). 

(3. ) A priest sent by Jehoshaphat to in- 
struct the people in Judah (2 Chr. 17 : 8). 

(4.) The son of Ahab and Jezebel, and 
successor to his brother Ahaziah on the 
throne of Israel. He reigned twelve years 
—B.C. 896-884 (2 Kings 1 : 17 ; 3:1). His 
first work was to reduce to subjection the 
Moabites, who had asserted their independ- 
ence in the reign of his brother. Jehosha- 
phat, king of Judah, assisted Jehoram in 
this effort. He was further helped by his 
ally the king of Edom. Elisha went forth 
with the confederated army (2 Kings 3 : 1- 
19), and at the solicitation of Jehoshaphat 
encouraged the army with the assurance 
from the Lord of a speedy victory. The 
Moabites under Mesha their king were 
utterly routed and their cities destroyed. 
At Kir-haraseth Mesha made a final stand. 
The Israelites refrained from pressing their 
victory further, and retu.rned to their own 
land. 

Elisha afterwards again befriended Jeho- 
ram when a war broke out between the 
Syrians and Israel, and in a remarkable 
way brought that war to a bloodless close 
(2 Kings 6 : 23). But Jehoram, becoming 
confident in his own power, sank into 
idolatry, and brought upon himself and his 
land another Syrian invasion, which led to 
great suffering and distress in Samaria (2 
Kings 6 : 30, 33). By a remarkable provi- 
dential interposition the city was saved 
from utter destruction, and the Syrians 
were put to flight (2 Kings 7 : 6-15). 

Jehoram was wounded in a battle with 
the Syrians at Ramah, and obliged to re- 
turn to Jezreel (2 Kings 8 : 29 ; 9 : 14, 15), 



and soon after the army proclaimed their 
leader Jehu king of Israel, and revolted 
from their allegiance to Jehoram (2 Kings 
9), Jehoram was pierced by an arrow from 
Jehu's bow on the piece of ground at Jez- 
reel which Ahab had taken from Naboth, 
and there he died (2 Kings 21 : 21-29). 

(5.) The eldest son and successor of Je- 
hoshaphat, king of Judah. He reigned 
eight years (B.C. 892-885) alone as king of 
Judah, having been previously for some 
years associated with his father (2 Chr. 
21:5, 20; 2 Kings 8:16). His wife was 
Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jez- 
ebel. His daughter Jehosheba was mar- 
ried to the high priest Jehoiada. He sank 
into gross idolatry, and brought upon him- 
self and his kingdom the anger of Jehovah. 
The Edomites revolted from under his 
yoke, and the Philistines and the Arabians 
and Cushites invaded the land, and carried 
away great spoil, along with Jehoram's 
wives and all his children, except Ahaziah. 
He died a painful death from a fearful 
malady, and was refused a place in the 
sepulchre of the kings (2 Kings 8 : 16-24 ; 2 
Chr. 21). 

Jehosh^aphat — Jehovah-judged. (1.) 
One of David's body-guard (1 Chr. 11 : 43). 

(2.) One of the priests who accompanied 
the removal of the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 
15 : 24). 

(3.) Son of Ahilud, "recorder "or anna- 
list under David and Solomon (2 Sam. 8 : 
16), a state officer of high rank, chancellor 
or vizier of the kingdom. 

(4.) Solomon's purveyor in Issachar (1 
Kings 4 : 17). 

(5. ) The son and successor of Asa, king 
of Judah. After fortifying his kingdom 
against Israel (2 Chr. 17 : 1, 2), he set him- 
self to cleanse the land of idolatry (1 Kings 
22 : 43). In the third year of his reign he 
sent out priests and Levites over the land 
to instruct the people in the law (2 Chr. 
17 : 7-9). He enjoyed a great measure of 
peace and prosperity, the blessing of God 
resting on the people ' ' in their basket and 
their store." 

The great mistake of his reign was his 
entering into an alliance with Ahab, the 
king of Israel, which involved him in much 



JEHOSHAPHAT 



365 



JEHOVAH 



disgrace, and brought disaster on his king- 
dom (1 Kings 22 : 1-33). Escaping from 
the bloody battle of Ramoth-gilead, the 
prophet Jehu (2 Chr. 19 : 1-3) reproached 
him for the course he had been pursuing, 
whereupon he entered with rigour on his 
former course of opposition to all idolatry, 
and of deepening interest in the worship of 
God and in the righteous government of 
the people (2 Chr. 19 : 4-11). 

Again he entered into an alliance with 
Ahaziah, the king of Israel, for the purpose 
of carrying on maritime commerce with 
Ophir. But the fleet that was then 
equipped at Ezion-gaber was speedily 
wrecked. A new fleet was fitted out Avith- 
out the co-operation of the king of Israel, 
and although it was successful, the trade 
was not prosecuted (2 Chr. 20 : 35-37 ; 1 
Kings 22 : 48-49). 

He subsequently joined Jehoram, king 
of Israel, in a war against the Moabites, 
who Avere under tribute to Israel. This 
war was successful. The Moabites were 
subdued ; but the dreadful act of Mesha in 
offering his own son a sacrifice on the walls 
of Kir-haresheth in the sight of the armies 
of Israel filled him with horror, and he 
A\athdrew and returned to his own land (2 
Kings 3 : 4-27). 

The last most notable event of his reign 
was that recorded in 2 Chr. 20. The 
Moabites formed a great and powerful con- 
federacy with the surrounding nations, and 
came against Jehoshaphat. The allied 
forces were encamped at Engedi. The 
king and his people were filled with alarm, 
and betook themselves to God in prayer. 
The king prayed in the court of the temple 
— " O our God, wilt thou not judge them? 
for we have no might against this great 
company that cometh against us." Amid 
the silence that followed, the voice of Ja- 
haziel the Levite was heard announcing 
that on the morrow all this great host 
would be overthrown. So it was, for they 
quarrelled among themselves, and slew one 
another, leaving to the people of Judah 
only to gather the rich spoils of the slain. 
This was recognized as a great deliverance 
wrought for them by God (B.C. 890). Soon 
after this Jehoshaphat died, after a reign 



of twenty-five years, being sixty years of 
age, and was succeeded by his son Jehoram 
(2 Kings 22 : 50). He had this testimony, 
that "he soiight the Lord with all his 
heart " (2 Chr. 22 : 9). The kingdom of 
Judah was never more prosperous than 
under his reign. 

(6.) The son of Nimshi, and father of 
Jehu, king of Israel (2 Kings 9 : 2, 14). 

Jehosh^aphat, Valley of, mentioned in 
Scripture only in Joel 3 : 2, 12. This is the 
name given in modern times to the valley 
betAveen Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives, 
and the Kidron flows through it. Here 
Jehoshaphat overthrew the confederated 
enemies of Israel (Ps. 83 : 6-8) ; and in this 
valley also God was to overthrow the 
Tyrians, Zidonians, etc. (Joel 3 : 4, 19), with 
an utter overthrow. This has been fulfilled ; 
but Joel speaks of the final conflict, when 
God would destroy all Jerusalem's enemies, 
of whom Tyre and Zidon, etc., were types. 
The "valley of Jehoshaphat" may there- 
fore be simply regarded as a general term 
for the theatre of God's final judgments on 
the enemies of Israel. 

This valley has from ancient times been 
used by the Jews as a burial-ground. It is 
all over paved with flat stones as tomb- 
stones, bearing on them Hebrew inscrip- 
tions. 

Jehosh'^eba — Jeliovali-sxoearing — the 
daughter of Jehoram, the king of Israel. 
She is called Jehoshabeath in 2 Chr. 22 : 11. 
She was the only f»rincess of the royal 
house who was married to a high priest — 
Jehoiada (2 Chr. 22 : 11). 

Jehc'vah, the special and significant 
name (not merely an appellative title such 
as Lord) by which God revealed himself to 
the ancient Hebrews (Ex. 6 : 2, 3). This 
name, the Tetragrammaton of the Greeks, 
was held by the later Jews to be so sacred 
that it was never pronounced except by the 
high priest on the great Day of Atonement, 
when he entered into the most holy place. 
Whenever this name occurred in the sacred 
books they pronounced it, as they still do, 
" Adonai" {i.e., Lord), thus using another 
word in its stead. The Massorets gave to 
it the vowel-points appropriate to this word. 
This Jewish practice was founded on a false 



JEHOYAH-JIREH 



366 



JEHU 



interpretation of Lev. 24 : 16. The mean- 
ing of the word aj^pears from Ex. 3 : 14 to 
be "the michanging, eternal, self -existent 
God," the " I am that I am," a covenant- 
keeping God, (Comp. Mai. 3:6; Hos. 12 : 
6; Rev. 1:4, 8.) 

The Hebrew name "Jehovah" is gener- 
ally translated in the Authorized Version 
(and the Revised Version has not departed 
from this rule) by the word Lord printed 
in small capitals, to distinguish it from the 
rendering of the Hebrew Adondi and the 
Greek Kurios, which are also rendered 
Lord, but printed in the usual type. The 
Hebrew word is translated ' ' Jehovah " only 
in Ex. 6 : 3 ; Ps. 83 : 18 ; Isa. 12 : 2 ; 26 : 4, 
and in the compound names mentioned 
below. 

It is worthy of notice that this name is 
never used in the LXX. , the Samaritan Pen- 
tateuch, the Apocrypha, or in the New 
Testament. It is found, however, on the 
"Moabite stone" [q.v.), and consequently 
it must have been in the days of Mesha so 
commonly pronounced by the Hebrews as 
to be familiar to their heathen neighbours. 

Jeho'vah-ji'reh — Jehovah will see; i.e., 
will provide — the name given by Abraham 
to the scene of his offering up the ram which 
was caught in the thicket on Mount Moriah. 
The expression used in Gen. 22:14, "in 
the mount of the Lord it shall be seen," 
has been regarded as equivalent to the say- 
ing, "Man's extremity is God's oppor- 
tunity." 

Jeho^vah-nis^si — Jehovah my banner — 
the title given by Moses to the altar which 
he erected on the hill on the top of which 
he stood with uplifted hands while Israel 
prevailed over their enemies the Amalek- 
ites (Ex. 17 : 15). 

Jeho^vah-sha''loin — Jehovah send peace 
— the name which Gideon gave to the altar 
he erected on the spot at Ophrah where 
the angel appeared to him ( Judg. 6 : 24). 

Jeho^vah-sham'mah — Jehovah is there 
— the symbolical title given by Ezekiel to 
Jerusalem, which was seen by him in vision 
(Ezek. 48 : 35). It was a type of the gospel 
Church. 

Jeho'vah-tsidke'nu — Jehovah our right- 
eousness — rendered in the Authorized Ver- 



sion, " The Lord our righteoiTsness, " a title 
given to the Messiah (Jer. 23:6, marg.), 
and also to Jerusalem (23 : 16, marg. ). 

Jehoz''abad — Jehovah-given. (1.) The 
son of Obed-edom (] Chr. 26 : 4), one of the 
Levite porters. 

(2.) The son of Shoiher, one of the two 
conspirators who j)ut king Jehoash to death 
in Millo in Jerusalem (2 Kings 12 : 21). 

(3.) 2 Chr. 17:18. 

Jehoz^adak — Jehovah-justified — the son 
of the high priest Seraiah at the time of 
the Babylonian exile (1 Chr. 6 : 14, 15). 
He was carried into captivity by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and probably died in Babylon. 
He was the father of Jeshua, or Joshua, 
who returned with Zerubbabel. 

Je'hu — Jehovah is he. (1.) The son of 
Obed, and father of Azariah (1 Chr. 2 : 38). 

(2.) One of the Benjamite sHngers that 
joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 3). 

(3.) The son of Hanani, a prophet of 
Judah (1 Kings 16 : 1, 7 ; 2 Chr. 19 : 2 ; 20 : 
34), who pronounced the sentence of God 
against Baasha, the king of Israel. 

(4.) King of Israel, the son of Jehosha- 
phat (2 Kings 9 : 2), and grandson of Nimshi. 
The story of his exaltation to the throne is 
deeply interesting. During the progress 
of a war against the Syrians, who were be- 
coming more and more troublesome to Is- 
rael, in a battle at Ramoth-gilead Jeho- 
ram, the king of Israel, had been wounded ; 
and leaving his army there, had returned 
to Jezreel, whither his allj', Ahaziah, king 
of Judah, had also gone on a visit of sym- 
pathy with him (2 Kings 8 : 28, 29). The 
commanders, being left in charge of the 
conduct of the war, met in council ; and 
while engaged in their deliberations, a 
messenger from Elisha appeared in the 
camp, and taking Jehu from the council, 
led him into a secret chamber, and there 
anointed him king over Israel, and imme- 
diately retired and disappeared (2 Kings 
9:5, 6). On being interrogated by his 
companions as to the object of this mys- 
terious visitor, he informed them of what 
had been done, when immediately, with 
the utmost enthusiasm, they blew their 
trumpets and proclaimed him Idng (2 Kings 
9 : 11-14). He then with a chosen band 



JEHUCAL 



367 



JEPHTHAH 



set forth with all speed to Jezreel, where, 
with his own hand, he slew Jehoram, shoot- 
ing him through the heart with an arrow 
(9 : 24). The king of Judah, when trjdng 
to escape, was fatally wounded by one of 
Jehu's soldiers at Beth-gan. On entering 
the city, Jehu commanded the eunuchs of 
the royal palace to cast down Jezebel into 
the street, where her mangled body was 
trodden under foot by the horses. Jehu 
was now master of Jezreel, whence he 
communicated "uith the persons in authority 
in Samaria the cajjital, commanding them 
to apjDear before him on the morrow "with 
the heads of all the royal princes of Sa- 
maria. Accordingly on the morrow seventy 
heads were piled up in two heaps at his 
gate. At "the shearing-house " (2 Kings 10 : 
12-14) other forty-two connected with the 
house of Ahab were put to death (2 Kings 
10 : 14), As Jehu rode on toward Samaria, 
he met Jehonadab {q.v.), whom he took 
into his chariot, and they entered the capi- 
tal together. By a cunning stratagem he 
cut off all the worshippers of Baal found in 
Samaria (2 Kings 10 : 19-25), and desti'oyed 
the temple of the idol (2 Kings 10 : 27). 

Notwithstanding all this apparent zeal 
for the worship of Jehovah, Jehu yet toler- 
ated the worship of the golden calves at 
Dan and Bethel. Eor this the divine dis- 
pleasure rested upon him, and his king- 
dom suffered disaster in war with the 
Syrians (2 Kings 10 : 29-33). He died after 
a reign of twenty-eight years (B.C. 884-856), 
and was buried in Samaria (10:34-36). 
"He was one of those decisive, terrible, 
and ambitious, yet prudent, calculating, 
and passionless men whom God from time 
to time raises up to change the fate of em- 
pires and execute his judgments on the 
earth." He was the first Jewish king who 
came in contact with the Assyrian j^ower 
in the time of Shalmaneser II. 

Jehu'cal — able — the son of Shelemiah. 
He is also called Jucal (Jer. 38 : 1). He was 
one of the two persons whom Zedekiah 
sent to request the prophet Jeremiah to 
pray for the kingdom (Jer. 37 : 3) during 
the time of its final siege by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. He was accompanied by Zephaniah 
iq.v.). 



Jehu^di — a Jew — son of Nethaniah. He 
was sent by the princes to invite Baruch 
to read Jeremiah's roll to them (Jer. 36 : 
14, 21). 

Jei'el — snatched aicay hy God. (1.) A 
descendant of Benjamin (1 Chr. 9 : 35 ; 8 : 
29). 

(2.) One of the Levites who took part in 
praising God on the removal of the ark to 
Jerusalem (1 Chr. 16 : 5). 

(3.) 2 Chr. 29 : 13. A Levite of the sons 
of Asaph. 

(4.) 2 Chr. 26:11. Ascribe. 

(5. ) 1 Chr. 5:7. A Reubenite chief. 

(6.) One of the chief Levites, who made 
an offering for the restoration of the Pass- 
over by Josiah (2 Chr. 35 : 9). 

(7.) Ezra 8: 13. 

(8.) Ezra 10 : 43. 

Jemi^ma — dove — the eldest of Job's 
three daughters bom after his time of trial 
(Job 42 : 14). 

Jeph^thah — tchom God sets free, or the 
breaker through — a "mighty man of valour" 
who delivered Israel from the oppression 
of the Ammonites (Judg. 11 : 1-33), and 
judged Israel six years (12 : 7). He has 
been described as "a wild, daring, Gilead 
mountaineer— a sort of warrior Elijah." 
After forty -five years of comparative quiet 
Israel again apostatized, and in "process 
of time the children of Ammon made war 
against Israel " (11 : 5). In their distress 
the elders of Gilead wenj; to fetch Jeph- 
thah out of the land of Tob, to which he 
had fled when driven out wrongfully by his 
brothers from his father's inheritance (2), 
and the people made him their head and 
captain. The "elders of Gilead " in their 
extremity summoned him to their aid, 
and he at once undertook the conduct of 
the war against Ammon. Twice he sent 
an embassy to the king of Ammon, but in 
vain. ^Yar was inevitable. The people 
obeyed his summons, and "the spirit of 
the Lord came upon him, " Before engag- 
ing in war he vowed that if successful he 
would offer as a " burnt -offering " what- 
ever would come out of the door of his 
house first to meet him on his return. 
The defeat of the Ammonites was com- 
plete. "He smote them from Aroer, even 



JEPHTHAH 



368 



JEREMIAH 



until thou come to Minnith, even twenty 
cities, and unto the plain of the vineyards 
[Heb. 'Abel Kerdmimj, with a very great 
slaughter " ( Judg. 11 : 33). The men of Eph- 
raim regarded themselves as insulted in not 
having been called by Jephthah to go vnth 
him to war against Ammon. This led to 
a war between the men of Gilead and 
Ephraim (12 : 4), in which many of the 
Ephraimites perished. (See Shibboleth.) 
"Then died Jephthah the Gileadite, and 
was buried in one of the cities of Gilead " 
(7). 

Jeph'thah's vow (Judg. 11:30, 31). 
After a crushing defeat of the Ammonites, 
Jephthah returned to his own house, and 
the first to welcome him was his own 
daughter. This was a terrible blow to the 
victor, and in his despair he cried out, 
"Alas, my daughter! thou hast brought 

me very low I have opened my mouth 

unto the Lord, and cannot go back. " With 
singular nobleness of spirit she answered, 
"Do to me according to that which hath 
proceeded out of thy mouth." She only 
asked two months to bewail her maiden- 
hood with her companions upon the moun- 
tains. She utters no reproach against her 
father's rashness, and is content to yield 
her life since her father has returned a con- 
queror. But was it so? Did Jephthah 
offer up his daughter as a "burnt-offer- 
ing"? This question has been much de- 
bated, and there are many able com-men- 
tators who argue that such a sacrifice was 
actually offered. We are constrained, 
however, by a consideration of Jephthah's 
known piety as a true worshipper of Jeho- 
vah, his evident acquaintance with the law 
of Moses, to which such sacrifices were ab- 
horrent (Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20 : 2-5 ; Dent. 12 : 
31), and the place he holds in the roll of 
the heroes of the faith in the Epistle to the 
Hebrews (11 : 32), to conclude that she was 
only doomed to a life of perpetual celibacy. 

Jephun^neh — nimble, or a beholder. 
(1.) The father of Caleb, who was Joshua's 
companion in exploring Canaan (Num. 13 : 
6), a Kenezite (Josh. 14 : 14). 

(2.) One of the descendants of Asher 
(1 Chr. 7 : 38). 

Jerah^meel — loving God. (1.) The son 



of Hezron, the brother of Caleb (1 Chr. 2 : 
9, 25, 26, etc.). 

(2.) The son of Kish, a Levite (1 Chr. 
24 : 29). 

(3.) Son of Hammelech (Jer. 36 : 26). 

Jerenii''ah — raised up or appointed by 
Jehovah. (1.) A Gadite who joined David 
in the wilderness (1 Chr. 12 : 10). 

(2.) A Gadite warrior (1 Chr. 12 : 13). 

(3.) A Benjamite slinger who joined 
David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 4). 

(4. ) One of the chiefs of the tribe of Ma- 
nasseh on the east of Jordan (1 Chr. 5 : 24). 

(5.) The father of Hamutal (2 Kings 23 : 
31), the wife of Josiah. 

(6.) One of the "greater prophets" of 
the Old Testament, son of Hilkiah {q.v.\ 
a priest of Anathoth (Jer. 1:1; 32 : 6). 
He was called to the prophetical office 
when still young (1 : 6), in the thirteenth 
year of Josiah (b.o. 628). He left his 
native place, and went to reside in Jeru- 
salem, where he greatly assisted Josiah in 
his work of reformation (2 Kings 23 : 1-25). 
The death of this pious king was bewailed 
by the prophet as a national calamity 
(2 Chr. 35 : 25). 

During the three years of the reign of Je- 
hoahaz we find no reference to Jeremiah, but 
in the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim 
the enmity of the people against him broke 
out in bitter persecution, and he was placed 
apparently under restraint (Jer. 36:5). In the 
fourth year of Jehoiakim he was commanded 
to write the predictions given to him, and 
to read them to the people on the fast-day. 
This was done by Baruch his servant in 
his stead, and produced much public ex- 
citement. The roll was read to the king. 
In his recklessness he seized the roll, and 
cut it to pieces, and cast it into the fire, 
and ordered both Baruch and Jeremiah to 
be apprehended. Jeremiah procured an- 
other roll, and wrote in it the words of the 
roll the king had destroyed, and "many 
like words " besides (Jer. 36 : 32). 

He remained in Jerusalem, uttering from 
time to time his words of warning, but 
without effect. He was there when Nebu- 
chadnezzar besieged the city (Jer. 37 : 4, 5), 
B.C. 589. The rumour of the approach of 
the Egyptians to aid the Jews in this crisis 



JEREMIAH 



369 



JERICHO 



induced the Chaldeans to withdraw and 
return to their own land. This, however, 
was only for a time. The i^rophet, in 
answer to his prayer, received a message 
from God announcing that the Chaldeans 
would come again and take the city, and 
burn it with fire (37 : 7, 8). The princes, 
in their anger at such a message by Jere- 
miah, cast him into prison (37 : 15-38 : 13). 
He was still in confinement when the city 
was taken (b.c. 588). The Chaldeans re- 
leased him, and showed him great kind- 
ness, allowing him to choose the place of 
his residence. He accordingly went to 
Mizpah with Gedaliah, who had been made 
governor of Judea. Johanan succeeded 
Gedaliah, and refusing to listen to Jere- 
miah's counsels, went down into Egypt, 
taking Jeremiah and Baruch with him ( Jer. 
43 : 6). There probably the j)roj)het spent 
the remainder of his life, in vain seeking still 
to turn the people to the Lord, from whom 
they had so long revolted (44). He lived 
till the reign of Evil-Merodach, son of 
Nebuchadnezzar, and must have been about 
ninety years of age at his death. We have 
no authentic record of his death. He may 
have died at Tahpanhes, or, according to a 
tradition, may have gone to Babylon with 
the army of Nebuchadnezzar ; but of this 
there is nothing certain. 

Jeremi'ah, Book of, consists of tw^enty- 
three separate and indejDendent sections, 
arranged in five books. I. The introduc- 
tion, ch. 1. II. Reproofs of the sins of 
the Jews, consisting of seven sections — 
(1.) ch. 2; (2.) ch. 3-6; (3.) ch. 7-10; 
(4.) ch. 11-13; (5.) ch. 14-17:18; (6.) ch. 
17:19-ch. 20; (7.)ch. 21-24. III. A general 
revieAv of all nations, in two sections — 
(1.) ch. 46-49 ; (2.) ch. 25 ; with an histori- 
cal appendix of three sections — (1. ) ch. 26 ; 
(2.) ch. 27; (3.) ch. 28, 29. IV. Two sec- 
tions picturing the hopes of better times — 
(1.) ch. 30, 31 ; (2.) ch. 32, 33; to which is 
added an historical appendix in three sec- 
tions— (1.) ch. 34:1-7; (2.) ch. 34:8-22; 
(3.) ch. 35. V. The conclusion, in two 
sections— (1.) ch. 36 ; (2.) ch. 45. 

In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is 
stipposed to have added three sections — 
viz., ch. 37-39 ; 40-43; and 44. 



The principal Messianic prophecies are 
found in 23 : 1-8 ; 30 : 31-40 ; and 33 : 14-26. 

Jeremiah's prophecies are noted for the 
frequent repetitions found in them of the 
same words and phrases and imagery. 

The LXX. Version of this book is, in 
its arrangement and in other jjarticulars, 
singularly at variance with the original. 
The LXX. omits 10 : 6-8 ; 27 : 19-22 ; 29 : 
16-20 ; 33 : 14-26 ; 39 : 4-13 ; 52 : 2, 3, 15, 
28-30, etc. About 2,700 words in all of 
the original are omitted. These omissions, 
etc., are capricious and arbitrary, and ren- 
der the version unreliable. 

Jeri^ah — founded by Jehovah — the first 
of the "sons" of Hebron (1 Chr. 23:19; 
24 : 23), called also Jerijah (1 Chr. 26 : 31). 

Jeri''bai — contention — one of David's 
bodj^-guard (1 Chr. 11 : 46). 

Jer'icho — place of fragrance — a fenced 
city in the midst of a vast grove of palm 
trees, in the plain of Jordan, over against 
the place where that river was crossed by 
the Israelites (Josh. 3 : 16). Its site was 
near the "Ain cs-Sultan — Elisha's Fountain 
(2 Kings 2 : 19-22) — about 5 miles west of 
Jordan. It was the most important city 
in the Jordan valley (Num. 22 : 1 ; 34 : 15), 
and the strongest fortress in all the land 
of Canaan. It was the key to Western 
Palestine. 

This city was taken in a very remark- 
able manner by the Israelites (Josh. 6). 
God gave it into their hands. The city was 
" accursed " (Heb. herern, "devoted" to Je- 
hovah), and accordingly (Josh. 6 : 17 ; comp. 
Lev. 27 : 28, 29 ; Deut. 13 : 16) all the in- 
habitants and all the spoil of the city 
were to be destroyed, "only the silver, and 
the gold, and the vessels of brass and of 
iron" were reserved and "put into the 
treasury of the house of Jehovah " (Josh. 
6 : 24 ; comp. Num. 31 : 22, 23, 50-54). Only 
Rahab "and her father's household, and 
all that she had," were preserved from de- 
struction, according to the promise of the 
spies (Josh. 2 : 14). 

The ban pronounced against this doomed 
city extended to all coming time: "Cursed 
be the man that raiseth up and buildeth 
this city Jericho " (Josh. 6 : 26). This curse, 
however, does not apply to the mere re- 



JERICHO 



370 



JERIMOTH 



building of Jericho, but rather to its resto- 
ration as a fenced city or a fortified place. 
This city was assigned to the tribe of Ben- 
jamin (Josh. 18 : 21), and it was inhabited 
in the time of the Judges ( Judg. 3 : 13 ; 
.2 Sam. 10 : 5). It is not again mentioned 
till the time of David (2 Sam. 10:5). 
" Children of Jericho " were among the 
captives who returned under Zerubbabel 
(Ezra 2:34; Neh. 7:36). Hiel [q.v.) the 
Beth elite attempted to make it once more 



a fortified city (1 Kings 16 : 34). Between 
the beginning and the end of his undertak- 
ing all his children were cut off. 

In New Testament times Jericho stood 
some distance to the south-east of the 
ancient one, and near the opening of the 
Valley of Achor. It was a rich and flour- 
ishing town, having a considerable trade, 
and celebrated for its palm trees, which 
adorned the plain around. It was visited 
by our Lord on his last journey to Jerusa- 




lem. Here he gave sight to two blind men 
(Matt. 20:29-34; Mark 10:46-52), and 
brought salvation to the house of Zacchseus 
the publican (Luke 19 : 2-10). 

The poor hamlet of Er-Rtha, the repre- 
sentative of modern Jericho, is situated 
some two miles farther to the east. It is in 
a ruinous condition, having been destroyed 
by the Turks in 1840. "The soil of the 
plain," about the middle of which the 
ancient city stood, " is unsurj)assed in fer- 



tility; there is abundance of water for 
irrigation, and many of the old aqueducts 
are about perfect ; yet nearly the whole 

plain is waste and desolate The climate 

of Jericho is exceedingly hot and unhealthy. 
This is accounted for by the dei^ression of 
the plain, which is about 1,200 feet below 
the level of the sea. " 

Jer'imoth — heights. (1.) One of the 
sons of Bela (1 Chr. 7 : 7). 

(2.) 1 Chr. 24 : 30, a Merarite Levite. 



JEROBOAM 



371 



JERUBBESHETH 



(3.) A Benjamite slinger who joined 
David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 5). 

(4.) A Levitical musician under Heman 
his father (1 Chr. 25 : 4). 

(5.) 1 Chr. 27 : 19, ruler of Naphtali. 

(6.) One of David's sons (2 Chr. 11 : 18). 

(7.) A Levite, one of the overseers of the 
temple offerings (2 Chr. 31 : 13) in the reign 
of Hezekiah. 

Jerobo'^am — increase of the people. 
(1.) The son of Nebat (1 Kings 11:26-39), 
"an Ephrathite," the first king of the ten 
tribes, over whom he reigned twenty-two 
years (B.C. 976-954). He was the son of 
a vddow of Zereda, and while still young 
was promoted by Solomon to be chief 
superintendent of the "burden" — i.e., of 
the bands of forced labourers. Influenced 
by the words of the prophet Ahijah, he 
began to form conspiracies with the view 
of becoming king of the ten tribes ; but 
these having been discovered, he fled to 
Egypt (1 Kings 11 : 29-40), where he re- 
mained for a length of time under the pro- 
tection of Shishak I. On the death of Solo- 
mon, the ten tribes, having revolted, sent 
to invite him to become their king. The 
conduct of Rehoboam favoured the designs 
of Jeroboam, and he was accordingly pro- 
claimed "king of Israel" (1 Kings 12: 
1-20). He rebuilt and fortified Shechem 
as the capital of his kingdom. He at once 
adopted means to perpetuate the division 
thus made between the two parts of the 
Idngdom, and erected at Dan and Bethel, 
the two extremities of his kingdom, "golden 
calves, " which he set up as symbols of Je- 
hovah, enjoining the people not any more 
to go up to worship at Jerusalem, but to 
bring their offerings to the shrines he had 
erected. Thus he became distinguished as 
the man "who made Israel to sin." This 
policy Avas followed by all the succeeding 
kings of Israel. 

While he was engaged in offering incense 
at Bethel, a prophet from Judah appeared 
before him with a warning message from 
the Lord. Attempting to arrest the pro- 
phet for his bold words of defiance, his 
hand was "dried up," and the altar before 
which he stood Avas rent asunder. At his 
urgent entreaty his "hand was restored 



him again " (1 Kings 13 : 1-6, 9 ; comp. 
2 Kings 23 : 15) ; but the miracle made no 
abiding impression on him. His reign was 
one of constant war with the house of 
Judah. He died soon after his son Abijah 
(1 Kings 14 : 1-18). 

(2.) Jeroboam II., the son and successor 
of Jehoash, and the fourteenth king of 
Israel, over which he ruled for forty-one 
years, B.C. 825-784 (2 Kings 14:23). He 
followed the example of the first Jeroboam 
in keeping up the worship of the golden 
calves (2 Kings 14:24). His reign was con- 
temporary Avith those of Amaziah (2 Kings 
14 : 23) and Uzziah (15 : 1), kings of Judah. 
He was victorious over the Syrians (13 : 4 ; 
14 : 26, 27), and extended Israel to its former 
limits, from "the entering of Hamath to 
the sea of the plain " (14 : 25 ; Amos 6 : 14). 
His reign of forty-one years was the most 
prosperous that Israel had ever known as 
yet. With all this outward prosperity, 
however, iniquity widely prevailed in the 
land (Amos 2 : 6-8 ; 4 : 1 ; 6:6; Hos. 4 : 12- 
14). The prophets Hosea (1:1), Joel (3: 
16 ; Amos 1 : 12), Amos (1 : 1), and Jonah (2 
Kings 14 : 25) lived during his reign. He 
died, and was buried with his ancestors 
(14 : 29). He was succeeded by his son 
Zachariah [q.v.). 

His name occurs in Scripture only in 
2 Kings 13 : 13 ; 14 : 16, 23, 27, 28, 29 ; 15 : 
1, 8 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 17 ; Hos. 1:1; Amos 1:1; 
7 : 9, 10, 11. In all other passages it is 
Jeroboam the son of Nebat that is meant. 

Jero'ham — cherished; who finds mercy. 
(1.) Father of Elkanah, and grandfather of 
the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 1 : 1). 

(2.) The father of Azareel, the "captain" 
of the tribe of Dan (1 Chr. 27 : 22). 

(3.) 1 Chr. 12 : 7 ; a Benjamite. 

(4. ) 1 Chr. 23 : 1 ; one whose son assisted 
in placing Joash on the throne. 

(5. ) 1 Chr. 9 : 8 ; a Benjamite. 

(6. ) 1 Chr. 9 : 12 ; a priest, perhaps the 
same as in Neh. 11 : 12. 

Jeru'b''baal — contender v:ith Baal; or, 
let Baal plead — a surname of Gideon; a 
name given to him because he destroyed 
the altar of Baal ( Judg. 6: 32; 7:1; 8:29; 
35 : 9). 

Jerub'bestxeth — contender icith the 



JERUEL 



372 



JERUSALEM 



shame; i.e., idol — a surname also of Gideon 
(2 Sam. 11 : 21). 

Jeru^el — founded by God — a "desert " on 
the ascent from the valley of the Dead 
Sea towards Jerusalem. It lay beyond 
the wilderness of Tekoa, in the direction of 
Engedi (1 Chr. 20 : 16, 20). It corresponds 
with the tract of country now called el- 
Hasasah. 

Jeru^salem, called also Salem, Ariel, 
Jebus, the "city of God," the "holy city;" 
by the modern Arabs el-Khuds, meaning 
"the holy;" once "the city of Judah" 
(2 Chr. 25 : 28). This name is in the ori- 
ginal in the dual form, and means "pos- 
session of peace," or "foundation of 
peace." The dual form probably refers to 
the two mountains on which it was built — 
viz. , Zion and Moriah ; or, as some sup- 
pose, to the two parts of the city, the 
"upper" and the "lower city." Jeru- 
salem is a "mountain city enthroned on a 
mountain fastness " (comp. Ps. 68 : 15, 16 ; 
87:1; 125:1; 76:1, 2; 66:4). It stands 
on the edge of one of the highest table- 
lands in Palestine, and is surrounded on the 
south-eastern, the southern, and the western 
sides by deep and precipitous ravines. 

It is first mentioned in Scripture under 
the name Salem (Gen, 14 : 18 ; comp. Ps. 
76 : 2). When first mentioned under the 
name Jerusalem, Adonizedek was its king 
(Josh. 10 : 1). It is afterwards named 
among the cities of Benjamin (Judg. 19 : 
10 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 4) ; but in the time of David 
it was divided between Benjamin and Ju- 
dah. After the death of Joshua the city 
was taken and set on fire by the men of 
Judah (Judg. 1 : 1-8) ; but the Jebusites 
were not wholly driven out of it. The city 
is not again mentioned till we are told 
that David brought the head of Goliath 
thither (1 Sam. 17 : 54). David afterwards 
led his forces against the Jebusites still 
residing within its walls, and drove them 
out, fixing his own dwelling on Zion, 
which he called "the city of David" (1 
Sam. 5:5-9; 1 Chr. 12:4-8). Here he 
built an altar to the Lord on the threshing- 
floor of Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sam. 24 : 
15-25), and thither he brought up the ark 
of the covenant and placed it in the new 



tabernacle which he had prepared for it. 
Jerusalem now became the capital of the 
kingdom. 

After the death of David, Solomon built 
the temple, a house for the name of the 
Lord, on Mount Moriah (B.C. 1010). He 
also greatly strengthened and adorned the 
city, and it became the great centre of all 
the civil and religious affairs of the nation 
(Deut. 12:5; comp. 13:14; 14:23; 16: 
11-16; Ps. 122). 

After the disruption of the kingdom on 
the accession to the throne of Rehoboam, 
the son of Solomon, Jerusalem became the 
capital of the kingdom of the two tribes. 
It was subsequently often taken and re- 
taken by the Egyptians, the Assyrians, 
and by the kings of Israel (2 Kings 14 : 13, 
14 ; 18 : 15, 16 ; 23 : 33-35 ; 24 : 14 ; 2 Chr. 
12 : 9; 26 : 9 ; 27 : 3, 4; 29 : 3; 32 : 30; 33 : 11), 
till finally, for the abounding iniquities of 
the nation, after a siege of three years, it 
was taken and utterly destroyed, its walls 
razed to the ground, and its temple and 
palaces consumed by fire, by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the king of Babylon (2 Kings 25 ; 
2 Chr. 36; Jer. 39), B.C. 588. The deso- 
lation of the city and the land was com- 
pleted by the retreat of the principal Jews 
into Egypt (Jer. 40-44), and by the final 
carrying captive into Babylon of all that 
still remained in the land (52 : 3), so that it 
was left without an inhabitant (B.C. 582). 
Compare the predictions, Deut. 28; Lev. 
26 : 14-39. 

But the streets and walls of Jerusalem 
were again to be built, in troublous times 
(Dan. 9 : 16, 19, 25), after a captivity of 
seventy years. This restoration was begun 
B.C. 536, "in the first year of Cyrus" 
(Ezra 1:2, 3, 5-11). The Books of Ezra 
and Nehemiah contain the history of the 
re-building of the city and temple, and the 
restoration of the kingdom of the Jews, 
consisting of a portion of all the tribes. 
The kingdom thus constituted was for two 
centuries under the dominion of Persia, 
till B.C. 331 ; and thereafter, for about a 
century and a half, under the rulers of the 
Greek empire in Asia, till B.C. 167- For a 
century the Jews maintained their inde- 
pendence under native rulers, the Asmonean 




PLAN OF ANCIENT JERUSALEM. 




PLAN OP MODERN JERUSALEM. 



JERUSALEM 



374 



JERUSALEM 



princes. At the close of this period they 
fell under the rule of Herod and of mem- 
bers of his family, but practically under 
Rome, till the time of the destruction of 
Jerusalem, A.D, 70. The city was then laid 
in ruins. 

The modern Jerusalem by-and-by began 
to be built over the immense beds of rub- 
bish resulting from the overthrow of the 
ancient city ; and whilst it occupies cer- 
tainly the same site, there are no evidences 
that even the lines of its streets are now 
what they were in the ancient city. Till 
A.D. 131 the Jews who still lingered about 
Jerusalem quietly submitted to the Roman 
sway. But in that year the emperor 
(Hadrian), in order to hold them in sub- 
jection, rebuilt and fortified the city. The 
Jews, however, took possession of it, hav- 
ing risen under the leadership of one Bar- 
Chohaba {i.e., "the son of the star") in 
revolt against the Romans. Some four 
years afterwards (a.d. 135), however, they 
were driven out of it with great slaughter, 
and the city was again destroyed ; and over 
its ruins was built a Roman city called 
Aelia Capitolina, a name which it retained 
till it fell under the dominion of the Mo- 
hammedans, when it was called el-Khuds — 
i.e., "the holy." 

In A.D. 326 Helena, mother of the em- 
peror Constantine, made a pilgrimage to 
Jerusalem with the view of discovering 
the places mentioned in the life of our Lord. 
She caused a church to be built on what 
was then s\xpposed to be the place of the 
nativity at Bethlehem. Constantine, ani- 
mated by her example, searched for the 
holy sepulchre, and built over the sup- 
posed site a magnificent church, which was 
completed and dedicated a.d. 335. He 
relaxed the laws against the Jews till this 
time in force, and permitted them once a 
year to visit the city and wail over the de- 
solation of "the holy and beautiful house." 

In A.D. 614 the Persians, after defeating 
the Roman forces of the emperor Hei'a- 
clius, took Jerusalem by storm, and re- 
tained it till A.D. 637, when it was taken by 
the Arabians under the Khalif Omar. It 
remained in their i^ossession till it passed, 
in A.D. 960, under the dominion of the 



Fatimite khalif s of Egypt, and in A.D. 
1073 under the Turcomans. In A.D. 1099 
the crusader Godfrey of Bouillon took the 
city from the Moslems with great slaughter, 
and was elected king of Jerusalem. He 
converted the Mosque, of Omar into a 
Christian cathedral. During the eighty- 
eight years which followed, many churches 
and convents were erected in the holy city. 
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was 
rebuilt during this period, and it alone 
remains to this day. In A.D. 1187 the 
sultan Saladin wrested the city from the 
Christians. From that time to the pres- 
ent day, with few intervals, Jerusalem has 
remained in the hands of the Moslems. 
It has, however, during that period been 
again and again taken and retaken, de- 
molished in great part and rebuilt, no city 
in the world having passed through so 
many vicissitudes. 

In the year 1850 the Greek and Latin 
monks residing in Jerusalem had a fierce 
dispute about the guardianship of what 
are called the "holy places." In this dis- 
pute the emperor Nicholas of Russia sided 
with the Greeks, and Louis Napoleon, the 
emperor of the French, with the Latins. 
This led the Turkish authorities to settle 
the question in a way unsatisfactory to 
Russia. Out of this there sprang the 
Crimean War, which was protracted and 
sanguinary, but which had important con- 
seqiiences in the way of breaking down the 
barriers of Turkish exclusiveness. 

Modern Jerusalem "lies near the summit 
of a broad mountain-ridge, which extends 
without interruption from the plain of 
Esdraelon to a line drawn between the 
southern end of the Dead Sea and the south- 
eastern corner of the Mediterranean. " This 
high, uneven table-land is everywhere from 
20 to 25 geographical miles in breadth. It 
was anciently known as the mountains of 
Ephraim and Judah. 

"Jerusalem is a city of contrasts, and 
differs widely from Damascus, not merely 
because it is a stone town in mountains, 
whilst the latter is a mud city in a plain, 
but because while in Damascus Moslem 
religion and Oriental custom are unmixed 
with any foreign element, in Jerusalem 



JERUSHA 



376 



JESSE 



every form of religion, every nationality of 
East and West, is represented at one time. 

"Jerusalem is quite a small town, the 
circumference of its walls being only 2f 
miles ; yet within this space it contains 
a population of 20,000 [now 45,000] soiils. 
Ten sects or religions are established in 
it, and if their various sub-divisions are 
counted, they amount to a total of twenty- 
four, more than half of which are Chris- 
tian. Prophets and missionaries of no par- 
ticular sect are also not wanting at any 

time in the holy city The city as a 

whole is not beautiful ; its flat-roofed 
houses and dirty lanes are neither pleasing 
nor healthy, and the surrounding chalk 
hills are barren and shapeless. Shechem 
is a fine, well-watered city; Damascus is 
bedded in gardens and bristles with mina- 
rets ; but there is nothing in the site or 
architecture of Jerusalem as a whole which 
can save it from the imputation of ugli- 
ness." — Conder's Tent Work in Palestine. 
(See QuAERiES.) 

Jeru^sha — possession, or possessed; i.e., 
"by a husband " — the wife of Uzziah, and 
mother of king Jotham (2 Kings 15 : 33), 

Jeshai^ah — deliverance of Jehovah. (1.) 
A Kohathite Levite, the father of Joram, 
of the family of Eliezer (1 Chr. 26 : 25) ; 
called also Isshiah (24 : 21). 

(2.) One of the sons of Jeduthun (1 Chr. 
25 : 3, 15). 

(3.) One of the three sons of Hananiah 
(1 Chr. 3 : 21). 

(4.) Son of Athaliah (Ezra 8 : 7). 

(5. ) A Levite of the family of Merari (8:19). 

Jesha''nah, a city of the kingdom of 
Israel (2 Chr. 13 : 19). 

Jeshar''elah — upright toivards God — the 
head of the seventh division of Levitical 
musicians (1 Chr. 25 : 14). 

Jesheb^eab — seat of his father — the head 
of the fourteenth division of priests (1 Chr. 
24 : 13). 



Je'sher — uprightness — the first of the 
three sons of Caleb by Azubah (1 Chr. 2 : 18). 

Jesh''iinon — the waste — probably some 
high waste land to the south of the Dead 
Sea (Num. 21 : 20; 23 : 28; 1 Sam. 23:19, 
24) ; or rather not a proper name at all, but 
simply "the waste" or " wilderness, " the 
district on which the plateau of Ziph {q.v.) 
looks down. 

Jesh^ua. (1.) Head of the ninth priestly 
order (Ezra 2 : 36) ; called also Jeshuah 
(1 Chr. 24 : 11). 

(2.) A Levite appointed by Hezekiah to 
distribute offerings in the priestly cities 
(2 Chr. 31 : 15). 

(3.) Ezra 2: 6; Neh. 7:11. 

(4.) Ezra 2: 40; Neh. 7:43. 

(5.) The son of Jozadak, and high priest 
of the Jews under Zerubbabel (Neh. 7:7; 
12 : 1, 7, 10, 26) ; called Joshua (Hag. 1 : 1, 
12; 2:2, 4; Zech. 3:1, 3, 6, 8, 9). 

(6.) A Levite (Ezra 8 : 33). 

(7.) Neh. 3:19. 

(8. ) A Levite who assisted in the refor- 
mation under Nehemiah (8:7; 9:4, 5). 

(9.) Son of Kadmiel (Neh. 12 : 24). 

(10.) A city of Judah (Neh. 11 : 26). 

(11.) Neh. 8:17; Joshua, the son of Nun. 

Jesh''urun, a poetical name for the 
people of Israel, used in token of affection, 
meaning, "the dear upright people " (Deut. 
32:15; 33:5, 26; Isa. 44:2). 

Jes''se— ;/irm or living — a son of Obed, 
the son of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4 : 17, 22; 
Matt. 1:5, 6; Luke 3:32). He was the 
father of eight sons, the youngest of whom 
was David (1 Sam. 17 : 12), The phrase 
"stem of Jesse " is used for the family of 
David (Isa. 11:1), and "root of Jesse" 
for the Messiah (Isa. 11:10; Rev. 5:5). 
Jesse was a man apparently of wealth and 
position at Bethlehem (1 Sam. 17 : 17, 18, 
20 ; Ps. 78 : 71). The last reference to him 
is of David's procuring for him an asylum 
with the king of Moab (1 Sam. 22 : 3). 



Jesse. 



Eliab, Abinadab, Shammah, Nethaneel, 

Raddai, Ozem, a son not named (1 Chr. 2 : 15), David. 

(Comp. 1 Sam. 16 : 7-10 with 1 Chr. 2 : 13-17.) 



Zeruiah. Abigail. 



Abishai, Joab, Asahel. Amasa. 



JESUS 



377 



JETHRO 



Je^sus. (1.) Joshua, the son of Nun 
(Acts 7 : 45 ; Heb. 4:8; R. V., "Joshua "). 

(2. ) A Jewish Christian surnamed Justus 
(Col. 4 : 11). 

Je'sus, the proper, as Christ is the ofl&cial, 
name of our Lord. To distinguish him 
from others so called, he is spoken of as 
"Jesus of Nazareth" (John 18:7), and 
"Jesus the son of Josei^h " (John G : 42). 

This is the Greek form of the Hebrew 
name Joshua, which was originallj^ Hoshea 
(Num. 13 : 8, 16), but changed by Moses 
into Jehoshua (Num. 13 : 16; 1 Chr. 7 : 27), 
or Joshua. After the Exile it assumed the 
form Jeshua, whence the Greek form Jesus. 
It was given to our Lord to denote the 
object of his mission — to save (Matt. 1 : 21). 

The life of Jesus on earth may be divided 
into two great periods — (1) that of his 
private life, till he was about thirty years 
of age ; and (2) that of his public life, which 
lasted about three years. 

In the " fulness of time " he was born at 
Bethlehem, in the reign of the emperor 
Augustus, of Mary, who was betrothed 
to Joseph, a carpenter (Matt. 1:1; Luke 
3:23; comp. John 7:42). His birth was 
announced to the shepherds (Luke 2 : 8-20). 
Wise men from the east came to Bethlehem 
to see him who was bom "King of the 
Jews," bringing gifts mth them (Matt. 
2 : 1-12). Herod's cruel jealousy led to 
Joseph's flight into Egypt with Mary and 
the infant Jesus, where they tarried till 
the death of this king (Matt. 2:13-23), 
when they returned and settled in Nazareth, 
in Lower Galilee (2 : 23 ; comp. Luke 4 : 16 ; 
John 1:46, etc.). At the age of twelve 
years he went up to Jerusalem to the Pass- 
over with his parents. There, in the tem- 
ple, "in the midst of the doctors," all that 
heard him Avere "astonished at his under- 
standing and answers " (Luke 2 : 41, etc.). 

Eighteen years pass, of which we have 
no record beyond this, that he returned to 
Nazareth and "increased in wisdom and 
stature, and in favour with God and man " 
(Luke 2 : 52). 

He entered on his public ministry when 
he was about thirty years of age. It is 
generally reckoned to have extended to 
about three years. ' ' Each of these years 



had peculiar features of its o\\rv. (1.) The 
first year may be called the year of obscurity, 
both because the records of it which we 
possess are very scanty, and because he 
seems during it to have been only slowly 
emerging into public notice. It was spent 
for the most part in Judea. (2. ) The second 
year was the year of puUic favour, during 
which the country had become thoroughly 
aware of him ; his activity was incessant, 
and his fame rang through the length and 
breadth of the land. It was almost wholly 
passed in Galilee. (3.) The third was the 
year of opjyosition, when the public favour 
ebbed away. His enemies multiplied and 
assailed him with more and more pertina- 
city, and at last he fell a victim to their 
hatred. The fii'st six months of this final 
year were passed in Galilee, and the last six 
in other parts of the land." — Stalker's Life 
of Jesus Christ, p. 45. 

The only reliable sources of wforraation 
regarding the life of Christ on earth are 
the Gospels, which present in historical 
detail the words and the work of Christ in 
so many different aspects. (See Chkist. ) 

Je'ther — surplus; excellence. (1.) Father- 
in-law of Moses (Ex. 4 : 18 marg. ), called 
elsewhere Jethro {([.v.). 

(2.) The oldest of Gideon's seventy sons 
( Judg. 8 : 20). 

(3.) The father of Amasa, David's gen- 
eral (1 Kings 2 : 5, 32) ; called Ithra (2 Sam. 
17 : 25). 

(4.)lChr. 7:38. 

(5. ) 1 Chr. 2 : 32 ; one of Judah's posterity. 

(6.)lChr. 4:17. 

Je'theth — a loeg, or a prince — one of the 
Edomitish kings of Mount Seir (Gen. 36 : 40). 

Jeth''lali — suspended; high — a city on 
the borders of Dan (Josh. 19 : 42). 

Jeth''ro — his excellence, or gain — a prince 
or priest of Midian, who succeeded his 
father Reuel. Moses spent fortj^ years after 
his exile from the Egyptian court as keeper 
of Jethro's flocks. While the Israelites were 
encamped at Sinai, and soon after their 
victory over Amalek, Jethro came to meet 
Moses, bringing with him Zipporah and 
her two sons. They met at the "mount of 
God," and "Moses told him all that the 
Lord had done unto Pharaoh " (Ex. 18 : 8). 



JETUR 



378 



JEZEBEL 



On the following day Jethro, observing 
the multiplicity of the duties devolving on 
Moses, advised him to appoint subordinate 
judges — rulers of thousands, of hundreds, 
of fifties, and of tens — to decide smaller 
matters, leaving only the weightier matters 
to be referred to Moses, to be laid before 
the Lord. This advice Moses adopted 
(Ex. 18). He was also called Hobab {q.v.), 
which was probably his personal name, 
while Jethro was an official name. (See 
Moses. ) 

Je'tur — an enclosure — one of the twelve 
sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 15). 

J ev.^ el— snatched aivay hy God — a de- 
scendant of Zerah (1 Chr. 9 : 6). 

Je^ush — assembler. (1.) The oldest of 
Esau's three sons by Aholibamah (Gen. 
36 : 5, 14, 18). 

(2.) A son of Bilhan, grandson of Ben- 
jamin (1 Chr. 7 : 10). 

(3, ) A Levite, one of the sons of Shimei 
(1 Chr. 23 : 10, 11). 

(4. ) One of the three sons of E-ehoboam 
(2 Chr. 11 : 19). 

(5.) IChr. 8:39. 

Jew, the name derived from the patri- 
arch Judah, at first given to one belonging 
to the tribe of Judah or to the separate 
kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 10 : 6 ; 25 : 25 ; 
Jer. 32 : 12 ; 38 : 19 ; 40 : 11 ; 41 : 3), in con- 
tradistinction from those belonging to the 
kingdom of the ten tribes, who were called 
Israelites. 

During the CaxDtivity, and after the Re- 
storation, the name, however, was extended 
to all the Hebrew nation without distinc- 
tion (Esther 3:6, 10; Dan. 3:8, 12; Ezra 
4:12; 5:1, .5). 

Originally this people were called He- 
brews (Gen. 39:14; 40:15; Ex. 2:7; 3: 
18 ; 5:3; 1 Sam. 4 : 6, 9, etc. ), but after the 
Exile this name fell into disuse. But Paul 
was styled a Hebrew (2 Cor. 11 :22; Phil. 
3:5). 

The history of the Jewish nation is in- 
terwoven with the history of Palestine and 
with the narratives of the lives of their 
rulers and chief men. They are now dis- 
persed over all lands, and to this day re- 
main a separate people, "without a king, 
and without a prince, and without a sacri- 



fice, and without an image [R.V. 'pillar,' 
marg. 'obelisk'], and without an ephod, 
and without teraphim " (Hos. 3 : 4). Till 
about the beginning of the present century 
they were everywhere greatly oppressed, 
and often cruelly persecuted ; but now their 
condition is greatly improved, and they 
are admitted in most European countries 
to all the rights of free citizens. In 1860 
the "Jewish disabilities" were removed, 
and they were admitted to a seat in the 
British Parliament. Their number in all 
is estimated at about six millions, about 
four millions being in Europe. 

There are three names used in the New 
Testament to designate this people — (1.) 
Jews, as regards their nationality, to distin- 
guish them from Gentiles. (2.) Hebrews, 
with regard to their language and edu- 
cation, to distinguish them from Hellenists 
— i.e., Jews who spoke the Greek language. 
(3.) Israelites, as respects their sacred 
privileges as the chosen people of God. 

Jew^ess, a woman of Hebrew birth, as 
Eunice, the mother of Timothy (Acts 16 : 1 ; 
2 Tim. 1:5), and Drusilla (24 : 24), the wife 
of Felix, and daughter of Herod Agrij)pa I. 

Jezani^ah, the son of Hoshaiah (Jer. 
42 : 1) ; in 43 : 2 he is called Azariah. An- 
other of the same name, Jer. 40 : 8. 

Jez''ebel — chaste — the daughter of Eth- 
baal, the king of the Zidonians, and the wife 
of Ahab, the king of Israel (1 Kings 16 : 31). 
This was the "first time that a king of Is- 
rael had allied himself by marriage with a 
heathen princess ; and the alliance was in 
this case of a peculiarly disastrous kind. 
Jezebel has stamped her name on historj^ 
as the representative of all that is design- 
ing, crafty, malicious, revengeful, and cruel. 
She is the first great instigator of perse- 
cution against the saints of God. Guided 
by no principle, restrained by no fear of 
either God or man, passionate in her at- 
tachment to her heathen worship, she 
spared no pains to maintain idolatry around 
her in all its splendour. Eour hundred and 
fifty prophets ministered under her care to 
Baal, besides four hundred prophets of the 
groves [R.V., 'prophets of the Asherah'], 
which ate at her table (1 Kings 18 : 19). The 
idolatry, too, was of the most debased and 



JEZIEL 



379 



JOAB 



sensual kind." Her conduct was in many 
respects very disastrous to the kingdom 
both of Israel and Judah (21:1-29). At 
length she came to an untimely end. As 
Jehu rode into the gates of Jezreel, she 
looked out at the window of the palace, and 
said, "Had Zimri peace, who slew his 
master ? " He looked up and called to her 
chamberlains, who instantly threw her 
from the window, so that she was dashed 
in pieces on the street, and his horses trod 
her under their feet. She was immediately 
consmned by the dogs of the street (2 
Kings 9 : 7-37), according to the word of 
Elijah the Tishbite (1 Kings 21 : 19). 

Her name afterwards came to be used as 
the synonym for a vidcked woman (Rev. 2 : 
20). 

It may be noted that she is said to have 
been the grand-aunt of Dido, the founder 
of Carthage. 

Jc'ziel — assenibled hy God— a, son of Az- 
maveth. He was one of the Benjamite 
archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 
12:3). 

Jez'reel — so^c•n hy God. (1.) A to^vn of 
Issachar (Josh. 19 : 18), where the kings 
of Israel often resided (1 Kings 18 : 45 ; 
21:1; 2 Kings 9:30). Here Elijah met 
Ahab, Jehu, and Bidkar; and here Jehu 
executed his dreadful commission against 
the house of Ahab (2 Kings 9 : 14-37; 10 : 
1-11). It has been identified with the 
modern Zerin, on the most western point 
of the range of Gilboa, reaching doAvn into 
the great and fertile valley of Jezreel, to 
which it gave its name. 

(2. ) A town in Judah (Josh. 15 : 56), to 
the south-east of Hebron. Ahinoam, one 
of David's mves, probably belonged to this 
place (1 Sam. 27 : 3). 

(3. ) A symbolical name given by Hosea 
to his oldest son (Hos. 1:4), in token of a 
great slaughter predicted by him, like that 
which had formerly taken place in the plain 
of Esdraelon (comp. Hos. 2 : 2, 3). 

Jez'reel, Blood of, the murder per- 
petrated here by Ahab and Jehu (Hos. 1 : 
4 ; comp. 1 Kings 18 : 4 ; 2 Kings 9 : 6-10). 

Jez''reel, Day of, the time predicted 
for the execution of vengeance for the 
deeds of blood committed there (Hos, 1 : 5). 



Jez^reel, Ditch of (1 Kings 21:23; 
comp. 13), the fortification surrounding 
the city, outside of which Naboth was exe- 
cuted. 

Jez'reel, Fountain of, where Saul en- 
camped before the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 
29 : 1). In the valley under Zerin there 
are two considerable springs, one of which, 
perhaps that here referred to, ' ' flows from 
under a sort of cavern in the wall of con- 
glomerate rock which here forms the base 
of Gilboa. The water is excellent ; and is- 
suing from crevices in the rocks, it spreads 
out at once into a fine limpid pool forty or 
fifty feet in diameter, full of fish " (Robin- 
son). This may be identical with the 
"well of Harod" (Judg. 7:1; comp. 2 
Sam. 23 : 25), probably the ^Ain JdlHd — 
i.e., the "spring of Goliath." 

Jez'reel, Portion of, the field adjoining 
the city (2 Kings 9 : 10, 21, 36, 37). Here 
Naboth was stoned to death (1 EJings 21 : 
13). 

Jez'reel, Tower of, one of the turrets 
which guarded the entrance to the city 
(2 Kings 9 : 17). 

Jez'reel, Valley of, lying on the nor- 
thern side of the city, between the ridges 
of Gilboa and Moreh, an offshoot of Es- 
draelon, running east to the Jordan (Josh. 
17:16; Judg. 6:33; Hos. 1:5). It was 
the scene of the signal victory gained by 
the Israelites under Gideon over the Mid- 
ianites, the Amalekites, and the "children 
of the east " (Judg. 6 : 3). Two centuries 
after this the Israelites were here defeated 
by the Philistines, and Saul and Jonathan, 
■\\'ith the flower of the army of Israel, fell 
(1 Sam. 31 : 1-6). 

This name w^as in after ages extended to 
the whole of the plain of Esdraelon {q.v.). 
It was only this plain of Jezreel and that 
north of Lake Huleh that were then ac- 
cessible to the chariots of the Canaanites 
(comp. 2 Kings 9 : 21 ; 10 : 15). 

Jo'ab — Jehovah is his father. (1.) One 
of the three sons of Zeruiah, David's sister, 
and "captain of the host" during the 
whole of David's reign (2 Sam. 2 : 13; 10 : 
7; 11:1; 1 Kings 11:15). His father's 
name is nowhere mentioned, although his 
sepulchre at Bethlehem is mentioned (2 

25 



JOAH 



380 



JOB 



Sam. 2 : 32). His two brothers were Abi- 
shai and Asahel, the swift of foot, who was 
killed by Abner (2 Sam. 2:13-32), whom 
Joab afterwards treacherously murdered 
(3 : 22-27). He afterwards led the assault 
at the storming of the fortress on Mount 
Zion, and for this service was raised to the 
rank of "prince of the king's army" (2 
Sam. 5:6-10; 1 Chr. 27:34). His chief 
military achievements were — (1) against 
the allied forces of Syria and Ammon ; 
(2) against Edom (1 Kings 11:1.5, 16); 
and (3) against the Ammonites (2 Sam. 
10:7-19; 11:1, 11). His character is 
deeply stained by the part he willingly 
took in the murder of Uriah (11 : 14-25). 
He acted apparently from a sense of duty 
in putting Absalom to death (18 : 1-14). 
David was unmindful of the many services 
Joab had rendered to him, and afterwards 
gave the command of the army to Amasa, 
Joab's cousin (2 Sam. 20:1-13; 19:13). 
When David was dying Joab espoused the 
cause of Adonijah in preference to that of 
Solomon. He was afterwards slain by 
Benaiah, by the command of Solomon, in 
accordance with his father's injunction (2 
Sam. 3 : 29 ; 19 : 5-7), at the altar to which 
he had fled for refuge. Thus this hoary 
conspirator died without one to lift up a 
voice in his favour. He was buried in his 
own property in the "wilderness," probably 
in the north-east of Jerusalem (1 Kings 2 : 
5, 28-34). Benaiah succeeded him as com- 
mander-in-chief of the army. 

(2.) iChr. 4:14. 

(3.) Ezra 2: 6. 

Jo^ah — Jehovah his brother; i.e., helper. 
(1.) One of the sons of Obed-edom (1 Chr. 
26 : 4), a Korhite j)orter. 

(2. ) A Levite of the family of Gershom (1 
Chr. 6 : 21), probably the same as Ethan (42). 

(3.) The son of Asah, and "recorder" 
[q.v.) or chronicler to King Hezekiah (2 
Kings 18 : 18, 26, 37). 

(4. ) Son of Joahaz, and "recorder " {q.v. ) 
or keeper of the state archives under King 
Josiah (2 Chr. 34 : 8). 

Jo^ahaz (2 Chr. 34 : 8), a contracted form 
of Jehoahaz {q.v.). 

Joan'na — tohom, Jehovah has graciously 
given. (1.) The grandson of Zerubbabel, 



in the lineage of Christ (Luke 3 : 27) ; the 
same as Hananiah (1 Chr. 3 : 19). 

(2.) The wife of Chuza, the steward of 
Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee (Luke 
8:3). She was one of the women who 
ministered to our Lord, and to Avhom he 
appeared after his resurrection (Luke 8:3; 
24 : 10). 

Jo^ash — ivhom Jehovah bestowed. (1.) 
A contracted form of Jehoash, the father 
of Gideon ( Judg. 6 : 11, 29 ; 2 Kings 12 : 1 ; 
13 : 1). 

(2.) One of the Benjamite archers who 
joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 3). 

(3.) One of King Ahab's sons (1 Kings 
22 : 26). 

(4.) King of Judah (2 Kings 11:2; 12: 
19, 20). (See Jehoash [1].) 

(5.) King of Israel (2 Kings 13 : 9, 12, 13, 
25). (See Jehoash [2].) 

(6.) IChr. 7:8. 

(7.) One who had charge of the royal 
stores of oil under David and Solomon (1 
Chr. 27 : 28). 

J oh— persecuted — an Arabian patriarch 
who resided in the land of Uz {q.v.). While 
living in the midst of great prosperity, he 
was suddenly overwhelmed by a series of 
sore trials that fell upon him. Amid all 
his sufferings he maintained his integrity. 
Once more God visited him with the rich 
tokens of his goodness and even greater 
prosperity than he had enjoj^ed before. 
He survived the period of trial for one 
hundred and forty years, and died in a 
good old age, an example to succeeding 
generations of integrity (Ezek. 14 : 14, 20) 
and of submissive patience under the sorest 
calamities (James 5 : 11). His history, so 
far as it is known, is recorded in his book. 

Jdb, Book of, supposed to have been 
^vritten by Moses, who was "learned in 
all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and 
mighty in words and in deeds " (Acts 7 : 22). 
He had opportunities in Midian for ob- 
taining the knowledge of the facts related. 
But the authorship is altogether uncertain. 

It is one of the greatest and sublimest 
poems in all literature. Erom internal 
evidence — such as the similarity of senti- 
ment and language to those in the Psalms 
and Proverbs (see Ps. 88 and 89), the prev- 



JOB 



381 



JOEL 



alence of the idea of "wisdom," and the 
style and character of the composition — it 
is supposed by some (we think, however, 
without sufficient warrant) to have been 
written in the time of David and Solomon 
rather than in that of Moses. 

As to the character of the book, it is a 
historical poem. Job was a historical per- 
son, and the localities and names were real 
and not fictitious. It is " one of the grand- 
est portions of the inspired Scriptures, a 
heavenly-replenished storehouse of comfort 
and instruction, the patriarchal Bible, and 
a precious monument of primitive theology. 
It is to the Old Testament what the Epistle 
to the Romans is to the New." It is a 
didactic narrative in a dramatic form. 

This book was apparently well known in 
the days of Ezekiel, B.C. 600 (Ezek. 14 : 14). 
It formed a part of the sacred Scriptures 
used by our Lord and his apostles, and is 
referred to as a part of the inspired Word 
(Heb. 12:5; 1 Cor. 3:19). 

The subject of the book is the trial of 
Job — its occasion, nature, endurance, and 
issue. It exhibits the harmony of the 
truths of revelation and the dealings of 
Providence, which are seen to be at once 
inscrutable, just, and merciful. It shows 
the blessedness of the truly pious, even amid 
sore afflictions, and thus ministers comfort 
and hope to tried believers of every age. 
It is a book of manifold instruction, and 
is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for 
correction, and for instruction in righteous- 
ness (2 Tim. 3 : 16). 

It consists of — 

(1.) An historical introduction in prose 
(ch. 1, 2). 

(2.) The controversy and its solution, in 
poetry (ch. 3-42 : 6). 

Job's desponding lamentation (ch. 3) is 
the occasion of the controversy which is 
carried on in three courses of dialogues 
between Job and his three friends. The 
first course gives the commencement of 
the controversy (ch. 4-14) ; the second the 
growth of the controversy (15-21) ; and the 
third the height of the controversy (22- 
27). This is followed by the solution of the 
controversy in the speeches of Elihu and 
the address of Jehovah, followed by Job's 



humble confession (42 : 1-6) of his own 
fault and folly. 

(3.) The third division is the historical 
conclusion, in prose (42 : 7-15). 

Job — returniiig — a different word in the 
original from the preceding ; the name of 
the third of the four sons of Issachar (Gen. 
46 : 13) ^ Jashub (Num. 26 : 24.) 

Jo''ba'b — dweller in the desert. (1. ) One 
of the sons of Joktan, and founder of an 
Arabian tribe (Gen. 10 : 29). 

(2. ) King of Edom, succeeded Bela (Gen. 
36 : 33, 34). 

(3. ) A Canaanitish king (Josh. 11 : 1) who 
joined the confederacy against Joshua. 

(4.) One of the sons of Elpaal, a chief 
of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8 : 9). 

Joch^ebed — Jehovah is her glory — the 
wife of Amram, and the mother of Miriam, 
Aaron, and Moses (Num. 26 : 59). She is 
spoken of as the sister of Kohath, Amram 's 
father (Ex. 6 : 20 ; comp. 16, 18 ; 2 : 1-10). 

Jo' e\— Jehovah is his God. (1.) The 
oldest of Samuel's two sons appointed by 
him as judges in Beersheba (1 Sam. 8 : 2). 
(See Vashni.) 

(2. ) A descendant of Reuben (1 Chr. 5 : 
4, 8). 

(3.) One of David's famous warriors (1 
Chr. 11 : 38). 

(4.) A Levite of the family of Gershom 
(1 Chr. 15 : 7, 11). 

(5.) IChr. 7:3. 

(6.) IChr. 27:20. 

(7.) The second of the twelve minor 
prophets. He was the son of Pethuel. 
His personal history is only known from 
his book. 

Jo^el, Book of. Joel was probably a 
resident in Judah, as his commission was 
to that people. He makes frequent men- 
tion of Judah and Jerusalem (1 : 14 ; 2:1, 
15, 32 ; 3 : 1, 12, 17, 20, 21). 

He probably flourished in the reign of 
Uzziah (about B.C. 800), and was contem- 
porary with Amos and Isaiah. 

The contents of this book are — (1.) A 
prophecy of a great public calamity then 
impending over the land, consisting of a 
want of water and an extraordinary plague 
of locusts (1:1-2:11). (2.) The prophet 
then calls on his countrymen to repent and 



JOELAH 



382 



JOHN 



to turn to God, assuring them of his readi- 
ness to forgive (2 : 12-17), and foretelling the 
restoration of the land to its accustomed 
fruitfulness (18-26). (3.) Then follows a 
Messianic prophecy, quoted by Peter (Acts 
2:39). (4.) Finally, the prophet foretells 
portents and judgments as destined to fall 
on the enemies of God (ch. 3, but in the He- 
brew text 4). 

Joe''lah, a Benjamite who joined David 
at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 7). 

Jo'ezer— Jehovah is his help — one of the 
Korhites who became part of David's body- 
guard (1 Chr. 12 : 6). 

Joha''nan — ivhom Jehovah graciously he- 
stows. (1.) One of the Gadite heroes who 
joined David in the desert of Judah (1 Chr. 
12 : 12). 

(2.) The oldest of King Josiah's sons 
(1 Chr. 3 : 15). 

(3.) Son of Careah, one of the Jewish 
chiefs who rallied round Gedaliah, whom 
Nebuchadnezzar had made governor in 
Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:23; Jer. 40:8). 
He warned Gedaliah of the plans of Ish- 
mael against him, a warning which was 
unheeded (Jer. 40 : 13, 16). He afterwards 
pursued the murderer of the governor, and 
rescued the captives (41 : 8, 13, 15, 16). He 
and his associates subsequently fled to Tah- 
panhes in Egypt (43 : 2, 4, 5), taking Jere- 
miah with them. "The flight of Gedaliah's 
community to Egypt extinguished the last 
remaining spark of life in the Jewish state. 
The work of the ten centuries since Joshua 
crossed the Jordan had been undone." 

John. (1.) One who, with Annas and 
Caiaphas, sat in judgment on the apostles 
Peter and John (Acts 4 : 6). He was of the 
kindred of the high priest ; otherwise un- 
known. 

(2.) The Hebrew name of Mark {q.v.). 
He is designated by this name in the Acts 
of the Apostles (12 : 12, 25 ; 13 : 5, 13 ; 15 : 
37). 

(3.) The Apostle, brother of James the 
" Greater " (Matt. 4 : 21 ; 10 : 2 ; Mark 1 : 
19 ; 3 : 17 ; 10 : 35). He was one, probably 
the younger, of the sons of Zebedee (Matt. 
4 : 21) and Salome (Matt. 27 : 56 ; comp. 
Mark 15 : 40), and was born at Bethsaida. 
His father was apparently a man of some 



wealth (comp. Mark 1 : 20 ; Luke 8:3; John 
19 : 27). He was doubtless trained in all 
that constituted the ordinary education of 
Jewish youth. When he grew up he fol- 
lowed the occupation of a fisherman on the 
Lake of Galilee. When John the Baptist 
began his ministry in the wilderness of 
Judea, John, with many others, gathered 
round him, and was deeply influenced by 
his teaching. There he heard the an- 
nouncement, "Behold the Lamb of God," 
and forthwith, on the invitation of Jesus, 
became a disciple and ranked among his 
followers (John 1 : 36, 37) for a time. He 
and his brother then returned to their 
former avocation, for how long is uncer- 
tain. Jesus again called them (Matt. 4 : 
21 ; Luke 5 : 1-11), and now they left all 
and permanently attached themselves to 
the company of his disciples. He became 
one of the innermost circle (Mark 5 : 37 ; 
Matt. 17:1; 26:37; Mark 13:3). He 
was the disciple whom Jesus loved. In 
zeal and intensity of character he was a 
"Boanerges" (Mark 3:17). This spirit 
once and again broke out (Matt. 20: 20-24; 
Mark 10 : 35-41 ; Luke 9 : 49, 54). At the 
betrayal he and Peter follow Christ afar 
off, while the others betake themselves to 
hasty flight (John 18 : 15). At the trial 
he follows Christ into the council chamber, 
and thence to the prsetorium (18 : 16, 19, 
28) and to the place of crucifixion (19 : 26, 
27). To him and Peter, Mary first conveys 
tidings of the resurrection (20 : 2), and they 
are the first to go and see what her strange 
words mean. After the resurrection he 
and Peter again return to the Sea of Gali- 
lee, where the Lord reveals himself to them 
(21 : 1, 7). We find Peter and John fre- 
quently after this together (Acts 3:1; 4 : 
13). John remained apparently in Jeru- 
salem as the leader of the church there 
(Acts 15 : 6 ; Gal. 2 : 9), His subsequent 
history is unrecorded. He was not there, 
however, at the time of Paul's last visit 
(Acts 21 : 15-40). He appears to have retired 
to Ephesus, but at what time is unknoAvn. 
The seven churches of Asia were the objects 
of his special care (Rev. 1 : 11). He suffered 
under persecution, and was banished to 
Patmos (1:9); whence he again returned 



JOHN 



383 



JOHN 



to Ephesus, where he died, probably about 
A.D. 98, having outlived all or nearly all 
the friends and companions even of his 
maturer years. There are many interest- 
ing traditions regarding John during his 
residence at Ephesus, but these cannot 
claim the character of historical truth. 

John, Gospel of. The genuineness of 
this Gospel — i.e., the fact that the apostle 
John vi^as its author — is beyond all reason- 
able doubt. In recent times, from about 
1820, many attempts have been made to 
impugn its genuineness, but without suc- 
cess. 

The design of John in writing this Gospel 
is stated by himself (John 20 : 31). It was 
at one time supposed that he wrote for the 
purpose of supplying the omissions of the 
synoptical — i.e., of the first three — Gospels, 
but there is no evidence for this. " There 
is here no history of Jesus and his teaching 
after the manner of the other evangelists. 
But there is in historical form a representa- 
tion of the Christian faith in relation to 
the person of Christ as its central point ; 
and in this representation there is a pic- 
ture on the one hand of the antagonism of 
the world to the truth revealed in him, and 
on the other of the spiritual blessedness of 
the few who yield themselves to him as the 
Light of life " (Reuss). 

After the prologue (1 : 1-5), the historical 
part of the book begins with verse 6, and 
consists of two parts. The first part (1 : 
6-ch. 12) contains the history of our Lord's 
public ministry from the time of his intro- 
d\iction to it by John the Baptist to its 
close. The second part (ch. 13-21) presents 
our Lord in the retirement of private life 
and in his intercourse with his immediate 
followers (13-17), and gives an account of 
his sufferings and of his appearances to the 
disciples after his resurrection (18-21). 

The peculiarities of this Gospel are the 
place it gives (1) to the mystical relation 
of the Son to the Eather, and (2) of the 
Redeemer to believers ; (3) the announce- 
ment of the Holy Ghost as the Comforter ; 
(4) the prominence given to love as an ele- 
ment in the Christian character. It was 
obviously addressed primarily to Chris- 
tians. 



It was probably written at Ephesus, 
which, after the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem (a.d. 70), became the centre of Chris- 
tian life and activity in the East, about 
A.D. 90. 

John, First Epistle of, the fourth of 
the catholic or " general " epistles. It was 
evidently written by John the evangelist, 
and probably also at Ephesus, and when 
the writer was in advanced age. The pur- 
pose of the apostle (1 : 1-4) is to declare the 
Word of Life to those to whom he writes, 
in order that they might be united in fel- 
lowship with the Eather and his Son Jesus 
Christ. He shows that the means of 
union with God are — (1) on the part of 
Christ, his atoning work (1:7; 2:2; 3:5; 
4 : 10, 14 ; 5 : 11, 12) and his advocacy (2 : 
1) ; and (2), on the part of man, holiness 
(1 : 6), obedience (2 : 3), purity (3 : 3), faith 
(3 : 23 ; 4 : 3 ; 5 : 5), and love (2 : 7, 8 ; 3 : 14 ; 
4:7; 5:1). 

John, Second Epistle of, is addressed 
to "the elect lady," and closes with 
the words, "The children of thy elect 
sister greet thee ; " but some would read 
instead of " lady " the proper name Kyria. 
Of the thirteen verses composing this 
epistle seven are in the Eirst Epistle. The 
person addressed is commended for her 
piety, and is warned against false teachers. 

John, Third Epistle of, is addressed to 
Caius, or Gains, but whether to the Chris- 
tian of that name in Macedonia (Acts 19 : 
29) or in Corinth (Rom. 16 : 23) or in Derbe 
(Acts 20 : 4) is uncertain. It was written 
for the purpose of commending to Gains 
some Christians who were strangers in the 
place where he lived, and who had gone 
thither for the purpose of preaching the 
gospel (ver. 7). 

The Second and Third Epistles were 
probably written soon after the Eirst, and 
from Ephesus. 

John the Baptist, the "forerunner of 
our Lord. " We have but fragmentary and 
imperfect accounts of him in the Gospels. 
He was of priestly descent. His father, 
Zacharias, was a priest of the course of 
Abia (1 Chr. 24 : 10), and his mother, Elisa- 
beth, was of the daughters of Aaron (Luke 
1 : 5). The mission of John was the subject 



JOHN 



384 



JOKTAN 



of prophecy (Matt. 3:3; Isa. 40 : 3 ; Mai. 
3 : 1). His birth, which took place six 
months before that of Jesus, was foretold 
by an angel. Zacharias, deprived of the 
power of speech as a token of God's truth 
and a reproof of his own incredulity with 
reference to the birth of his son, had the 
power of speech restored to him on the 
occasion of his circumcision (Luke 1 : 64). 
After this no more is recorded of him for 
thirty years than what is mentioned in 
Luke 1 : 80. John was a Nazarite from 
his birth (Luke 1 : 15 ; Num. 6 : 1-12). He 
spent his early years in the mountainous 
tract of Judah lying between Jerusalem 
and the Dead Sea (Matt. 3 : 1-12). 

At length he came forth into public life, 
and great multitudes from ' ' every quarter " 
were attracted to him. The sum of his 
preaching was the necessity of repentance. 
He denounced the Sadducees and Pharisees 
as a "generation of vipers," and warned 
them of the folly of trusting to external 
privileges (Luke 3:8). "As a preacher, 
John was eminently practical and dis- 
criminating. Self-love and covetousness 
were the prevalent sins of the people at 
large. On them, therefore, he enjoined 
charity and consideration for others. The 
publicans he cautioned against extortion, 
the soldiers against crime and plunder." 
His doctrine and manner of life roused the 
entire south of Palestine, and the people 
from all parts flocked to the place where 
he was, on the banks of the Jordan. There 
he baptized thousands unto repentance. 

The fame of John reached the ears of 
Jesus in Nazareth (Matt. 3 : 5), and he 
came from Galilee to Jordan to be baptized 
of John, on the special ground that it be- 
came him to "fulfil all righteousness" (3: 
15). John's special office ceased with the 
baptism of Jesus, who must now ' ' increase" 
as the King come to his kingdom. He 
continued, however, for a while to bear 
testimony to the Messiahship of Jesus. 
He pointed him out to his disciples, say- 
ing, "Behold the Lamb of God." His 
public ministry was suddenly (after about 
six months probably) brought to a close by 
his being cast into prison by Herod, whom 
he had reproved for the sin of having taken 



to himself the wife of his brother Philip 
(Luke 3 : 19). He was shut up in the 
castle of Machasrus {q.v.), a fortress on the 
southern extremity of Persea, 9 miles east 
of the Dead Sea, and here he was beheaded. 
His disciples, having consigned the head- 
less body to the grave, went and told Jesus 
all that had occurred (Matt. 14:3-12). 
John's death occurred apparently just 
before the third Passover of our Lord's 
ministry. Our Lord himself testified re- 
garding him that he was a "burning and a 
shining light " (John 5 : 35). 

Joi''ada {lohom Jehovah favours) — Je- 
hoiada. (L) Neh. 3:6. (2.) One of the 
high priests (12 : 10, 11, 22). 

Joi^akim {whom Jehovah has set up) — 
Jehoiakim, a high priest, the son and suc- 
cessor of Jeshua (Neh. 12 : 10, 12, 26). 

Joi^arib {whom Jehovah defends) =^3 e- 
hoiarib. (1.) The foiinder of one of the 
courses of the priests (Neh. 11 : 10). 

(2. ) Neh. 11 : 5 ; a descendant of Judah. 

(3.) Neh. 12:6. 

(4.) Ezra 8:16, a "man of understand- 
ing" whom Ezra sent to "bring ministers 
for the house of God. " 

Jok^deam, a city in the mountains of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 56). 

Jo'^kim — whom Jehovah has set up — one 
of the descendants of Shelah (1 Chr. 4 : 
22). 

Jo^'mesira— gathering of the people — a 
city of Ephraim, which was given with its 
suburbs to the Levites (1 Chr. 6 : 68). It 
lay somewhere in the Jordan valley (1 
Kings 4 : 12, E,. V. ; but in A.V. incorrectly 
"Jokneam"). 

Jok^neam — gathered by the people — 
(Josh. 19 : 11 ; 21 : 34), a city "of Carmel " 
(12:22) — i.e., on Carmel, allotted with its 
suburbs to the Merarite Levites. It is the 
modern Tell Kaimon, about 12 miles south- 
west of Nazareth, on the south of the river 
Kishon. 

Jok'shan — snarer — the second son of 
Abraham and Keturah (Gen. 25 : 2, 3 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 32). 

Jok^tan — little — the second of the two 
sons of Eber (Gen. 10 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 19). 
There is an Arab tradition that Joktan 
(Arab. Kahtdn) was the progenitor of all 



JOKTHEEL 



385 



JONATHAN 



the purest tribes of Central and Southern 
Arabia. 

Jok'theel— subdued by God. (1.) A city 
of Judah near Lachish (Josh. 15, 38). Per- 
haps the ruin Kutldneh, south of Gezer. 

(2.) Amaziah, king of Judah, undertook 
a great expedition against Edom (2 Chr. 
25 : 5-10), which was completely success- 
ful. He routed the Edomites and slew 
vast numbers of them. So wonderful did 
this victory appear to him that he acknow- 
ledged that it could have been achieved only 
by the special help of God, and therefore 
he called Selah {q.v.), their great fortress 
city, by the name of Joktheel (2 Kings 
14 : 7). 

Jon^ada1>=Jehon^adab. (1.) The son 
of Rechab, and founder of the Rechabites 
{q.v.)—2 Kings 10 : 15; Jer. 35 : 6, 10. 

(2. ) The son of Shimeah, David's brother 
(2 Sam. 13:3). He was "a very subtil 
man. " 

Jo^nah — a dove — the son of Amittai of 
Gath-hepher. He was a prophet of Israel, 
and predicted the restoration of the ancient 
boundaries (2 Kings 14 : 25-27) of the king- 
dom. He exercised his ministry very early 
in the reign of Jeroboam II. , and thus was 
contemporary with Hosea and Amos ; or 
possibly he preceded them, and conse- 
quently may have been the very oldest of 
all the proi)hets whose writings we possess. 
His personal history is mainly to be gath- 
ered from the book which bears his name. 
It is chiefly interesting from the two-fold 
character in which he appears— (1) as a 
missionary to heathen Nineveh, and (2) as 
a type of the " Son of man." 

Jo''nah, Book of, contains a historical 
account of the prophet's divine commission 
to go to Nineveh, his disobedience, and 
the punishment following (1 : 1-7) ; his 
prayer and miraculous deliverance ; the 
second command given to him to go to 
Nineveh, and his prompt obedience (3 : 1- 
3) in delivering the message from God ; 
the repentance of the Ninevites, and God's 
long-sparing mercy to them ; Jonah's dis- 
pleasure at God's merciful decision (4 : 1-4), 
and God's rebuke tendered to the impatient 
prophet (4 : 5-11). Nineveh was spared for 
more than a century. 



This book is probably the oldest of the 
prophetic canon. It is actual history, and 
not an allegory. The whole Old Testament 
is indeed in a certain sense allegorical — 
i.e., it foretells Christ and the good things 
to come ; but this does not invalidate the 
historical character of its records. These 
are true history, not representative history. 
Such is the character of this book. It is a 
historical account of what actually took 
place, and as such is referred to by our 
Lord (Matt. 12 : 39 ; 16 : 4 ; Luke 11 : 29). 
Here Ave have a lesson of repentance and 
a rebuke of narrow-minded Jewish exclu- 
siveness. But we must also regard the 
"history of Jonah as a part of that great 
onward movement which was before the 
Law and under the Law ; which gained 
strength and volume as the fulness of the 
times drew near, but which could only 
find its consummation in the incarnation 
and work of Him in whom all distinctions 
of country and race were to be for ever 
broken down, in whose name repentance 
and remission of sins were to be preached 
among all nations, in whom all nations of 
the earth were to be blessed, who was to 
be at once a light to lighten the Gentiles 
and the glory of his people Israel. " — Per- 
owne's Jonah. 

Jonas. (1. ) Greek form of Jonah (Matt. 
12:39, 40, 41, etc.). 

(2.) The father of the ajDostles Peter 
(John 21 : 15-17) and Andrew ; but the 
reading should be (also in 1 : 42), as in the 
Revised Version, " John," instead of 
Jonas. 

Jon'^athan — ivhom Jeliovah gave — the 
name of fifteen or more persons that are 
mentioned in Scripture. The chief of these 
are — (1.) A Levite descended from Ger- 
shom ( Judg. 18 : 30). His history is re- 
corded in 17 : 7-13 and 18 : 30. The Rab- 
bins changed this name into Manasseh " to 
screen the memory of the great lawgiver 
from the stain of having so unworthy an 
apostate among his near descendants. " He 
became priest of the idol image at Dan, and 
this office continued in his family till the 
Captivity. 

(2. ) The eldest son of king Saul, and the 
bosom friend of David. He is first men- 



JONATH-ELEM-RECHOKIM 387 



JOPPA 



tioned when he was about thirty years of 
age, some time after his father's accession 
to the throne (1 Sam. 13 : 2). Like his 
father, he was a man of great strength and 
activity (2 Sam. 1 : 23), and excelled in 
archery and slinging (1 Chr. 12 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 
1 : 22). The affection that evidently sub- 
sisted between him and his father was in- 
terrupted by the growth of Saul's insanity. 
At length, "in fierce anger," he left his 
father's presence and cast in his lot with 
the cause of David (1 Sam. 20 : 34). After 
an eventful career, interwoven to a great 



extent with that of David, he fell, along 
with his father and his two brothers, on 
the fatal field of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31 : 2, 8). 
He was first buried at Jabesh-gilead, but 
his remains were afterwards removed with 
those of his father to Zelah, in Benjamin 
(2 Sam. 21:12-14). His death was the 
occasion of David's famous elegy of "the 
Song of the Bow " (2 Sam. 1 : 22-26). He 
left one son five years old, Merib-baal, or 
Mephibosheth (2 Sam. 4:4; comp. 1 Chr. 
8 : 34). 

(3.) Son of the high priest Abiathar, and 



MAP SHOWING COUESE OF 

JAFFA AND JEEUSALBM 

RAItWAX. 




JERUSALE(frtr|9 



BETHLEHtM 



{By ponnissioK of the Contniittee of the Palestine 

one who adhered to David at the time of 
Absalom's rebellion (2 Sam. 15:27, 36), 
He is the last descendant of Eli of whom 
there is any record. 

{4.) Son of Shammah, and David's 
nephew, and also one of his chief warriors 
(2 Sam. 21 : 21). He slew a giant in Gath, 

Jo'nath-e'lem-recho'kim — dove of the 
dumbness of the distance; i.e., "the silent 
dove in distant places " — title of Ps. 56. 
This was probably the name of some well- 
known tune or melody to which the psalm 
was to be sung. 



Exploration Fnnd.] 

Jop^pa — beauty — a town in the portion 
of Dan (Josh. 19 : 46 ; A.V., " Japho "), on 
a sandy promontory between Csesarea and 
Gaza, and at a distance of 30 miles north- 
west from Jerusalem. It is one of the 
oldest towns in Asia. It was and still is 
the chief sea-port of Judea. It was never 
wrested from the Phoenicians. It became 
a Jewish town only in the second century 
B.C. It was from this port that Jonah 
"took ship to flee from the presence of the 
Lord " (Jonah 1 : 3). To this place also the 
wood cut in Lebanon by Hiram's men for 



JORAM 



388 



JORDAN 



Solomon was brought in floats (2 Chr. 2 : 
16) ; and here the material for the building 
of the second temple was also landed (Ezra 
3 : 7). At Joppa, in the house of Simon 
the tanner, "by the sea-side," Peter re- 
sided "many days," and here, "on the 
house-top," he had his "vision of toler- 
ance " (Acts 9 : 36-43). It bears the modern 
name of Jajfa, and exhibits all the decrep- 
itude and squalor of cities ruled over by 
the Turks. " Scarcely any other town has 
been so often overthrown, sacked, pillaged, 
burned, and rebuilt." Its present popula- 



tion is said to be about 8,000. It was taken 
by the French under Napoleon in 1799, 
who gave orders for the massacre here of 
4,000 prisoners. It is connected with Jeru- 
salem by the only carriage road that exists 
in the country, and also by a railway com- 
pleted in 1892. 

Jo'ram = Jeho'ram. (1.) One of the 
kings of Israel (2 Kings 8 : 16, 25, 28). He 
was the son of Ahab. 

(2.) Jehoram, the son and successor of 
Jehoshaphat on the throne of Judah (2 
Kings 8 : 24). 




SOURCE OF THE JORDAN NEAR BANIAS. 



Jordan— Heb. Yarden, ' ' the descender ; " 
Arab. Nalir-esh-Sheriah, "the watering- 
place"— the chief river of Palestine. It 
flows from north to south down a deep val- 
ley in the centre of the country. The name 
descender is significant of the fact that there 
is along its whole course a descent to its 
banks ; or it may simply denote the rapidity 
with which it "descends " to the Dead Sea. 

It originates in the snows of Hermon, 
which feed its perennial fountains. Two 
sources are generally spoken of. (1.) From 



the western base of a hill on which once 
stood the city of Dan, the northern border- 
city of Palestine, there gushes forth a con- 
siderable fountain called the Leddan, which 
is the largest fountain in Syria and the 
principal source of the Jordan. (2.) Be- 
side the ruins of Banias, the ancient 
Caesarea-Philippi and the yet more ancieiit 
Panium, is a lofty cliff of limestone, at the 
base of which is a fountain. This is the 
other source of the Jordan, and has always 
been regarded by the Jews as its true 



JORDAN 



389 



JOSEPH 



source. It rushes down to the plain in a 
foaming torrent, and joins the Leddan 
about 5 miles south of Dan {Tell-el-Kddy). 
(3.) But besides these two historical foun- 
tains there is a third, called the Hasbdny, 
which rises in the bottom of a valley at the 
western base of Hermon, 12 miles north of 
Tell-el-Kady. It joins the main stream 
about a mile below the junction of the 
Leddan and the Banias. The river thus 
formed is at this i^oint about 45 feet wide, 
and flows in a channel from 12 to 20 feet 
below the plain. 

After this it flows, "with a swift current 
and a much -twisted course," through a 
marshy plain for some 6 miles, when it 
falls into the Lake Htileh, ' ' the waters of 
Merom" {q.v.). During this part of its 
course the Jordan has descended about 
1,100 feet. At Banias it is 1,080 feet above 
sea-level, blowing from the southern ex- 
tremity of Lake HMeh, here almost on a 
level with the sea, it flows for 2 miles 
"through a waste of islets and papyrus," 
and then for 9 miles through a narrow 
gorge in a foaming torrent onward to the 
Sea of Galilee {q.v.). 

"In the whole valley of the Jordan, 
from the Lake Htlleh to the Sea of Galilee, 
there is not a single settled inhabitant. 
Along the whole eastern bank of the river 
and the lakes, from the base of Hermon to 
the ravine of Hieromax — a region of great 
fertility, 30 miles long by 7 or 8 wide — 
there are only some three inhabited vil- 
lages. The w^estern bank is almost as 
desolate. Huins are numerous enough. 
Every mile or two is an old site of town or 
village, now well-nigh hid beneath a dense 
jungle of thorns and thistles. The words of 
Scripture here recur to us with peculiar 
force : ' I will make your cities waste, and 

bring your sanctuaries unto desolation 

And I will bring the land into desolation : 
and your enemies which dwell therein shall 

be astonished at it And your land shall 

be desolate, and your cities waste. Then 
shall the land enjoy her sabbaths, as long 
as it lieth desolate ' (Lev. 26 : 31-34)."— Dr. 
Porter's Handbook, etc. 

From the Sea of Galilee, at the level of 
602 feet below the Mediterranean, the 



river flows through a long, low plain called 
"the region of Jordan" (Matt. 3:5), and 
by the modern Arabs the Ghor or " sunken 
plain." This section is properly the Jor- 
dan of Scripture. Down through the midst 
of the "plain of Jordan," there winds a 
ravine varying in breadth from 200 yards 
to half a mile, and in depth from 40 to 150 
feet. Through it the Jordan flows in a 
rapid, rugged, tortuous course down to the 
Dead Sea. The whole distance from the 
southern extremity of the Sea of Galilee to 
the Dead Sea is in a straight line about 65 
miles, but following the windings of the 
river about 200 miles, during which it falls 
667 feet. The total length of the Jordan 
is about 104 miles in a straight line, during 
which it falls 2,292 feet. 

There are two considerable affluents 
which enter the river between the Sea of 
Galilee and the Dead Sea, both from the 
east. (1. ) The Wddy MandhiXr, called the 
• Yarmt!ik by the Rabbins and the Hieromax 
by the Greeks. It formed the boundary 
between Bashan and Gilead. It drains the 
plateau of the Hauran. (2. ) The Jabbok or 
Wddy Zerka, formerly the northern boun- 
dary of Ammon. It enters the Jordan 
about 20 miles north of Jericho. 

The first historical notice of the Jordan is 
in the account of the separation of Abraham 
and Lot (Gen. 13:10). "Lot beheld the 
plain of Jordan as the garden of the Lord. " 
Jacob crossed and re-crossed "this Jordan" 
(32 : 10). The Israelites passed over it as 
"on dry ground " (Josh. 3 : 17 ; Ps. 114 : 3). 
Twice afterwards its waters were miracu- 
lously divided at the same spot by Elijah 
and EUsha (2 Kings 2 : 8, 14). 

The Jordan is mentioned in the Old 
Testament about one hundred and eighty 
times, and in the New Testament fifteen 
times. The chief events in gospel history 
connected with it are (1) John the Baptist's 
ministry; when "there went out to him 
Jerusalem, and all Judea, and were bap- 
tized of him in Jordan " (Matt. 3 : 6). (2. ) 
Jesus also " was baptized of John in 
Jordan " (Mark 1 : 9). 

Jo^seph — remover or increaser. (1.) The 
elder of the two sons of Jacob by Rachel 
(Gen. 30 : 23, 24), who, on the occasion of 



JOSEPH 



390 



JOSEPH 



his birth, said, ' ' God hath taken away 
[Heb. 'dsaph] my reproach." "The Lord 
shall add [Heb. yoseph] to me another son " 
(Gen. 30 : 24). He was a child of probably 
six years of age when his father returned 
from Haran to Canaan and took up his 
residence in the old patriarchal town of He- 
bron. ' ' Now Israel loved Joseph more than 
all his children, because he was the son of 
his old age," and he "made him a long 
garment with sleeves" (Gen. 37:3, P.V. 
marg.) — i.e., a garment long and full, such 
as was worn by the children of nobles. This 
seems to be the correct rendering of the 
words. The phrase, however, may also be 
rendered, "a coat of many pieces" — i.e., 
a patchwork of many sraall pieces of divers 
colours. 

When he was about seventeen years old 
Joseph incurred the jealous hatred of his 
brothers (Gen. 37:4). They "hated him, 
and could not speak peaceably unto him." 
Their anger was increased when he told 
them his dreams (37 : 11). 

Jacob desiring to hear tidings of his 
sons, who had gone to Shechem with their 
flocks — some 60 miles from Hebron — sent 
Joseph as his messenger to make inquiry 
regarding them. Joseph found that they 
had left Shechem for Dothan, whither he 
followed them. As soon as they saw him 
coming they began to plot against him, 
and would have killed him had not Reuben 
interposed. They ultimately sold him to 
a company of Ishmaelite merchants for 
twenty pieces (shekels) of silver (about 
£2, 10s. ) — ten pieces less than the current 
value of a slave, for "they cared little 
what they had for him, if so be they were 
rid of him." These merchants were going 
down with a varied assortment of merchan- 
dise to the Egyptian market, and thither 
they conveyed him, and ultimately sold 
him as a slave to Potiphar, an "officer of 
Pharaoh's, and captain of the guard " (Gen. 
37 : 36). "The Lord blessed the Egyptian's 
house for Joseph's sake," and Potiphar 
made him overseer over his house. At 
length a false charge having been brought 
against him by Potiphar's wife, he was at 
once cast into the state prison (39 ; 40), 
where he remained for at least two years. 



After a while the " chief of the cup- 
bearers" and the "chief of the bakers" of 
Pharaoh's household were cast into the 
same prison (40 : 2). Each of these new 
prisoners dreamed a dream in the same 
night, which Joseph interpreted, the event 
occurring as he had said. 

This led to Joseph's being remembered 
subsequently by the chief butler when 
Pharaoh also dreamed. At his suggestion 
Joseph was brought from prison to inter- 
pret the king's dreams. Pharaoh was 
well pleased with Joseph's wisdom in in- 
terpreting his dreams, and with his counsel 
with reference to the events then predicted ; 
and he set him over all the land of Egypt 
(Gen. 41 : 46), and gave him the name of 
Zaphnath - paaneah. He was married to 
Asenath, the daughter of the priest of On, 
and thus became a member of the priestly 
class. Joseph was now about thirty years 
of age. 

As Joseph had interpreted, seven years 
of plenty came, during which he stored up 
great abundance of corn in granaries built 
for the purpose. These years were fol- 
lowed by seven years of famine "overall 
the face of the earth," when " all countries 
came into Egypt to Joseph to buy corn " 
(Gen. 41 : 56, 57 ; 47 : 13, 14). Thus "Joseph 
gathered up all the money that was in the 
land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, 
for the corn which they bought." After- 
wards all the cattle and all the land, and 
at last the Egyptians themselves, became 
the property of Pharaoh. 

During this period of famine Joseph's 
brethren also came down to Egypt to buy 
corn. The history of his dealings with 
them, and of the manner in which he at 
length made himself known to them, is one 
of the most interesting narratives that can 
be read (Gen. 42-44). Joseph directed his 
brethren to return and bring Jacob and 
his family to the land of Egypt, saying, 
' ' I will give you the good of the land of 
Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat of the 
land. Regard not your stuff ; for the good 
of all the land is yours." Accordingly 
Jacob and his family, to the number of 
threescore and ten souls, together with "all 
that they had, " went down to Egypt. They 



JOSEPH 



391 



JOSEPH 



were settled in the land of Goshen, where 
Joseph rnet his father, and "fell on his 
neck, and wept on his neck a good while " 
(Gen. 46 : 29). 

Jacob at length died, and in fulfilment 
of a promise which he had exacted, Joseph 
went up to Canaan to bury his father in 
"the field of Ephron the Hittite" (Gen. 
47:29-31; 50:1-14). This was the last 
recorded act of Joseph, who again returned 
to Egypt. 




HEAD OP SPHIXX OF ZOAN. 

[Believed to represent Apepi.) 

By his wife Asenath, Joseph had two 
sons — Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen. 41 : 
50). Joseph having obtained a promise 
from his brethren that when the time should 
come that God would "bring them unto 
the land which he sware to Abraham, to 
Isaac, and to Jacob," they would carry up 
his bones out of Egypt, at length died, at 
the age of one hundred and ten years ; and 
"they embalmed him, and he was put in 
a coffin " (Gen. 50 : 26). This promise was 
faithfully observed. Their descendants, 
long after, when the Exodus came, carried 
the body about with them during their 
forty years' wanderings, and at length 
buried it in Shechem, in the parcel of 
ground which Jacob bought from the sons 



of Hamor (Josh. 24 : 32 ; comp. Gen. 33 : 19). 
With the death of Joseph the patriarchal 
age of the history of Israel came to a close. 

The Pharaoh of Joseph's elevation was 
probably Apepi, or Apopis, the last of the 
Hyksos kings. Some, however, think that 
Joseph came to Egj'pt in the reign of 
Thothmes III. (see page 540), long after 
the expulsion of the Hyksos. 

The name Joseph denotes the two tribes 
of Ephraim and Manasseh in Deut. 33 : 13- 
17 ; the kingdom of Israel in Ezek. 37 : 16, 
19, Amos 5:6; and the whole covenant 
people of Israel in Ps. 81 : 4. 

(2.) One of the sons of Asaph, head of 
the first division of sacred musicians (1 
Chr. 25 : 2, 9). 

(3.) The son of Judah, and father of 
Semei (Luke 3 : 26). Other two of the 
same name in the ancestry of Christ are 
also mentioned (3 : 24, 30). 

(4.) The foster-father of our Lord (Matt. 
1 : 16 ; Luke 3 : 23). He lived at Nazareth 
in Galilee (Luke 2:4). He is called a 
"just man." He was by trade a carpen- 
ter (Matt. 13:55). He is last mentioned 
in connection with the journey to Jeru- 
salem, w^hen Jesus was twelve years old. 
It is probable that he died before Jesus 
entered on his public ministry. This is 
concluded from the fact that Mary only 
was present at the marriage feast in Cana 
of Galilee. His name does not appear in 
connection with the scenes of the cruci- 
fixion along with that of Mary {q.v.) — 
John 19 : 25. 

(5. ) A native of Arimathea, probably the 
Ramah of the Old Testament (1 Sam. 1 : 
19), a man of wealth, and a member of the 
Sanhedrim (Matt. 27 : 57 ; Luke 23 : 50), 
an "honourable counsellor, who waited 
for the kingdom of God. " As soon as he 
heard the tidings of Christ's death, he 
"went in boldly " {lit. " having summoned 
courage, he went") "unto Pilate, and 
craved the body of Jesus." Pilate having 
ascertained from the centurion that the 
death had really taken place, granted Jo- 
seph's request, who immediateh',' having 
purchased fine linen (Mark 15 : 45), pro- 
ceeded to Golgotha to take the body down 
from the cross. There, assisted by Nico- 



JOSES 



392 



JOSHUA 



demiis, he took down the body and wrapped 
it in the fine linen, sprinkling it with the 
myrrh and aloes which Nicodemus had 
brought (John 19 : 39), and then conveyed 
the body to the new tomb hewn by Joseph 
himself out of a rock in his garden hard 
by. There they laid it, in the presence of 
Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of Joses, 
and other women, and rolled a great stone 
to the entrance, and departed (Luke 23 : 53, 
54). This was done in haste, " for the Sab- 
bath was drawing on " (comp. Isa. 53 : 9). 

(6.) Surnamed Bar^sabas (Acts 1:23) ; 
also called Justus. He was one of those 
who "companied with the apostles all the 
time that the Lord Jesus went out and in 
among them " (Acts 1 : 15), and was one 
of the candidates for the vacant place of 
Judas. 

Josses — whom Jehovah helps. (1.) Au- 
thorized Version Jose, Revised Version 
Jesus (Luke 3 : 29), one of the ancestors of 
Christ. 

(2.) The son of Mary and Cleopas, and 
brother of James the Less, ranked among 
" the brethren " of the Lord (Matt. 13 : 55 ; 
Mark 6 : 3), and the only one of the num- 
ber who was not an apostle. 

(3.) See Barnabas (Acts 4 : 36). 

Jo^shah — establishei — son of Amaziah, 
and one of the chief Simeonites (1 Chr. 
4 : 34). 

Josh^aphat = Jehoshaphat (g. r. ) — 1 
Chr. 11 : 43 ; Revised Version, Joshah. 

Joshavi''ah — Jehovah is sufficient — one 
of David's body-guard (1 Chr. 11 : 46). 

Joshbek^ashah — seat in hardness — one 
of the sons of Heman, and leader of one 
of the divisions of the temple musicians 
(1 Chr. 25 : 4, 24). 

Josh''ua — Jehovah is his help, or Jehovah 
the Saviou7\ The son of Nun, of the tribe 
of Ephraim, the successor of Moses as the 
leader of Israel. He is called Jehoshua 
in Num. 13 : 16, Authorized Version, and 
Jesus in Acts 7:45 and Heb. 4:8 (R.V., 
Joshua). 

He was born in Egypt, and was prob- 
ably of the age of Caleb, with whom he 
is generally associated. He shared in all 
the events of the Exodus, and held the 
place of commander of the host of the 



Israelites at their great battle against the 
Amalekites in Rephidim (Ex. 17 : 8-16). 
He became Moses' minister or servant, and 
accompanied him part of the way when he 
ascended Mount Sinai to receive the two 
tables (Ex. 32 : 17). He was also one of 
the twelve who were sent on by Moses to 
explore the land of Canaan (Num. 13 : 16, 
17), and only he and Caleb gave an encour- 
aging report. Under the direction of God, 
Moses, before his death, invested Joshua 
in a public and solemn manner with au- 
thority over the people as his successor 
(Dexit. 3 : 28). The people were encamped 
at Shittim when he assumed the command 
(Josh. 1:1); and crossing the Jordan, they 
encamped at Gilgal, where, having circum- 
cised the people, he kept the Passover, and 
was visited by the Captain of the Lord's 
host, who spoke to him encouraging words 
(1:1-9). 

Now began the wars of conquest which 
Joshua carried on for many years, the 
record of which is in the book which bears 
his name. During the sojoiirn of Israel in 
Egypt the Hittites grew into a great and 
powerful nation. Rameses II. waged war 
against them, and the great empire was 
shattered to pieces, so that Joshua en- 
countered only its broken fragments. Six 
nations and thirty-one kings were con- 
quered by him (Josh. 11 : 18-23 ; 12 : 24). 
Having thus subdued the Canaanites, 
Joshua divided the land among the tribes, 
Timnath-serah in Moimt Ephraim being 
assigned to himself as his own inheritance. 
Six cities of refuge were appointed, and 
forty -eight cities were assigned to the 
Levites. The tabernacle of the congrega- 
tion was established at Shiloh. 

His work being done, he died, at the age 
of one hundred and ten years, twenty-five 
years after having crossed the Jordan. He 
was buried in his own city of Timnath- 
serah (Josh. 24) ; and "the light of Israel 
for the time faded away." 

Joshua has been regarded as a type of 
Christ (Heb. 4 : 8) in the following particu- 
lars : — (1) In the name common to both ; 
(2) Joshua brings the people into the pos- 
session of the Promised Land, as Jesus 
brings his people to the heavenly Canaan ; 



JOSHUA 



393 



JOSIAH 



and (3) as Joshua succeeded Moses, so the 
Gospel succeeds the Law. 

The character of Joshua is thus well 
sketched by Edersheim : — "Born a slave 
in Egypt, he must have been about forty 
years old at the time of the Exodus. At- 
tached to the person of Moses, he led Is- 
rael in the first decisive battle against 
Amalek (Ex. 17:9, 13), while Moses in 
the prayer of faith held up to heaven the 
God-given ' rod.' It was no doubt on that 
occasion that his name was changed from 
Oshea, 'help,' to Jehoshua, 'Jehovah is 
help ' (Num. 13 : 16). And this name is 
the key to his life and work. AHke in 
bringing the people into Canaan, in his 
wars, and in the distribution of the land 
among the tribes — from the miraculous 
crossing of Jordan and taking of Jericho 
to his last address — he was the embodi- 
ment of his new name, 'Jehovah is help.' 
To this outward calling his character also 
corresponded. It is marked by singleness 
of purpose, directness, and decision. There 
is not indeed about him that elevation 
of faith or comprehensiveness of spiritual 
view which we observe in Moses : wit- 
ness Joshua's despondency after the first 
failure at Ai. Even his plans and con- 
ceptions lack breadth and depth : witness 
his treaty with the Gibeonites, and the 
commencing disorganization among the 
tribes at Shiloh. His strength always lies 
in his singleness of purpose. He sets an 
object before him, and unswervingly fol- 
lows it" {Bible Hist, iii. 103). 

Josh^ua, The Book of, contains a his- 
tory of the Israelites from the death of 
Moses to that of Joshua. It consists of 
three parts : — (1. ) The history of the con- 
quest of the land (1-12). (2.) The allot- 
ment of the land to the different tribes, 
with the appointment of cities of refuge, 
the provision for the Levites (13-22), and 
the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their 
homes. This section has been compared 
to the Domesday Book of the Norman con- 
quest of England. (3.) The farewell ad- 
dresses of Joshua, with an account of his 
death (23, 24). 

This book stands first in the second of 
the three sections — (1) the Law, (2) the 



Prophets, (3) the "other writings " = 
Hagiographa — into which the Jewish 
Church divided the Old Testament. There 
is every reason for concluding that the 
uniform tradition of the Jews is correct 
when they assign the authorship of the 
book to Joshua, all except the concluding 
section ; the last verses (24 : 29-33) were 
added by some other hand. 

There are two difficulties connected 
with this book which have given rise to 
much discussion — (1.) The miracle of the 
standing still of the sun and moon on 
Gibeon. The record of it occurs in Joshua's 
impassioned prayer of faith, as quoted 
(Josh. 10:12-15) from the "Book of 
Jasher" (g.r.). There are many explana- 
tions given of these words. They need, 
however, present no difficulty if we be- 
lieve in the possibility of God's miraculous 
interposition in behalf of his people. There 
are many other miracles recorded in this 
book. 

(2.) Another difficulty arises out of the 
command given by God utterly to exter- 
minate the Canaanites. "Shall not the 
Judge of all the earth do right?" It is 
enough that Joshua clearly knew that this 
was the will of God, who employs his ter- 
rible agencies, famine, pestilence, and 
war, in the righteous government of this 
world. 

Josi^ah — healed hy Jehovah, or Jehovah 
toill support. (1.) The son of Amon, and 
his successor on the throne of Judah 
(2 Kings 22 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 34 : 1). His history 
is contained in 2 Kings 22-24. He stands 
foremost among all the kings of the line of 
David for unswerving loyalty to Jehovah 
(23:25). He "did that which was right 
in the sight of the Lord, and walked in 
all the waj^s of David his father." He as- 
cended the throne at the early age of eight 
years, and it appears that not till eight 
years afterwards did he begin "to seek 
after the God of David his father." At 
that age he devoted himself to God. This 
might be called the epoch of his conver- 
sion, the great turning-point in his own 
life as well as the turning-point in the 
history of his kingdom. Aided by some 
members of noble families, who were also 



JOSIAH 



394 



JOTHAM 



won to the cause of Jehovah, and probably 
encouraged in the work by Hilkiah, the 
high priest, and by Jeremiah of Anathoth, 
who was about his own age, he distin- 
guished himself by beginning a war of ex- 
termination against the prevailing idolatry, 
which had practically been the state re- 
ligion for some seventy years (2 Chr. 34 : 
3 ; comp. Jer. 25 : 3, 11, 29). 

In the eighteenth year of his reign he 
proceeded to repair and beautify the 
temple, which by time and violence had 
become sorely dilapidated (2 Kings 22 : 3, 
5, 6 ; 23 : 23 ; 2 Chr. 34 : 11). While this 
work was being carried on, Hilkiah, the 
high priest, discovered a roll, which was 
probably the original copy of the law — the 
entire Pentateuch — written by the hand 
of Moses. Perhaps this roll was found at 
the bottom of one of the treasure-chests 
when it was emptied out, perhaps (as some 
have suggested) built into a wall by some 
worshippers of Jehovah to save it from 
the spoilers in Manasseh's reign, or most 
probably in the ark, which appears to 
have been removed for safety to some hid- 
ing-place. 

When this book was read to him, the 
king was alarmed by the things it con- 
tained, and sent for Huldah, the "pro- 
phetess," for her counsel. She spoke to 
him words of encouragement, telling him 
that he would be gathered to his fathers 
in peace before the threatened days of judg- 
ment came. Josiah immediately gathered 
the people together, and engaged them in 
a renewal of their ancient national cove- 
nant with God. The Passover was then 
celebrated, as in the days of his great 
predecessor, Hezekiah, with unusual mag- 
nificence. Nevertheless, " the Lord turned 
not from the fierceness of his great wrath 
wherewith his anger was kindled against 
Judah" (2 Kings 22:3-20; 23:21-27; 2 
Chr. 35 : 1-19). During the progress of this 
great religious revolution Jeremiah helped 
it on by his earnest exhortations. 

Soon after this, Pharaoh-Necho II. {q.v.), 
king of Egypt, in an expedition against 
the king of Assyria, with the view of gain- 
ing possession of Carchemish, sought a 
passage through the territory of Judah 



for his army. This Josiah refused to per- 
mit. He had probably entered into some 
new alliance with the king of Assyria, and 
faithful to his word he sought to oppose 
the progress of Necho. 

The army of Judah went out and en- 
countered that of Egypt at Megiddo, on 
the verge of the plain of Esdraelon. Josiah 
went into the field in disguise, and was 
fatally wounded by a random arrow. His 
attendants conveyed him toward Jeru- 
salem, but had only reached Hadadrim- 
mon, a few miles south of Megiddo, when 
he died (2 Kings 23 : 28, 30 ; comp. 2 Chr. 
35 : 20-27), after a reign of thirty-one years. 
He was buried with the greatest honours 
in fulfilment of Huldah's prophecy (2 Kings 
22 : 20 ; comp. Jer. 34 : 5). Jeremiah com- 
posed a funeral elegy on this the best of the 
kings of Israel (Lam. 4 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 35 : 25). 
The outburst of national grief on account 
of his death became proverbial (Zech. 12 : 
11 ; comp. Kev. 16 : IG). 

It is worthy of notice that this Egyptian 
expedition is only mentioned in the Book 
of Kings, where it is spoken of as directed 
against the king of Assyria. By this time, 
however, Assyria had fallen under the do- 
minion of Babylon, which was ruled by 
Nabopolassar. 

(2.) The son of Zephaniah, and a resident 
in Jerusalem after the Captivity (Zech. 
6 : 10). 

Jot or Iota, the smallest letter of the 
Greek alphabet, used metaphorically or 
proverbially for the smallest thing (Matt. 
5 : 18) ; or it may be = i/od, which is the 
smallest of the Hebrew letters. 

Jot^bah — goodness — a town of Judah, 
the residence of Haruz, whose daughter 
Meshullemeth became the wife of King 
Manasseh (2 Kings 21 : 19). 

Jot^bathah — goodness — one of the sta- 
tions of the Israelites during their wander- 
ings (Num. 33 : 33, 34 ; Deut. 10 : 7). 

Jo^tham — Jehovah is perfect. (1.) The 
youngest of Gideon's seventy sons. He 
escaped when the rest were put to death 
by the order of Abimelech ( Judg. 9 : 5). 
When " the citizens of Shechem and the 
whole house of Millo " were gathered to- 
gether "by the plain of the pillar" {i.e., 



JOURNEY 



395 



JUDA 



the stone set up by Joshua — 24 : 26 ; comp. 
Gen. 35 : 4) " that was in Shechem, to make 
Abimelech king, " from one of the heights 
of Mount Gerizim he protested against 
their doing so in the earliest jjarable, that 
of the bramble-king. His words then 
spoken were prophetic. There came a 
recoil in the feelings of the people toward 
Abimelech, and then a terrible revenge, 
in which many were slain and the city 
of Shechem was destroyed by Abimelech 
( Judg. 9 : 45). Having delivered his warn- 
ing, Jotham fled to Beer from the venge- 
ance of Abimelech (9 : 7-21). 

(2. ) The son and successor of Uzziah on 
the throne of Judah. As during his last 
years Uzziah was excluded from public life 
on account of his leprosy, his son, then 
twenty -five years of age, administered for 
seven years the affairs of the kingdom in 
his father's stead (2 Chr. 26 : 21, 23 ; 27 : 1). 
After his father's death he became sole 
monarch, and reigned for sixteen years 
(B.C. 759-743). He ruled in the fear of God, 
and his reign was prosperous. He was 
contemporary with the prophets Isaiah, 
Hosea, and Micah, by whose ministra- 
tions he profited. He was buried in the 
sepulchre of the kings, greatly lamented 
by the people (2 Kings 15 : 38 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 
3-9). 

Jour''ney. (1.) A day's journey in the 
East is from 16 to 20 miles (Num. 11 : 31). 

(2.) A Sabbath-day's journey is 2,000 
paces or yards from the city walls (Acts 
1 : 12), According to Jewish tradition, it 
was the distance one might travel without 
violating the law of Ex. 16 : 29. (See Sab- 
bath. ) 

Joz''abad — xvhom Jehovah bestotvs. (1.) 
One of the Benjamite archers who joined 
Davijd at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 4). 

(2.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh 
(1 Chr. 12 : 20). 

(3.) A Levite, one of those Avho had 
charge of the temple offerings (2 Chr. 31 : 
13). 

(4.) A Levite chief who took part in the 
Great Passover (2 Chr. 35 : 9). 

(5.) Ezra 8: 33. 

Joz''achar — Jehovah - remembered — one 
of the two servants who assassinated Je- 



hoash, the king of Judah, in Millo (2 Kings 
12 : 21). He is called also Zabad (2 Chr. 
24 : 26). 

JvL^hal— jubilee, music — Lamech's second 
son by Adah, of the line of Cain. He was 
the inventor of "the harp"(Heb. Tcinnor, 
properly "lyre") and "the organ "(Heb. 
^ugdb, properly "mouth-organ" or Pan's 
pipe) — Gen. 4 : 21. 

Jubilee — a joyful shout or clangour of 
trumpets — the name of the great semi- 
centennial festival of the Hebrews. It 
lasted for a year. During this year the 
land was to be fallow, and the Israelites 
were only permitted to gather the spon- 
taneous produce of the fields (Lev. 25 : 11, 
12). All landed property during that year 
reverted to its original owner (13-34 ; 27 : 
16-24), and all who were slaves were set 
free (25 : 39-54), and all debts were re- 
mitted. 

The return of the jubilee year was pro- 
claimed by a blast of trumpets which 
sounded throughout the land. There is no 
record in Scripture of the actual observance 
of this festival, but there are numerous 
allusions (Isa. 5 : 7, 8, 9, 10; 61 : 1, 2; Ezek. 
7:12, 13; Neh. 5:1-19; 2 Chr. 36:24) 
which place it beyond a doubt that it was 
observed. 

The advantages of this institution were 
manifold. "1. It would prevent the accu- 
mulation of land on the part of a few to 
the detriment of the community at large. 
2. It would render it impossible for any 
one to be born to absolute poverty, since 
every one had his hereditary land. 3. It 
would preclude those inequalities which 
are produced by extremes of riches and 
poverty, and which make one man domi- 
neer over another. 4. It would utterly do 
away with slavery. 5. It would afford a 
fresh opportunity to those who were re- 
duced by adverse circumstances to begin 
again their career of industry in the patri- 
mony which they had temporarily forfeited. 
6. It would periodically rectify the dis- 
orders which crept into the state in the 
course of time, preclude the division of the 
people into nobles and plebeians, and pre- 
serve the theocracy inviolate. " 

Ju^da. (1.) The patriarch Judah, son 

26 



JUDAH 



396 



JUDAH 



of Jacob (Luke 3:33; Heb. 7:14). In 
Liike 1 : 39 ; Heb. 7 : 14 ; Rev. 5:5; 7:5, 
the word refers to the tribe of Judah. 

(2.) The father of Simeon in Christ's 
maternal ancestry (Luke 3 : 30). 

(3.) Son of Joanna, and father of Joseph 
in Christ's maternal ancestry (26), probably 
identical with Abiud (Matt. 1 : 13), and 
with Obadiah (1 Chr. 3 : 21). 

(4. ) One of the Lord's "brethren " (Mark 
6:3). 

Ju'^dah — -praise — the fourth son of Jacob 
by Leah. The name originated in Leah's 
words of praise to the Lord on account of 
his birth : "Now will I praise [Heb. odeK] 
Jehovah, and she called his name YehUdah " 
(Gen. 29 : 35). 

It was Judah that interposed in behalf 
of Joseph, so that his life was spared (Gen. 
37 : 26, 27). He took a lead in the affairs 
of the family, and "prevailed above his 
brethren" (Gen. 43:3-10; 44:14, 16-34; 
46 : 28 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 2). 

Soon after the sale of Joseph to the Ish- 
maelites, Judah went to reside at Adullam, 
where he married a woman of Canaan. 
(See On AN and Tamar.) After the death 
of his wife Shuah, he returned to his 
father's house, and there exercised much 
influence over the patriarch, taking a prin- 
cipal part in the events which led to the 
whole family at length going down into 
Egypt, We hear nothing more of him till 
he received his father's blessing (Gen. 49 : 
8-12). 

Ju''dah, Tribe of. Judah and his three 
surviving sons went down with Jacob into 
Egypt (Gen. 46:12; Ex. 1:2). At the 
time of the Exodus, when we meet with 
the family of Judah again, they have in- 
creased to the number of 74,000 males 
(Num. 1 : 26, 27). Its number increased in 
the wilderness (26 : 22). Caleb, the son of 
Jephunneh, represented the tribe as one of 
the spies (13 : 6 ; 34 : 19). This tribe marched 
at the van on the east of the tabernacle 
(Num. 2 : 3-9 ; 10 : 14), its standard, as is sup- 
posed, being a lion's whelp. Under Caleb, 
during the wars of conquest, they con- 
quered that portion of the country which 
was afterwards assigned to them as their 
inheritance. This was the only case in 



which any tribe had its inheritance thus 
determined (Josh. 14 : 6-15; 15 : 13-19). 

The inheritance of the tribe of Judah 
was at first fully one-third of the whole 
country west of Jordan, in all about 2,300 
square miles (Josh. 15). But there was a 
second distribution, when Simeon received 
an allotment, about 1,000 square miles, 
out of the portion of Judah (Josh. 19 : 9). 
That which remained to Judah was still 
very large in pro]Dortion to the inheritance 
of the other tribes. The boundaries of 
the territory are described in Josh. 15 : 
20-63. 

This territory given to Judah was divi- 
ded into four sections. (1.) The south 
(Heb. negeb), the undulating pasture- 
ground between the hills and the desert 
to the south (Josh. 15 : 21. ) This extent 
of pasture-land became famous as the 
favourite camping-ground of the old patri- 
archs. (2.) The " valley " (15 : 33) or low- 
land (Heb. shephelah), a broad strip lying 
between the central highlands and the 
Mediterranean. This tract was the garden 
as well as the granarj;' of the tribe. (3. ) The 
' ' hill-country, " or the mountains of Judah, 
an elevated plateau stretching from below 
Hebron northward to Jerusalem. "The 
towns and villages were generally perched 
on the tops of hills or on rocky slopes. 
The resources of the soil were great. The 
country was rich in corn, wine, oil, and 
fruit ; and the daring shepherds were able 
to lead their flocks far out over the neigh- 
bouring plains and through the mountains. " 
The number of towns in this district was 
thirty -eight (Josh. 15:48-60). (4.) The 
"wilderness," the sunken district next 
the Dead Sea (Josh. 15:6), "averaging 
10 miles in breadth, a wild, barren, un- 
inhabitable region, fit only to afford scanty 
pasturage for sheep and goats and a secure 
home for leopards, bears, wild goats, and 
outlaws " (1 Sam. 17 : 34; 22 : 1 ; Mark 1 : 
13). It was divided into the "wilderness 
of En-gedi " (1 Sam. 24 : 1), the "wilderness 
of Judah " ( Judg. 1 : 16 ; Matt. 3 : 1), be- 
tween the Hebron mountain range and 
the Dead Sea, the "wilderness of Maon" 
(1 Sam. 23 : 24). It contained only six 
cities. 



JUDAH 



397 



JUDE 



Nine of the cities of Judah were assigned 
to the priests (Josh. 21 : 9-19). 

Ju^dah upon Jordan. The Authorized 
Version, following the Vulgate, has this 
rendering in Josh. 19 : 34. It has been 
suggested that, following the Masoretic 
punctuation, the expression should read 
thus, "and Judah; the Jordan was toward 
the sun-rising." The sixty cities (Havoth- 
jair. Num. 32 : 41) on the east of Jordan 
were reckoned as belonging to Judah, be- 
cause Jair, their founder, was a Manassite 
only on his mother's side, but on his father's 
side of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 2 : 5, 21- 
23). 

Ju^dah, Kingdom of. When the dis- 
ruption took place at Shechem, at first 
only the tribe of Judah followed the house 
of David. But very soon after the tribe 
of Benjamin joined the tribe of Judah, 
and Jerusalem became the capital of the 
new kingdom (Josh. 18 : 28), which was 
called the kingdom of Judah. It was very 
small in extent, being only about the size 
of the Scottish coixnty of Perth. 

For the first sixty years the kings of 
Judah aimed at re-establishing their autho- 
rity over the kingdom of the other ten 
tribes, so that there was a state of per- 
petual war between them. For the next 
eighty years there was no open war be- 
tween them. For the most part they were 
in friendly alliance, co-operating against 
their common enemies, especially against 
Damascus. For about another century and 
a half Judah had a somewhat checkered 
existence after the termination of the king- 
dom of Israel till its final overthrow in the 
destruction of the temple (b.o. 586) by 
Nebuzar-adan, who was captain of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's body-guard (2 Kings 25 : 8-21). 
The kingdom maintained a separate ex- 
istence for three hundred and eighty-nine 
years. It occupied an area of 3,435 square 
miles. (See Israel, Kingdom of. ) 

Ju^das, the Grsecized form of Judah. 
(1.) The patriarch (Matt. 1:2, 3). 

(2.) Son of Simon (John 6:71; 13:2, 
26), surnamed Iscariot — i.e., a man of 
Kerioth (Josh. 15 : 25). His name is uni- 
formly the last in the list of the apostles, 
as given in the synoptic {i.e., the first three) 



Gospels. The evil of his nature probably 
gradually unfolded itself till "Satan en- 
tered into him" (John 13:27), and he be- 
trayed our Lord (18 : 3). Afterwards he 
owned his sin with "an exceeding bitter 
cry, " and cast the money he had received 
as the wages of his iniquity down on the 
floor of the sanctuary, and "departed and 
went and hanged himself " (Matt. 27 : 5). 
He perished in his guilt, and "went unto 
his own place " (Acts 1 : 25). The state- 
ment in Acts 1 : 18 that he " fell headlong 
and burst asunder in the midst, and all his 
bowels gushed out, " is in no way contrary 
to that in Matt. 27 : 5. The suicide first 
hanged himself, perhaps over the valley 
of Hinnom, "and the rope giving way, or 
the branch to which he hung breaking, he 
fell down headlong on his face, and was 
crushed and mangled on the rocky pave- 
ment below." 

Why such a man was chosen to be an 
apostle we know not, but it is written 
that "Jesus knew from the beginning who 
should betray him " (John 6 : 64). Nor can 
any answer be satisfactorily given to the 
question as to the motives that led Judas 
to betray his Master. "Of the motives 
that have been assigned we need not care 
to fix on any one as that which simply led 
him on. Crime is, for the most part, the 
result of a hundred motives rushing with 
bewildering fury through the mind of the 
criminal." 

(3.) A Jew of Damascus (Acts 9 : 11), to 
whose house Ananias was sent. The street 
called " Straight " in which it was situated 
is identified with the modern "street of 
bazaars," where is still pointed out the so- 
called "house of Judas." 

(4. ) A Christian teacher, surnamed Bar- 
sabas. He was sent from Jerusalem to 
Antioch along -with Paul and Barnabas 
with the decision of the council (Acts 15 : 
22, 27, 32). He was a "prophet" and a 
" chief man among the brethren." 

Jude = Judas. Among the apostles 
there were two who bore this name — (1) 
Judas (Jude 1 ; Matt. 13 : 55 ; John 14 : 22 ; 
Acts 1 : 13), called also Lebbaeus or Thad- 
d£eus (Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 18) ; and (2) 
Judas Iscariot (Matt. 10 : 4 ; Mark 3 : 19). 



JUDE 



398 



JUDGE 



He who is called "the brother of James " 
(Luke 6 : 16), may be the same with the 
Judas surnamed Lebbaeus. The only thing 
recorded regarding him is in John 14 : 22. 

Jude, Epistle of. The author was 
"Judas, the brother of James" the Less 
(Jude 1), called also Lebbaeus (Matt. 10 : 3) 
and Thaddaeus (Mark 3 : 18). The genuine- 
ness of this epistle was early questioned, 
and doubts regarding it were revived at 
the time of the Reformation ; but the evi- 
dences in support of its claims are complete. 
It has all the marks of having proceeded 
from the writer whose name it bears. 

There is nothing very definite to deter- 
mine the time and place at which it was 
written. It was apparently written in the 
later period of the apostolic age, for when 
it was written there were persons still alive 
who had heard the apostles preach (ver. 17). 
It may thus have been written about A.D. 
66 or 70, and apparently in Palestine. 

The epistle is addressed to Christians in 
general (ver. 1), and its design is to put 
them on their guard against the misleading 
efforts of a certain class of errorists to 
which they were exposed. The style of 
the epistle is that of an " impassioned in- 
vective, in the impetuous whirlwind of 
which the writer is hurried along, collecting 
example after example of divine vengeance 
on the ungodly; heaping epithet upon 
epithet, and piling image upon image, and, 
as it were, labouring for words and images 
strong enough to depict the polluted char- 
acter of the licentious apostates against 
whom he is warning the Church ; returning 
again and again to the subject, as though 
all language was insufficient to give an 
adequate idea of their profligacy, and to 
express his burning hatred of their per- 
version of the doctrines of the gospel. " 

The striking resemblance this epistle 
bears to 2 Peter suggests the idea that the 
author of the one had seen the epistle of 
the other. 

The doxology with which the epistle 
concludes is regarded as the finest in the 
New Testament. 

Jude^a. After the Captivity this name 
was applied to the whole of the country 
west of the Jordan (Hag. 1:1, 14 ; 2:2). 



But under the Romans, in the time of 

Christ, it denoted the southernmost of the 
three divisions of Palestine (Matt. 2:1, 5; 
3:1; 4 : 25), although it was also sometimes 
used for Palestine generally (Acts 28 : 21). 

The province of Judea, as distinguished 
from Galilee and Samaria, included the 
territories of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, 
Dan, Simeon, and part of Ephraim. Under 
the Romans it was a part of the province 
of Syria, and was governed by a procurator. 

Judge (Heb. shSphet, pi. shophetim), 
properly a magistrate or ruler, rather than 
one who judges in the sense of trying a 
cause. This is the name given to those 
rulers who presided over the affairs of the 
Israelites during the interval between the 
death of Joshua and the accession of Saul 
(Judg. 2 : 18) — a period of general anarchy 
and confusion. "The office of judges or 
regents was held during hfe, but it was 
not hereditary, neither could they appoint 
their successors. Their authority was lim- 
ited by the law alone, and in doubtful cases 
they were directed to consult the divine King 
through the priest by Urim and Thummim 
(Num. 27 : 21), Their authority extended 
only over those tribes by whom they had 
been elected or acknowledged. There was, 
no income attached to their office, and they 
bore no external marks of dignity. The 
only cases of direct divine appointment are 
those of Gideon and Samson, and the 
latter stood in the peculiar position of hav- 
ing been from before his birth ordained 
' to begin to deliver Israel. ' Deborah was 
called to deliver Israel, but was already a 
judge. Samuel was called by the Lord to 
be a prophet but not a judge, which ensued 
from the high gifts the people recognized 
as dwelling in him; and as to Eli, the 
office of judge seems to have devolved 
naturally or rather ex officio upon him." 
Of five of the judges— Tola (Judg. 10 : 1), 
Jair (3), Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon (12 : 8-15) 
— we have no record at all beyond the bare 
fact that they were judges. Sacred history 
is not the history of individuals but of the 
kingdom of God in its onward progress. 

In Ex. 2 : 14 Moses is so styled. This 
fact may indicate that while for revenue 
purposes the "taskmasters " were over the 



JUDGES 



399 



JUDGMENT 



people, they were yet, just as at a later 
time when under the Romans, governed by 
their own rulers. 

Judges, Book of, is so called because 
it contains the history of the deliverance 
and government of Israel by the men who 
bore the title of the "judges." The book 
of Ruth originally formed part of this book, 
but about A.D. 450 it was separated from 
it and placed in the Hebrew scriptures im- 
mediately after the Song of Solomon. 

The book contains — (1. ) An introduction 
(1-3 : 6), connecting it with the previous 
narrative in Joshua, as a "link in the 
chain of books." (2.) The history of the 
thirteen judges (3 : 7-ch. 16 : 31) in the fol- 
lowing order : — 

FIEST PEEIOD (3 : 7-ch. 5). 

Tears. 
I. Servitude under Chushan-rishathaim of 
Mesopotamia 8 

1. Othniel delivers Israel — rest 40 

II. Servitude under Eglon of Moab: Am- 

mon, Amalek 18 

2. Ehud's deliverance — rest 80 

3. Shamgar Unknown. 

III. Servitude under Jabin of Hazor in 

Canaan 20 

4. Deborah 1 

5. Barak j _ 

206 

SECOND PEEIOD (6-10 : 5). 

IV. Servitude under Midian, Amalek, and 

children of the east 7 

6. Gideon 40 

Abimelech, Gideon's son, reigns as 

king over Israel 3 

7. Tola 23 

8. Jair 22 

95 
THIED PEEIOD (10 : 6-ch. 12). 

V. Servitude under Ammonites with the 
Philistines 18 

9. Jephthah 6 

10. Ibzan 7 

11. Elon 10 

12. Abdon 8 

49 
FOUETH PEEIOD (13-16). 

VI. Servitude under Philistines 40 

13. Samson 20 

60 
In all 410 



Samson's exploits probably synchronize 
with the period immediately preceding the 
national repentance and reformation under 
Samuel (1 Sam. 7 : 2-6). 

After Samson came Eli, who was both 
high priest and judge. He directed the 
civil and religious affairs of the people for 
forty years, at the close of which the Philis- 
tines again invaded the land and oppressed 
it for twenty years. Samuel was raised up 
to deliver the people from this oppression, 
and he judged Israel for some twelve years, 
when the direction of affairs fell into the 
hands of Saul, who was anointed king. 
If Eli and Samuel are included, there were 
then fifteen judges. But the chronology 
of this whole period is uncertain. 

(3.) The historic section of the book is 
followed by an appendix (17-21), which has 
no formal connection with that which goes 
before. It records (a) the conquest (17, 
18) of Laish by a portion of the tribe of 
Dan; and (b) the almost total extinction 
of the tribe of Benjamin by the other tribes, 
in consequence of their assisting the men 
of Gibeah (19-21). This section properly 
belongs to the period only a few years 
after the death of Joshua. It shows the 
religious and moral degeneracy of the 
people. 

The author of this book was most prob- 
ably Samuel. The internal evidence both 
of the first sixteen chapters and of the 
appendix warrants this conclusion. It 
was probably composed during Saul's reign, 
or at the very beginning of David's. The 
words in 18 : 30, 31, imply that it was 
written after the taking of the ark by the 
Philistines, and after it was set up at Nob 
(1 Sam. 21). In David's reign the ark was 
at Gibeon (1 Chr. 16 : 39). 

Judgement hall — Gr. praitorion (John 
18 : 28, 33 ; 19 : 9 ; Matt. 27 : 27)— " common 
hall." In all these passages the Revised 
Version renders "palace." In Mark 15: 
16 the word is rendered " Prsetorium " 
(g.f.), which is a Latin word, meaning 
literally the residence of the praetor, and 
then the governor's residence in general, 
though not a prsator. Throughout the 
Gospels the word "praitorion" has this 
meaning (comp. Acts 23 : 35). Pilate's 



JUDGMENT 



400 



JUNIPER 



official residence when he was in Jerusalem 
was probably a part of the fortress of 
Antonia. 

The trial of our Lord was carried on in a 
room or office of the palace. The "whole 
band " spoken of by Mark were gathered 
together in the palace court. 

Judgement, The final, the sentence that 
will be passed on our actions at the last 
day (Matt. 25 ; Rom. 14 : 10, 11; 2 Cor. 5 : 
10; 2Thess. 1:7-10). 

The judge is Jesus Christ, as mediator. 
All judgment is committed to him (Acts 
17:31; John 5:22, 27; Rev. 1:7). "It 
pertains to him as mediator to complete 
and publicly manifest the salvation of his 
people and the overthrow of his enemies, 
together with the glorious righteousness of 
his work in both respects." 

The persons to be judged are — (1) the 
whole race of Adam without a single ex- 
ception (Matt. 25:31-46; 1 Cor. 15:51, 
52; Rev. 20:11-15); and (2) the fallen 
angels (2 Pet. 2:4; Jude 6). 

The rule of judgment is the standard of 
God's law as revealed to men — the heathen 
by the law as written on their hearts (Luke 
12:47, 48; Rom. 2:12-16); the Jew who 
" sinned in the law shall be judged by the 
law " (Rom. 2 : 12) ; the Christian enjoying 
the light of revelation, by the will of God 
as made known to him (Matt. 11 : 20-24 ; 
John 3 : 19). Then the secrets of all hearts 
will be brought to light (1 Cor. 4:5; Luke 
8 : 17 ; 12 : 2, 3) to vindicate the justice of 
the sentence pronounced. 

The time of the judgment will be after 
the resurrection (Heb. 9:27; Acts 17: 
31). 

As the Scriptures represent the final 
judgment "as certain [Eccl. 11:9], uni- 
versal [2 Cor. 5 : 10], righteous [Rom. 2 : 5], 
decisive [1 Cor. 15 : 52], and eternal as to 
its consequences [Heb. 6 : 2], let us be con- 
cerned for the welfare of our immortal in- 
terests, flee to the refuge set before us, 
improve our precious time, depend on the 
merits of the Redeemer, and adhere to the 
dictates of the divine word, that we may 
be found of him in peace." 

Judgements of God. (1.) The secret 
decisions of God's will (Ps. 110:5; 36:6). 



(2.) The revelations of his will (Ex. 21 : 1; 
Deut. 6:12; Ps. 119:7-175). (3.) The in- 
fliction of punishment on the wicked (Ex. 
6 : 6 ; 12 : 12 ; Ezek. 25 : 11 ; Rev. 16 : 7), such 
as is mentioned in Gen. 7 ; 19 : 24, 25 ; Judg. 
1:6, 7; Acts 5: 1-10, etc. 

Judgement seat (Matt. 27 : 19), a port- 
able tribunal (Gr. hema) which was placed 
according as the magistrate might direct, 
and from which judgment was pronounced. 
In this case it was placed on a tesselated 
pavement, probably in front of the pro- 
curator's residence. (See Gabbatha.) 

Ju'^dith — Jeioess — the daughter of Beeri 
the Hittite, and one of Esau's wives (Gen. 
26 : 34), elsewhere called Aholibamah (36 : 
2-14). 

Julia, a Christian woman at Rome to 
whom Paul sent his salutations (Rom. 16 : 
15), supposed to be the wife of Philologus. 

Ju^lius, the centurion of the Augustan 
cohort, or the emperor's body-guard, in 
whose charge Paul was sent prisoner to 
Rome (Acts 27:1, 3, 43). He entreated 
Paul " courteously," showing in many ways 
a friendly regard for him. 

Ju'nia (Rom. 16 : 7), a Christian at 
Rome to whom Paul sends salutations 
along with Andronicus. 

Ju^niper (Heb. rothem), called by the 
Arabs retem, and known as Spanish broom; 
ranked under the genus genista. It is a 




desert shrub, and abounds in many parts 
of Palestine. In the account of his journey 
from Akabah to Jerusalem, Dr. Robinson 
says : ' ' This is the largest and most con- 



JUPITER 



401 



JUSTIFICATION 



spicuous shrub of these deserts, growing 
thickly in the water-courses and valleys. 
Our Arabs always selected the place of 
encampment, if possible, in a spot where 
it grew, in order to be sheltered by it at 
night from the wind ; and during the day, 
when they often went on in advance of the 
camels, we found them not unfrequently 
sitting or sleeping under a bush of retem to 
shelter them from the sun. It was in this 
very desert, a day's journey from Beer- 
sheba, that the prophet Elijah lay down 
and slept beneath the same shrub " (1 Kings 
19 : 4, 5). It afforded material for fuel, and 
also in cases of extremity for human food 
(Ps. 120:4; Job 30:4). One of the en- 
campments in the wilderness of Paran is 
called Rithmah— I.e., "place of broom" 
(Num. 33 : 18). 

"The Bedawln of Sinai still burn this 
very plant into a charcoal which throws 
out the most intense heat. " 

Ju''piter, the principal deity of the an- 
cient Greeks and Romans. He was wor- 
shipped by them under various epithets. 
Barnabas was identified with this god by 
the Lycaonians (Acts 14 : 12), because he 
was of stately and commanding presence, 
as they supposed Jupiter to be. There was 
a temple dedicated to this god outside the 
gates of Lystra (14 : 13). 

Jus''tice is rendering to every one that 
which is his due. It has been distinguished 
from equity in this respect, that while 
justice means merely the doing what posi- 
tive law demands, equity means the doing 
of what is fair and right in every separate 
case. 

Jus'tice of God, that perfection of his 
nature whereby he is infinitely righteous 
in himself and in all he does — the righteous- 
ness of the divine nature exercised in his 
moral government. At first God imposes 
righteous laws on his creatures and executes 
them righteously. Justice is not an op- 
tional product of his will, but an unchange- 
able principle of his very nature. His 
legislative justice is his requiring of his 
rational creatures conformity in all respects 
to the moral law. His rectoral or distrib- 
utive justice is his dealing with his ac- 
countable creatures according to the re- 



quirements of the law in rewarding or 
punishing them (Ps. 89 : 14). In remuner- 
ative justice he distributes rewards (James 
1 : 12 ; 2 Tim. 4:8); in vindictive or puni- 
tive justice he inflicts punishment on ac- 
count of transgression (2 Thess. 1 : 6). He 
cannot, as being infinitely righteous, do 
otherwise than regard and hate sin as in- 
trinsically hateful and deserving of punish- 
ment. "He cannot deny himself " (2 Tim. 
2 : 13), His essential and eternal righteous- 
ness immutably determines him to visit 
every sin as such with merited punish- 
ment. 

Justifica'tion, a forensic term, opposed 
to condemnation. 

As regards its nature, it is the judicial 
act of God, by which he pardons all the 
sins of those who believe in Christ, and 
accoimts, accepts, and treats them as 
righteous in the eye of the law — i.e., as 
conformed to all its demands. In addition 
to the pardon [q.v.) of sin, justification de- 
clares that all the claims of the law are 
satisfied in respect of the justified. It is 
the act of a judge and not of a sovereign. 
The law is not relaxed or set aside, but is 
declared to be fulfilled in the strictest 
sense ; and so the person justified is de- 
clared to be entitled to all the advantages 
and rewards arising from perfect obedience 
to the law (Rom. 5 : 1-10). 

It proceeds on the imputing or crediting 
to the believer by God himself of the per- 
fect righteousness, active and passive, of 
his Representative and Surety, Jesus 
Christ (Rom. 10 : 3-9). Justification is 
not the forgiveness of a man without right- 
eousness, but a declaration that he possesses 
a righteousness which perfectly and for 
ever satisfies the law — namely, Christ's 
righteousness (2 Cor. 5 : 21; Rom. 4 : G-8). 

The sole condition on which this right- 
eousness is imputed or credited to the be- 
liever is faith in or on the Lord Jesus 
Christ. Eaith is called a " condition," not 
because it possesses any merit, but only 
because it is the instrument, the only in- 
strument, by which the soul appropriates 
or apprehends Christ and his righteousness 
(Rom. 1 : 17 ; 3 : 25, 26 ; 4 : 20, 22 ; Phil. 3 : 
8-11 ; Gal. 2 : 16). 



JUSTUS 



402 



KADESH 



The act of faith which thus secures our 
justification secures also at the same time 
our sanctification {q.v.); and thus the doc- 
trine of justification by faith does not lead 
to licentiousness (Rom. 6 : 2-7). Good 
works, while not the ground, are the cer- 
tain consequence of justification (6 : 14 ; 
7 : 6). (See Galatians, Epistle to.) 

Jus^tus. (1. ) Another name for Joseph, 
surnamed Barsabas. He and Matthias are 
mentioned only in Acts 1 : 23. " They must 
have been among the earliest disciples of 
Jesus, and must have been faithful to the 
end ; they must have been well known and 
esteemed among the brethren. What be- 
came of them afterwards, and what work 
they did, are entirely unknown " (Lindsay's 
Acts of the Apostles). 



(2.) A Jewish proselyte at Corinth, in 
whose house, next door to the synagogue, 
Paul held meetings and preached after he 
left the synagogue (Acts 18 : 7). 

(3.) A Jewish Christian, called Jesus, 
Paul's only fellow -labourer at Rome, where 
he wrote his Epistle to the Colossians (Col. 
4 : 11). 

Jut^tah — extended — a Levitical city in 
the mountains or hill-country of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 55 ; 21 : 16). Its modern name 
is Yutta, a place about 5| miles south of 
Hebron. It is supposed to have been the 
residence of Zacharias and Elisabeth, and 
the birthplace of John the Baptist, and on 
this account is annually visited by thoiT- 
sands of pilgrims belonging to the Greek 
Church (Luke 1 : 39). (See Maky. ) 



K 



Kab^zeel — gathering of God — a city in 
the extreme south of Judah, near to 
Idumsea (Josh. 15 : 21), the birthplace of 
Benaiah, one of David's chief warriors 
(2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 22). It was 
called also Jekabzeel (Neh. 11 : 25), after 
the Captivity. 

Ka'desh — holy — or Kadesh-Barnea — 
sacred desert of wandering — a place on the 
south-eastern border of Palestine, about 165 
miles from Horeb. It lay in the " wilder- 
ness " or "desert of Zin " (Gen. 14:7; 
Num. 13:3-26; 14:29-33; 20:1; 27:14), 
on the border of Edom (20 : 16). Erom 
this place, in compliance with the desire 
of the people, Moses sent forth "twelve 
spies " to spy the land. After examining 
it in all its districts, the spies brought 
back an evil report, Joshua and Caleb 
alone giving a good report of the land (13 : 
18-31). Influenced by the discouraging 
report, the people abandoned all hope of 
entering into the Promised Land. They 
remained a considerable time in the camp 
at Kadesh. (See Hormah, Kokah.) Be- 
cause of their unbelief, they were con- 
demned by God to an aimless wandering 
for thirty-eight years in the wilderness, 



till all that guilty generation had perished. 
They took their journey from Kadesh into 
the deserts of Paran, " by way of the Red 
Sea " (Deut. 2 : 1). 

At the end of these years of wanderings, 
the tribes were a second time gathered to- 
gether at Kadesh. During their stay here 
at this time Miriam died and was buried. 
Here the people murmured for want of 
water, as their forefathers had done for- 
merly at Rephidim ; and Moses, irritated 
by their chidings, " with his rod smote the 
rock twice," instead of "speaking to the 
rock before their eyes," as the Lord had 
commanded him (comp. Num. 27 : 14 ; 
Deut. 9 : 23 ; Ps. 106 : 32, 33). Because of 
this act of his, in which Aaron too was 
involved, neither of them was to be per- 
mitted to set foot within the Promised 
Land (Num. 20 : 12, 24). The king of Edom 
would not permit them to pass on through 
his territory, and therefore they com- 
menced an eastward march, and "came 
unto Mount Hor " (20 : 22). 

This place has been identified with ^Ain 
el-Kadeis, about 12 miles east-south-east 
of Beersheba. (See Spiks.) 

Ka^desh, the sacred city of the Hittites, 



KADMIEL 



403 



KEDESH 



on the left bank of the Orontes, about 4 
miles south of the Lake of Homs. It is 
identified with the great mound Tell Neby 
Mendeh, some 50 to 100 feet high, and 400 
yards long. On the ruins of the temple of 
Karnak, in Egypt, has been found an in- 
scription recording the capture of this city 
byRamesesII. (See Phaeaoh.) Here the 
sculptor " has chiselled in deep work on 
the stone, with a bold execution of the 
several parts, the procession of the warriors, 
the battle before Kadesh, the storming of 
the fortress, the overthrow of the enemy, 
and the camp life of the Egyptians." (See 

HiTTITES.) 

Kad^miel — hefore God; i.e., his servant 
— one of the Levites who returned uith 
Zerubbabel from the Captivity (Neh. 9:4; 
10 : 9 ; 12 : 8). 

Kad'monites — Orientals — the name of 
a Canaanitish tribe which inhabited the 
north-eastern part of Palestine in the time 
of Abraham (Gen. 15 : 19). Probably they 
were identical with the "children of the 
east," who inhabited the coimtry between 
Palestine and the Euphrates. 

Ka^nah — reedy; brook of reeds. (1.) A 
stream forming the boundary between Eph- 
raim and Manasseh, from the Mediterra- 
nean eastward to Tappuah (Josh. 16 : 8). It 
has been identified with the sedgy streams 
that constitute the Wcldy Talaik, which 
enters the sea between Joppa and Csesarea. 
Others identify it with the river ^Aujeh. 

(2. ) A town in the north of Asher (Josh. 
19 : 28). It has been identified with Mm- 
Kana, a village on the brow of a valley 
some 6 miles south-east of Tyre. About a 
mile north of this place are many colossal 
ruins strown about. And in the side of a 
neighbouring ravine are figures of men, 
women, and children cut in the face of the 
rock. These are supposed to be of Phoe- 
nician origin. 

Kare^ah— &aZcZ — the father of Johanan 
and Jonathan, Avho for a time were loyal to 
Gedahah, the Babylonian governor of Jeru- 
salem ( Jer. 40 : 8, 13, 15, 16). 

Karka''a — a floor ; bottom — a place be- 
tween Adar and Azmon, about midway 
between the Mediterranean and the Dead 
Sea (Josh. 15 : 3). 



Kar'kor —/ownrfaiwm — a place in the 
open desert wastes on the east of Jordan 
( Judg. 8 : 10), not far beyond Succoth and 
Penuel, to the south. Here Gideon over- 
took and routed a fugitive band of Midian- 
ites under Zeba and Zalmunna, whom he 
took captive. 

Kar'tah — city — a town in the tribe of 
Zebulun assigned to the Levites of the 
family of Merari (Josh. 21:34). It is 
identical with Kattath (19 : 15), and per- 
haps also with Kitron (Judg. 1 : 30). 

Kar^tan — double city — a town of Naph- 
tali, assigned to the Gershonite Levites, 
and one of the cities of refuge (Josh. 21 : 
32). It is called also Kirjathaim (1 Chr. 
6 : 76). It was probably near the north- 
western shore of the Sea of Tiberias, iden- 
tical with the ruined village el-Katanah. 

Kat^ta (Josh. 19 : 15), a town of Asher, 
has been identified with Kana el Jelil. 
(See Cana.) 

Ke^dar — dark-skinned — the second son 
of Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 13). 

It is the name for the nomadic tribes of 
Arabs, the Bedomns generally (Isa. 21 : 
16; 42:11; 60:7; Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27: 
21), who dwelt in the north-west of Arabia. 
They lived in black hair-tents (Cant. 1 : 5). 
To " dwell in the tents of Kedar " was to 
be cut off from the worship of the true 
God (Ps. 120 : 5). The Kedarites suffered 
at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 49 : 
28-33). 

Ked^emah — eastward — the last-named 
of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 15). 

Ked'^emoth — beginnings ; easternmost — a 
city of Reuben, assigned to the Levites of 
the family of Merari (Josh. 13 : 18). It lay 
not far north-east of Dibon-gad, east of the 
Dead Sea. 

Ked'esh— sanciwar?/. (1.) A place in 
the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 23). 
Probably the same as Kadesh -barnea {q.v.). 

(2.) A city of Issachar (1 Chr. 6:72). 
Possibly Tell Abu Kadcis, near Lejjiin. 

(3.) A "fenced city" of Naphtali, one 
of the cities of refuge (Josh. 19 : 37 ; Judg. 
4 : 6). It was assigned to the Gershonite 
Levites (Josh. 21 : 32). It was originally 
a Canaanite royal city (Josh. 12 : 22), and 
was the residence of Barak (Judg. 4:6); 



KEDRON 



404 



KENITES 



and here he and Deborah assembled the 
tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali before the 
commencement of the conflict with Sisera 
in the plain of Esdraelon, "for Jehovah 
among the mighty " (9, 10). In the reign 
of Pekah it was taken by Tiglath-Pileser 
(2 Kings 15 : 29), It was situated near the 
"plain" (rather "the oak") of Zaanaim, 
and has been identified with the modern 
Kedes, on the hills fully fo^ir miles north- 
west of Lake El Hiileh. 

It has been supposed by some that the 
Kedesh of the narrative, where Barak 
assembled his troops, was not the place in 
Upper Galilee so named, which was 30 
miles distant from the plain of Esdraelon, 
but Kedish, on the shore of the Sea of 
Galilee, 12 miles from Tabor. 

Ke^dron, the valley, now quite narrow, 
between the Mount of Olives and Mount 
Moriah. The upper part of it is called the 
Valley of Jehoshaphat. The LXX., in 
1 Kings 15:13, translate "of the cedar." 
The word means "black," and may refer 
to the colour of the water or the gloom of 
the ravine, or the black green of the cedars 
which grew there. John 18 : 1, " Cedron," 
only here in New Testament. (See Kid- 
eon.) 

Kehel''athah — assembly — one of the 
stations of the Israelites in the desert 
(Num. 33 : 22, 23). 

Kei^lah — citadel — a city in the lowlands 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 44). David rescued it 
from the attack of the Philistines (1 Sam. 
23 : 7) ; but the inhabitants proving unfaith- 
ful to him, in that they sought to deliver 
him up to Saul (13), he and his men " de- 
parted from Keilah, and went whithersoever 
they could go." They fled to the hill 
Hareth, about 3 miles to the east, and 
thence through Hebron to Ziph {q.v.). 
"And David was in the wilderness of 
Ziph, in a wood" (1 Sam. 23:15). Here 
Jonathan sought him out, "and strength- 
ened his hand in God." This was the last 
interview between David and Jonathan 
(23:16-18). It is the modern Khurhet 
Kila. Others identify it with Khuioeilfeh, 
between Beit Jibrtn (Eleutheropolis) and 
Beersheba. 

Kenta — divarf — a Levite who assisted 



Ezra in expounding the law to the people 
(Neh. 8 : 7 ; 10 : 10). 

Kemu^el — helper of God, or assembly of 
God. (1.) The third son of Nahor (Gen. 
22 : 21). 

(2.) Son of Shiphtan, appointed on be- 
half of the tribe of Ephraim to partition 
the land of Canaan (Num. 34 • 24). 

(3.) A Levite (1 Chr. 27:17). 

Ke^nath — possessioyi — a city of Gilead. 
It was captured by Nobah, who called it by 
his own name (Num. 32 : 42). It has been 
identified with Kunawdt, on the slopes of 
Jebel Hailran (Mount Bashan), 60 miles 
east from the south end of the Sea of 
Galilee. 

Ke^naz — hunter. (1. ) One of the sons of 
Eliphaz, the son of Esau. He became the 
chief of an Edomitish tribe (Gen. 36 : 11 ; 
15 : 42). 

(2. ) Caleb's younger brother, and father 
of Othniel (Josh. 15 : 17), whose family was 
of importance in Israel down to the time 
of David (1 Chr. 27 : 15). Some think that 
Othniel ( Judg. 1 : 13), and not Kenaz, was 
Caleb's brother. 

(3. ) Caleb's grandson (1 Chr. 4 : 15). 

Ken^ites — smiths — the name of a tribe 
inhabiting the desert lying between south- 
ern Palestine and the mountains of Sinai. 
Jethro was of this tribe (Judg. 1 : 16). He 
is called a " Midianite " (Num. 10:29), 
and hence it is concluded that the Midian- 
ites and the Kenites were the same tribe. 
They were nomads, and roamed over the 
country on the northern border of the 
peninsula of Sinai, and along the eastern 
shore of the Gulf of Akabah (Num. 24 : 21). 
They showed kindness to Israel in their 
journey through the wilderness. They 
accompanied them in their march as far as 
Jericho (Judg. 1 : 16), and then returned 
to their old haunts among the Amalekites, 
in the desert to the south of Judah. They 
sustained afterwards friendly relations 
with the Israelites when settled in Canaan 
(Judg. 4:11, 17-21; 1 Sam. 27:10; 30: 
29). The Rechabites belonged to this 
tribe (1 Chr. 2 : 55) and in the days of Jere- 
miah (35 : 7-10) are referred to as following 
their nomad habits. Saul bade them depart 
from the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15 : 6) when, 



KENIZZITE 



405 



KIBROTH-HATTAAVAH 



iu obedience to the divine commission, he 
was about to "smite Amalek." And his 
reason is, "for ye showed kindness to all 
the children of Israel when they came up 
out of Egypt." Thus "God is not un- 
righteous to forget the kindnesses shown 
to his people ; but they shall be remem- 
bered another day, at the farthest in the 
great day, and recompensed in the resur- 
rection of the just " (M. Henry's Com- 
mentary). They are mentioned for the 
last time in Scripture in 1 Sam. 27 : 10 ; 
comp. 30 : 20. 

Ken^izzite. (1.) The name of a tribe 
referred to in the covenant God made with 
Abraham (Gen. 15 : 19). They are not 
mentioned among the original inhabitants 
of Canaan (Ex. 3:8; Josh. 3 : 10), and 
probably they inhabited some part of 
Arabia, in the confines of Syria. 

(2.) A designation given to Caleb (E,.V., 
Num. 32:12; A.V., Kenezite). 

Ker^chief, mentioned only Ezek. 13 : 
18, 21, as an article of apparel or orna- 
ment applied to the head of the idolatrous 
women of Israel. The precise meaning of 
the word is uncertain. It appears to have 
been a long loose shawl, such as Oriental 
women wrap themselves in (Ruth 3 : 15 ; 
Isa. 3 : 22). Some think that it was a long 
veil or head-dress, denoting by its form 
the position of those who wore it. 

Ke^r en-hap ^puch — horn of the face- 
paint = cosmetic-box — the name of Job's 
third daughter (Job 42 : 14), born after pros- 
perity had returned to him, 

Ker^ioth — cities. (1.) A town in the 
south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 25). Judas the 
traitor was probably a native of this place, 
and hence his name Iscariot. It has been 
identified with the ruins of el-Kureitein, 
about 10 miles south of Hebron. (See 
Hazok [4]). 

(2.) A city of Moab (Jer. 48:24, 41), 
called Kirioth (Amos 2 : 2). 

Kesi'tah (Gen. 33:19, R.V., marg., a 
Hebrew word, rendered, A.V., pi. " pieces 
of money," marg., " lambs ;" Josh. 24 : 32, 
"pieces of silver;" Job 42:11, "piece of 
money "). The kesitah was probably a piece 
of money of a particular weight, cast in 
the form of a lamb. The monuments of 



Egypt show that such weights were used. 
(See Pieces.) 

Ket'tle, a large pot for cooking. The 
same Hebrew word {dud, " boiling ") is ren- 
dered also "pot" (Ps. 81:6), "caldron" 
(2 Chr. 35:13), "basket" (Jer. 24:2). 
It was used for preparing the peace-offer- 
ings (1 Sam. 2 : 13, 14). 

Ketu^rah— mcense— the wife of Abraham, 
whom he married probably after Sarah's 
death (Gen. 25 : 1-6), by whom he had six 
sons, whom he sent away into the east 
country. Her nationality is unknov\Ti. She 
is styled "Abraham's concubine" (1 Chr. 
1 : 32). Through the offshoots of the Ke- 
turah line Abraham became the "father of 
many nations." 

Key, frequently mentioned in Scripture. 
It is called in Hebrew maphteah — i.e., the 
opener ( Judg. 3 : 25) ; and in the Greek 
New Testament kleis, from its use in shut- 
ting (Matt. 16 : 19 ; Liike 11 : 52 ; Rev. 1 : 
18, etc.). Figures of ancient Egyptian 
keys are frequently found on the monu- 
ments, also of Assyrian locks and keys of 
wood, and of a large size (comp. Isa. 
22 : 22). 

The word is used figuratively of poicer 
or authority or office (Isa. 22 : 22 ; Rev. 3 : 
7 ; Rev. 1:8; comp. 9:1; 20 : 1 ; comp. 
also Matt. 16 : 19 ; 18 : 18). The "key of 
knowledge " (Luke 11 : 52 ; comp. Matt. 23 ; 
13) is the means of attaining the knowledge 
regarding the kingdom of God. The 
"power of the keys" is a phrase in 
general use to denote the extent of eccle- 
siastical authority. 

Kezi''a — cassia — the name of Job's 
second daughter (42 : 14), bom after pros- 
perity had returned to him. 

Ke''ziz — abrupt; cut off — a city of the 
tribe of Judah (Josh. 18 : 21). 

Kib'roth-hatta'avah — the graves of the 
longing or of lust — one of the stations of 
the Israelites in the wilderness. It was 
probably in the Wady Murrah, and has 
been identified with the Erweis el-Ebeirig, 
where the remains of an ancient encamp- 
ment have been found, about 30 miles 
north-east of Sinai, and exactly a day's 
joTirney from 'Ain Hudherah. 

" Here began the troubles of the journey. 



KIBZAIM 



406 



KINE 



First, complaints broke out among the 
people, probably at the heat, the toil, and 
the privations of the march ; and then God 
at once punished them by lightning, which 
fell on the hinder part of the camp, and 
killed many persons, but ceased at the in- 
tercession of Moses (Num. 11 : 1, 2). Then 
a disgust fell on the multitude at having 
nothing to eat but the manna day after 
day — no change, no flesh, no fish, no high- 
flavoured vegetables, no luscious fruits 

The people loathed the 'light food,' and 
cried out to Moses, ' Give us flesh, give us 
flesh, that we may eat.'" In this emer- 
gency Moses, in despair, cried unto God. 
An answer came. God sent "a prodigious 
flight of quails, on which the people 
satiated their gluttonous appetite for a 
full month. Then punishment fell on 
them : they loathed the food which they 
had desired ; it bred disease in them ; the 
divine anger aggravated the disease into a 
plague, and a heavy mortality was the con- 
sequence. The dead were buried without 
the camp ; and in memory of man's sin 
and of the divine wrath this name, Kibroth- 
hattaavah — the Graves of Lust — was given 
to the place of their sepulchre " (Num. 11 : 
34, 35 ; 33 : 16, 17 ; Deut. 9 : 22 ; comp. Ps. 
78 : 30, 31).— Rawlinson's Moses, etc., p. 175. 
From this encampment they journeyed in 
a north-eastern direction to Hazeroth. 

Kib^zaim — two heaps — a city of Eph- 
raim, assigned to the Kohathite Levites, 
and appointed as a city of refuge (Josh. 21 : 
22). It is also called Jokmeam (1 Chr. 
6 : 68). 

Kid, the young of the goat. It was 
much used for food (Gen. 27 : 9 ; 38 : 17 ; 
Judg. 6 : 19 ; 14 : 6). The Mosaic law for- 
bade to dress a kid in the milk of its dam 
— a law which is thrice repeated (Ex. 23 : 
19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21). Among the 
various reasons assigned for this law, that 
appears to be the most satisfactory which 
regards it as "a protest against cruelty 
and outraging the order of nature." A 
kid cooked in its mother's milk is "a 
gross, unwholesome dish, and calculated 
to kindle up animal and ferocious passions, 
and on this account Moses may have for- 
bidden it. Besides, it is even yet associ- 



ated with immoderate feasting ; and origin- 
ally, I suspect," says Dr. Thomson {Land 
and the Book), " was connected with idola- 
trous sacrifices." 

Ki^dron = Kedron = Cedron — turbid — 
the winter torrent which flows through the 
Valley of Jehoshaphat, on the eastern side 
of Jerusalem, between the city and the 
Mount of Olives. This valley is known 
in Scripture only by the name " the brook 
Kidron." David crossed this brook bare- 
foot and weeping, when fleeing from Ab- 
salom (2 Sam. 15 : 23, 30), and it was 
frequently crossed by our Lord in his jour- 
neyings to and fro (John 18 : 1). Here Asa 
burnt the obscene idols of his mother (1 
Kings 15 : 13), and here Athaliah was exe- 
cuted (2 Kings 11 : 16). It afterwards be- 
' came the receptacle for all manner of 
impurities (2 Chr. 29 : 16 ; 30 : 14) ; and in 
the time of Josiah this valley was the com- 
mon cemetery of the city (2 Kings 23 : 6 ; 
comp. Jer. 26 : 23). 

Through this mountain ravine no water 
runs, except after heavy rains in the moun- 
tains round about Jerusalem. Its length 
from its head to en-Rogel is 2f miles. 
Its precipitous, rocky banks are filled with 
ancient tombs, especially the left bank 
opposite the temple area. The greatest 
desire of the Jews is to be buried there, 
from the idea that the Kidron is the 
"Valley of Jehoshaphat" mentioned in 
Joel 3 : 2. 

Below en-Rogel the Kidron has no his- 
torical or sacred interest. It runs on in a 
winding course through the wilderness of 
Judea to the north-western shore of the 
Dead Sea. Its whole length, in a straight 
line, is only some 20 miles, but in this 
space its descent is about 3,912 feet. (See 
Kedron. ) 

Recent excavations have brought to light 
the fact that the true bed of the Kidron is 
about 40 feet lower than its present bed, 
and about 70 feet nearer the sanctuary 
wall. 

Ki''nah — an elegy — a city in the extreme 
south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 22). It was prob- 
ably not far from the Dead Sea, in the 
WMy Fikreh. 

Kine(IIeb. sxn^.pdrdh — i.e., "fruitful"), 



KIXG 



407 



KING 



^^ 




Absalom's Tojnb. 



TOMBS IN THE KIDROX VALLEY. 



mentioned in Pharaoh's dream (Gen. 41 : 
18). Here the word denotes "buffaloes," 
which fed on the reeds and sedge by the 
river's brink. 

King is in Scripture very generally used 
to denote one invested \\A\h. authority, 
whether extensive or only limited. There 
were thirty-one kings in Canaan (Josh. 12 : 
9, 24), whom Joshua subdued. Adoni- 
bezek subdued seventy kings ( Judg. 1 : 7). 
In the New Testament the Roman emperor 
is spoken of as a king (1 Pet. 2 : 13, 17) ; 



and Herod Antipas, who was only a tet- 
rarch, is also called a king (Matt. 14 : 9 ; 
Mark 6 : 22). 

This title is appHed to God (1 Tim. 1 : 17), 
and to Christ, the Son of God (1 Tim. 6 : 
15, 16 ; Matt. 27 : 11). The people of God 
are also called "kings" (Dan. 7:22, 27; 
Matt. 19:28; Rev. 1:6, etc.). Death is 
called the "king of terrors " (Job 18 : 14). 

Jehovah was the sole King of the Jewish 
nation (1 Sam. 8:7; Isa. 33 : 22). But there 
came a time in the history of that people 



KINGDOM 



408 



KING^ 



when a king was demanded, that they might 
be like other nations (1 Sam. 8 : 5). The 
prophet Samuel remonstrated with them, 
but the people cried out, "Nay, but we 
will have a king over us." The misconduct 
of Samuel's sons was the immediate cause 
of this demand. 

The Hebrew kings did not rule in their 
own right, nor in name of the people who 
had chosen them, but partly as servants 
and partly as representatives of Jehovah, 
the true King of Israel (1 Sam. 10 : 1). 
The limits of the king's power were pre- 
scribed (1 Sam. 10 : 25). The officers of his 
court were — (1) the recorder or remembran- 
cer (2 Sam. 8 : 16 ; 1 Kings 4:3); (2) the 
scribe (2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 20 : 25) ; (3) the officer 
over the house, the chief steward (Isa. 22 : 
15); (4) the "king's friend," a confidential 
companion (1 Kings 4:5); (5) the keeper of 
the wardrobe (2 Kings 22 : 14) ; (6) captain 
of the body-guard (2 Sam. 20 : 23) ; (7) ofii- 
cers over the king's treasures, etc. (1 Chr. 
27 : 25-31) ; (8) commander-in-chief of the 
army (1 Chr. 27 : 34) ; (9) the royal coun- 
sellor (1 Chr. 27 : 32 ; 2 Sam. 16 : 20-23). 

(For catalogue of kings of Israel and 
Judah see chronological table in Appendix.) 

King^dom of God (Matt. 6 : 33 ; Mark 
1:14, 15; Luke 4 : 43) =" kingdom of 
Christ" (Matt. 13:41; 20 : 21) =" king- 
dom of Christ and of God " (Eph. 5:5) = 
"kingdom of David" (Mark 11:10) = 
"the kingdom" (Matt. 8:12; 13:19) = 
" kingdom of heaven " (Matt. 3:2; 4 : 17 ; 
13 : 41), all denote the same thing under 
different aspects — viz. : (1) Christ's media- 
torial authority, or his rule on the earth ; 
(2) the blessings and advantages of all 
kinds that flow from this rule ; (3) the sub- 
jects of this kingdom taken collectively, or 
the Church. 

Kingly office of Christ, one of the 
three special relations in which Christ 
stands to his people. Christ's ofiice as 
mediator comprehends three different func- 
tions — viz., those of a prophet, priest, and 
king. These are not three distinct offices, 
but three functions of the one office of 
mediator. 

Christ is King and sovereign Head over 
his Church and over all things to his Church 



(Eph. 1 : 22 ; 4 : 15 ; Col. 1 : 18 ; 2 : 19). He 
executes this mediatorial kingship in his 
Church, and over his Church, and over all 
things in behalf of his Church, This roy- 
alty differs from that which essentially be- 
longs to him as God, for it is given to him 
by the Father as the reward of his obedi- 
ence and sufferings (Phil. 2 : 6-11), and has 
as its especial object the upbuilding and 
the glory of his redeemed Church. It 
attaches, moreover, not to his divine nature 
as such, but to his person as God-man. 

Christ's mediatorial kingdom may be re- 
garded as comprehending — (1) his kingdom 
of poiver, or his providential government 
of the universe ; (2) his kingdom of grace, 
which is wholly spiritual in its subjects 
and administration ; and (3) his kingdom 
of glory, which is the consummation of all 
his providential and gracious administra- 
tion. 

Christ sustained and exercised the func- 
tion of mediatorial King as well as of 
Prophet and Priest, from the time of the 
fall of man, when he entered on his media- 
torial work ; yet it may be said that he 
was publicly and formally enthroned when 
he ascended up on high and sat down at the 
Father's right hand (Ps. 2:6; Jer. 23 : 5 ; 
Isa. 9 : 6), after his work of humiliation and 
suffering on earth was "finished." 

Kings, The Books of. The two books 
of Kings formed originally but one book 
in the Hebrew Scriptures. The present 
division into two books was first made by 
the LXX., which now, Avith the Vulgate, 
numbers them as the third and fourth books 
of Kings — the two books of Samuel being 
the first and second books of Kings. 

They contain the annals of the Jewish 
commonwealth from the accession of Solo- 
mon till the subjugation of the kingdom 
by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians 
(apparently a period of about four hundred 
and fifty -three j^^ears). The books of Chron- 
icles (g.v.) are more comprehensive in their 
contents than those of Kings. The latter 
synchronize with 1 Chr. 28-2 Chr. 36 : 22. 
While in the Chronicles greater promi- 
nence is given to the priestly or Levitical 
office, in the Kings greater prominence is 
given to the kingly. 



KUS^GS 



409 



KIRJATH 



The authorship of these books is uncer- 
tain. There are some portions of them 
and of Jeremiah that are ahnost identical — 
e.g., 2 Kings 24 : 18-25 and Jer. 52 ; 39 : 1- 
10 ; 40 : 7-41 : 10. There are also many un- 
designed coincidences between Jeremiah 
and Kings (2 Kings 21-23 and Jer. 7 : 15 ; 
15 : 4 ; 19 : 3, etc. ), and events recorded in 
Kings of which Jeremiah had personal 
knowledge. These facts countenance in 
some degree the tradition that Jeremiah 
was the author of the books of Kings. 
But the more probable supposition is that 
Ezra, after the Captivity, comiDiled them 
from documents written perhaps by David, 
Solomon, Nathan, Gad, and Iddo, and that 
he arranged them in the order in which 
they now exist. 

In the threefold division of the Scrip- 
tures by the Jews, these books are ranked 
among the "Prophets." They are fre- 
quently quoted or alluded to by oiir Lord 
and his apostles (Matt. 6 : 29 ; 12 : 42 
Luke 4 : 25, 26 ; 10 : 4 ; comp. 2 Kmgs 4 : 29 
Mark 1:6; comp. 2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3 
4, etc.). 

The sources of the narrative are referred 
to (1) "the book of the acts of Solomon" 
(1 Kings 11:41); (2) the "book of the 
chronicles of the kings of Judah " (14 : 29 ; 
15 : 7, 23, etc.) ; (3) the "book of the chron- 
icles of the kings of Israel " (14 : 19 ; 15 : 31 ; 
16:14, 20, 27, etc.). 

The date of its composition was some 
time between B.C. 561, the date of the last 
chapter (2 Kings 25), when Jehoiachin was 
released from captivity by E\*il-merodach, 
and B.C. 538, the date of the decree of de- 
liverance by Cyrus. 

King's dale, mentioned only in Gen. 
14 : 17 ; 2 Sam. 18 : 18, the name given to 
"the valley of Shaveh," where the king 
of Sodom met Abram. 

Kins^man — Heb. goel, from root mean- 
ing to redeem. The goel among the He- 
brews was the nearest male blood relation 
alive. Certain important obligations de- 
volved upon him toward his next of kin. 
(1. ) If any one from poverty was unable to 
redeem his inheritance, it was the duty of 
the kinsman to redeem it (Lev. 25 : 25-28 ; 
Ruth 3 : 9, 12). He was also required to re- 



deem his relation who had sold himself into 
slavery (Lev. 25 : 48, 49). 

God is the Goel of his people because he 
redeems them (Ex. 6:6; Isa. 43 : 1 ; 41 : 14 ; 
44 : 6, 22 ; 48 : 20 ; Ps. 103 : 4 ; Job 19 : 25, 
etc.). 

(2.) The (/oe? also was the avenger {q.v.) 
of blood (Num. 35 : 31) in the case of the 
murder of the next of kin. 

Kir — a ivall or fortress — a place to which 
Tiglath-pileser carried the Syrians captive 
after he had taken the city of Damascus 
(2 Kings 16 : 9 ; Amos 1:5; 9:7). Isaiah 
(22 : 6), who also was contemporary with 
these events, mentions it along with 
Elam. Some have supposed that Kir is 
a variant of Cush (Susiana), on the south 
of Elam. 

Kir of Moab, Isa. 15:1. The two 
strongholds of Moab were Ar and Kir, 
which latter is probably the Kir-haraseth 
(16 : 7) following. 

Kir-har'aseth — built fortress — a city 
and fortress of Moab, the modem Kerak, a 
small town on the brow of a steep hill about 
6 miles from Rabbath-Moab and 10 miles 
from the Dead Sea ; called also Kir-haresh, 
Kir-hareseth, Kir-heres (Isa. 16 : 7, 11 ; 
Jer. 48 : 31, 36). After the death of Ahab, 
Mesha, king of Moab (see Moabite 
Sto?v:e), threw off allegiance to the king 
of Israel, and fought successfully for the 
independence of his kingdom. After this 
Jehoram, king of Israel, in seeking to re- 
gain his supremacy over Moab, entered 
into an alliance with Jehoshaphat, king of 
Judah, and with the king of Edom. The 
three kings led their armies against Mesha, 
who was driven back to seek refuge in Kir- 
haraseth. The Moabites were driven to 
despair. Mesha then took his eldest son, 
who would have reigned in his stead, and 
offered him as a burnt-offering on the wall 
of the fortress in the sight of the allied 
armies. "There was great indignation 
against Israel : and they departed from him, 
and returned to their own land. " The in- 
vaders evacuated the land of Moab, and 
Mesha achieved the independence of his 
country (2 Kings 3 : 20-27). 

Kir'Jath — city — a city belonging to Ben- 
jamin (Josh. 18 : 28), the modem KuHet el- 



KIRJATHAIM 



410 



KISHON 



'Enab — i.e., "city of grapes" — about 7^ 
miles west-north-west of Jerusalem, 

Kir''jatha^iin — ttvo cities; a> double city. 
(1.) A city of refuge in Naphtali (1 Chr. 
6 : 76). 

(2.) A town on the east of Jordan (Gen. 

14 : 5 ; Deut. 2 : 9, 10), It was assigned to 
the tribe of Reuben (Num. 32 : 37). In the 
time of Ezekiel (25 : 9) it was one of the 
four cities which formed the "glory of 
Moab " (comp. Jer. 48 : 1, 23). It has been 
identified with el-Kureiyat, 11 miles south- 
west of Medeba, on the south slope of Jebel 
AttarHs, the ancient Ataroth. 

Kir'jath-ar'ba — city of Aria — the ori- 
ginal name of Hebron {q.v.), so called from 
the name of its founder, one of the Ana- 
kim (Gen. 23:2; 35:27; Josh. 15:13). 
It was given to Caleb by Joshua as his 
portion. The Jews interpret the name as 
meaning "the city of the four" — i.e., of 
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Adam, who 
were all, as they allege, buried there. 

Kir^jath-hu^zoth — city of streets — Num. 
22 : 39, a Moabite city, which some identify 
with Kirjathaim. Balak here received and 
entertained Balaam, whom he had invited 
from Pethor, among the "mountains of 
the east," beyond the Euphrates, to lay his 
ban upon the Israelites, whose progress 
he had no hope otherwise of arresting. 
It was probably from the summit of Atta- 
rvis, the high place near the city, that the 
soothsayer first saw the encampments of 
Israel. » 

Kir^jath-je^arim — cityofjaars; i.e., of 
luoods or forests — a Gibeonite town (Josh. 
9 : 17) on the border of Benjamin, to which 
tribe it was assigned (18 : 15, 28). The ark 
was brought to this place (1 Sam. 7 : 1, 2) 
from Beth-shemesh and put in charge of 
Abinadab, a Levite. Here it remained till 
it was removed by David to Jerusalem (2 
Sam. 6 : 2, 3, 12 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 1-29 ; comp. 
Ps, 132). It was also called Baalah (Josh. 

15 : 9) and Kirjath-baal (60). It has been 
usually identified with Kuriet el-'Enah {i.e., 
"city of grapes"), among the hills, aboiit 
8 miles north-east of 'Ain Shems {i.e., Beth- 
shemesh). The opinion, however, that it 
is to be identified with 'Erma, 4 miles east 
of 'Ain Shems, on the edge of the valley of 



Sorek, seems to be better supported. (See 

KiRJATH.) 

The words of Ps. 132:6, "We found it 
in the fields of the wood," refer to the 
sojourn of the ark at Kirjath-jearim. 
"Wood" is here the rendering of the He- 
brew word jaar, which is the singular of 
jearini. 

Kir^jath-san'^nah — city of the sannah; 
i.e., of the palm — Josh. 15 : 49 ; the same as 
Kirjath-sepher (15 : 16 ; Judg. 1 : 11) and 
Debir {q.v.), a Canaanitish royal city in- 
cluded in Judah (Josh. 10:38; 15:49), 
and probably the chief seat of learning 
among the Hittites. It was about 12 miles 
to the south-west of Hebron. 

Kir''jath-se'pher — city of books — Josh. 
15 : 15 ; same as Kirjath-sannah {q.v.), now 
represented by the valley of ed-Dhdberiych, 
south-west of Hebron. The name of this 
town is an evidence that the Canaanites 
were acquainted with writing and books. 
" The town probably contained a noted 
school, or was the site of an oracle and the 
residence of some learned priest," and 
hence its name. 

Kish — a bow. (1.) A Levite of the family 
of Merari (1 Chr. 23 : 21 ; 24 : 29). 

(2.) A Benjamite of Jerusalem (1 Chr. 
8 : 30 ; 9 : 36). 

(3.) A Levite in the time of Hezekiah 
(2 Chr. 29 : 12). 

(4.) The great-grandfather of Mordecai 
(Esther 2 : 5). 

(5. ) A Benjamite, the son of Abiel, and 
father of king Saul (1 Sam. 9 : 1, 3 ; 10 : 11, 
21 ; 14 : 51 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 14). All that is 
recorded of him is that he sent his son 
Saul in search of his asses that had strayed, 
and that he was buried in Zelah. Called 
Cis, Acts 13 : 21 (R.V., Kish). 

Kish'^ion — hardness — a city of Issachar 
assigned to the Gershonite Levites (Josh. 
19 : 20), the same as Kishon (21 : 28). 

Ki^shon — winding — a winter torrent of 
Central Palestine, which rises about the 
roots of Tabor and Gilboa, and passing in 
a northerly direction through the plains of 
Esdraelon and Acre, falls into the Mediter- 
ranean at the north-eastern corner of the 
bay of Acre, at the foot of Carmel. It is the 
drain by which the waters of the plain of 



KISS 



411 



KNOP 



Esdraelon and of the mountains that sur- 
round it find their way to the sea. It 
bears the modern name of Nahr el-Mokattah 
— i.e., "the river of slaughter" (comp. 1 
Kings 18 : 40). In the triumphal song of 
Deborah ( Judg. 5 : 21) it is spoken of as 
"that ancient river," either (1) because it 
had flowed on for ages, or (2), according to 
the Targum, because it was " the torrent 
in which were shown signs and wonders to 
Israel of old ; " or (3) probably the reference 
is to the exploits in that region among the 
ancient Canaanites, for the adjoining plain 
of Esdraelon was the great battle-field of 
Palestine. 

This was the scene of the defeat of Sisera 
(Judg. 4 : 7, 13), and of the destruction of 
the prophets of Baal by Elijah (1 Kings 
18:40). "When the Kishon was at its 
height, it would be, partly on account of 
its quicksands, as impassable as the ocean 
itself to a retreating army. " (See Deborah. ) 

Kiss of affection (Gen. 27 : 26, 27 ; 29 : 13 ; 
Luke 7 : 38, 45) ; reconciliation (Gen. 33 : 4; 
2 Sam. 14 : 33) ; leave-taking (Gen. 31 : 28, 
55 ; Ruth 1 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 39) ; homage 
(Ps. 2 : 12 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 1) ; spoken of as 
between parents and children (Gen. 27 : 26 ; 
31 : 28, 55 ; 48 : 10 ; 50 : 1 ; Ex. 18 : 7 ; Ruth 
1 : 9, 14) ; between male relatives (Gen. 29 : 
13 ; 33 : 4 ; 45 : 15). It accompanied social 
worship as a symbol of brotherly love 
(Rom. 16 : 16 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 20 ; 2 Cor. 13 : 12 ; 
1 Thess. 5 : 26 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 14). The worship 
of idols was by kissing the image or the 
hand toward the image (1 Kings 19 : 18 ; 
Hos. 13 : 2). 

Kite, an unclean and keen-sighted bird 
of prey (Lev. 11 : 14 ; Deut. 14 : 13). The 
Hebrew word used — ^ayet — is rendered 
"vulture" in Job 28:7 in Authorized 
Version, "falcon" in Revised Version. 
It is probably the red kite [Milvus regalis), 
a bird of piercing sight and of soaring 
habits found all over Palestine. 

Kith^lish — a Titan's loall — a town in the 
plain of Judah (Josh. 15 : 40). It has been 
identified with Jelameh. 

Kit^ron — knotty — a city of Zebulun 
(Judg. 1 : 30), called also Kattath (Josh. 
19 : 15) ; supposed to be " Cana of Galilee." 

Kit'tim (Gen. 10 : 4). (See Chittim.) 



Knead, to prepare dough in the process 
of baking (Gen. 18 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 24 ; Hos. 
7:4). 

Knead^ing-trough, the vessel in which 
the dough, after being mixed and leavened, 
was left to swell or ferment (Ex. 8:3; 
12 : 34 ; Deut. 28 : 5, 7). The dough in the 
vessels at the time of the Exodus was still 
unleavened, because the people were com- 
pelled to "withdraw in haste. 

Knife. (1.) Heb. h^reh, "the waster," a 
sharp instrument for circumcision (Josh. 
5:2, 3, lit. "knives of flint;" comp. Ex. 
4 : 25) ; a razor (Ezek. 5:1); a graving tool 
(Ex. 20 : 25) ; an axe (Ezek. 26 : 9). 

(2.) Heb. maaJceleth, a large knife for 
slaughtering and cutting up food (Gen. 
22 : 6, 10 ; Prov. 30 : 14). 

(3. ) Heb. sakkin, a knife for any purpose, 
a table knife (Prov. 23 : 2). 

(4, ) Heb. mahaldph, a butcher's knife for 
slaughtering the victims offered in sacrifice 
(Ezra 1 : 9). 

(5.) Smaller knives (Heb. ta'ar, Jer. 36: 
23) were used for sharpening pens. The 
pruning -knives mentioned in Isa. 18:5 
(Heb. mizmaroth) were probably curved 
knives. 

Knock. "Though Orientals are very 
jealous of their privacy, they never knock 
when about to enter your room, but walk 
in without warning or ceremony. It is 
nearly impossible to teach an Arab servant 
to knock at your door. They give warning 
at the outer gate either by calling or knock- 
ing. To stand and call is a very common 
and respectful mode. Thus Moses com- 
manded the holder of a pledge to stand 
without and call to the owTier to come forth 
(Deut. 24:10). This was to avoid the 
violent intrusion of cruel creditors. Peter 
stood knocking at the outer door (Acts 12 : 
13, 16), and so did the three men sent to 
Joppa by Cornelius (10 : 17, 18). The idea 
is that the guard over your privacy is to be 
placed at the entrance " (Thomson's Land 
and the Book). 

Kjaocking is used as a sign of importunity 
(Matt. 7:7, 8 ; Luke 13 : 25), and of the 
coming of Christ (Luke 12 : 36 ; Rev. 3 : 20). 

Knop, some architectural ornament. 
(1. ) Heb. kaphtdr (Ex. 25 : 31-36), occurring 

27 



KOA 



412 



KOZ 



in the description of the candlestick. It 
was an ornamental swell beneath the cups 
of the candlestick, probably an imitation 
of the fruit of the almond. 

(2.) Heb. pejcd'im — found only in 1 Kings 
6 : 18 and 7 : 24 — an ornament resembling 
a small gourd or an egg, on the cedar 
wainscot in the temple and on the castings 
on the brim of the brazen sea. 

Ko^a — he-camel — occurs only in Ezek. 
23 : 23, some province or place in the Baby- 
lonian empire, used in this passage along 
with Shoa {q.v.). 

Ko'hath — assembly — the second son of 
Levi, and father of Amram (Gen. 46 : 11). 
He came down to Egypt with Jacob, and 
lived to the age of one hundred and thirty- 
three years (Ex. 6 : 18). 

Ko^hathites, the descendants of Ko- 
hath. They formed the first of the three 
divisions of the Levites (Ex. 6 : 16, 18 ; 
Num. 3 : 17). In the journeyings of the 
Israelites they had the charge of the most 
holy portion of the vessels of the taber- 
nacle, including the ark (Num. 4). Their 
place in the marching and encampment 
was south of the tabernacle (Num. 3 : 29, 
31). Their numbers at different times are 
specified (3 : 28 ; 4 : 36 ; 26 : 57, 62). Samuel 
was of this division. 

Ko^rab — ice, hail. (1.) The third son of 
Esau, by Aholibamah (Gen. 36 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 35). 

(2.) A Levite, the son of Izhar, the bro- 
ther of Amram, the father of Moses and 
Aaron (Ex. 6 : 21). The institution of the 
Aaronic priesthood and the Levitical ser- 
vice at Sinai was a great religious revolu- 
tion. The old priesthood of the heads of 
families passed away. This gave rise to 
murmurings and discontent — while the Is- 
raelites were encamped at Kadesh for the 
first time — which came to a head in a rebel- 
lion against Moses and Aaron, headed by 
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. Two hun- 
dred and fifty princes, "men of renown " — 
i.e., well-known men from among the other 
tribes — joined this conspiracy. The whole 
company demanded of Moses and Aaron 
that the old state of things should be re- 
stored, alleging that "they took too much 
upon them " (Num. 16 : 1-3). On the morn- 



ing after the outbreak, Korah and his asso- 
ciates presented themselves at the door of 
the tabernacle, and "took every man his 
censer, and put fire in them, and laid in- 
cense thereon." But immediately "fire 
from the Lord " burst forth and destroyed 
them all (Num. 16 : 35). Dathan and Abiram 
"caine out and stood in the door of their 
tents, and their wives, and their sons, and 
their little children," and it came to pass 
"that the ground clave asunder that was 
under them ; and the earth opened her 
mouth and swallowed them up. " A plague 
thereafter began among the people who 
sympathized in the rebellion, and was only 
stayed by Aaron's appearing between the 
living and the dead, and making "an atone- 
ment for the people " (16 : 47). 

The descendants of the sons of Korah 
who did not participate in the rebellion 
afterwards rose to eminence in the Leviti- 
cal service. 

Ko^rahites, that portion of the Kohath- 
ites that descended from Korah. 

(1. ) They were an important branch of the 
singers of the Kohathite division (2 Chr. 20 : 
19). There are eleven psalms (42-49 ; 84 ; 
85 ; 87 ; 88) dedicated to the sons of Korah. 

(2.) Some of the sons of Korah also were 
" porters " of the temple (1 Chr. 9 : 17-19) ; 
one of them was over "things that were 
made in the pans " (31) — i.e., the baking in 
pans for the meat-offering (Lev. 2 : 5). 

Ko're — partridge. (1.) A Levite and 
temple-warder of the Korahites, the son of 
Asaph. He was father of Shallum and 
Meshelemiah, temple-porters (1 Chr. 9 : 19 ; 
26 : 1). 

(2.) A Levitical porter at the east gate 
of the temple (2 Chr. 31 : 14). 

(3.) In 1 Chr. 26 : 19 the word should be 
" Korehites," as in the Revised Version. 

Korahites, a Levitical familj^ descended 
from Korah (Ex. 6 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 6 ; 26 : 
1 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19). 

Koz — thorn. (1.) A descendant of Judah. 
IChr. 4:8, "Coz;" E.V., "Hakkoz." 

(2.) A priest, the head of the seventh 
division of the priests (Ezra 2 : 61 ; Neh. 
3 : 4, 21 ; 7 : 63). In 1 Chr. 24 : 10 the word 
has the article prefixed, and it is taken as 
a part of the word " Hakkoz," 



LAADAN 



413 



LAMB 



La'adan — order. (1.) One of the Ger- 
shonite Levites (1 Chr. 23 : 7-9) ; called also 
Libni (Ex. 6 : 17). 

(2.) An Ephraimite, the ancestor of 
Joshua (1 Chr. 7 : 26). 

La'ban — lohite. (1. ) The son of Bethuel, 
who was the son of Nahor, Abraham's 
brother. He lived at Haran in Mesopo- 
tamia. His sister Rebekah was Isaac's 
wife (Gen. 24). Jacob, one of the sons of 
this marriage, fled to the house of Laban, 
whose daughters Leah and Rachel (29) he 
eventually married. He was a selfish, 
covetous, unprincipled man, although at 
first he appears to advantage in the hospi- 
table welcome he gave to Abraham's ser- 
vant (Gen. 24 : 29-60j and to Jacob {q.v.) 

(2. ) A city in the Arabian desert in the 
route of the Israelites (Deut. 1 : 1), prob- 
ably identical with Libnah (Num. 33 : 20). 

La^chish — impregnable — a roj'al Canaan- 
itish city in the Shephelah or maritime plain 
of Palestine (Josh. 10:3,5; 12:11). It 
was taken and destroyed by the Israelites 
(Josh. 10 : 31-35). It afterwards became, 
under Rehoboam, one of the strongest 
fortresses of Judah (2 Chr. 10 : 32-35). It 
was assaulted and probably taken by Sen- 
nacherib (2 Kings 18 : 14, 17 ; 19 : 8 ; Isa. 
36 : 2). An account of this siege is given on 
some slabs found in the chambers of the 
palace of Kouyunjik, and now in the Brit- 
ish Museum. The inscription has been 
deciphered as follows : — " Sennacherib, the 
mighty king, king of the country of Assyria, 
sitting on the throne of judgment before 
the city of Lachish : I gave permission for 
its slaughter." It has been identified with 
Tell el-Hesy, where a cuneiform tablet, con- 
taining a letter to the Egyptian governor of 
Lachish, has been found. It is similar to 
the tablets found at Amarna (see page 215), 
and was written about the same time. 

Lad^der occurs only once, in the account 
of Jacob's vision (Gen. 28 : 12). It repre- 
sents the Redeemer as the channel of inter- 
course between heaven and earth (comp. 
John 1 : 51), the "way" to heaven. 



La''dies, lit. "Sarahs" — i.e., princesses 
( Judg. 5 : 29 ; Esther 1 : 18) ; rendered "prin- 
cesses " in 1 Bangs 11 : 3, Lam. 1:1; 
"queen" in Isa. 49:23. "Lady" in 2 
John 5 is probably a proper name, Kuria. 

Lah''inain — their head — a city in the plain 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 40), probably the pres- 
ent ruin el-Lahm, near Beit Jibrin. 

Lah^mi — my bread or warrior — the bro- 
ther of GoHath (1 Chr. 20 : 5), slain by El- 
hanan. 

Lavish — a lion. (1.) A city of the Sido- 
nians, in the extreme north of Palestine 
(Judg. 18:7, 14); called also Leshem (Josh. 
19 : 47) and Dan (Judg. 18 : 7, 29 ; Jer. 8 : 16). 
It lay near the sources of the Jordan, about 
4 miles from Paneas. The restless and 
warlike tribe of Dan {q.v.), looking out for 
larger possessions, invaded this country 
and took Laish with its territory. It is 
identified with the ruin Tell el-Kddy, "the 
mound of the judge," to the north of the 
Waters of Merom (Josh. 11 : 5). 

(2. ) A place mentioned in Isa. 10 : 30. 
It has been supposed to be the modern 
el-Isawiyeh, about a mile north-east of 
Jerusalem. 

(3.) The father of Phalti (1 Sam. 25 : 44). 

JiSi^lLnjn— ^ay-stopper ; i.e., a "fortified 
X^lace " — a place on the north-eastern border 
of Naphtali, not far south of Lake Merom 
(Josh. 19 : 33). 

La^ma (Matt. 27:46), a Hebrew word 
meaning ivhy, quoted from Ps. 22 : 2. 

Lamb. (1.) Heb. kebes, a male lamb 
from the first to the third year. Offered 
daily at the morning and the evening sa- 
crifice (Ex. 29 : 38-41), on the Sabbath day 
(Num. 28 : 9), at the feast of the New Moon 
(11), of Trumpets (29:2), of Tabernacles 
(13-40), of Pentecost (Lev. 23 : 18-20), and 
of the Passover (Ex. 12 : 5), and on many 
other occasions (1 Chr. 29 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 
21; Lev. 9:3; 14:10-25). 

(2.) Heb. tdleh, a young sucking lamb 
(iSam. 7:9; Isa. 65:25). 

In the symbolical language of Scripture 
the lamb is the type of meekness and in- 



LAMECH 



414 



LAMENTATIONS 



nocence (Isa. 11 : 6 ; 65 : 25 ; Luke 10 : 3 ; 
John 21 : 15). 

The lamb was the symbol of Christ 
(Gen. 4:4; Ex. 12:3; 29:38; Lsa. 16:1; 
53 : 7 ; John 1 : 36 ; Eev. 13 : 8). 

Christ is called the Lamb of God (John 
1 : 29, 36), as the great sacrifice of which 
the former sacrifices were only types (Num. 
6 : 12 ; Lev. 14 : 12-17 ; Isa. 53 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 
5:7). 

La''mech — the striker doion; the wild man. 
(1.) The fifth in descent from Cain. He 
was the first to violate the primeval ordi- 
nance of marriage (Gen. 4 : 18-24). His 
address to his two wives Adah and Zillah 
(4 : 23, 24) is the only extant example of 
antediluvian poetry. It has been called 
"Lamech's sword-song." He was "rude 
and ruffianly," fearing neither God nor 
man. With him the curtain falls on the 
race of Cain. We know nothing of his 
descendants. 

(2.) The seventh in descent from Seth, 
being the only son of Methuselah. Noah 
was the oldest of his several sons (Gen. 5 : 
25-31; Luke 3: 36). 

Lamenta'^tion (Heb. qinah), an elegy 
or dirge. The first example of this form of 
poetry is the lament of David over Saul 
and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1 : 17-27). It was 
a frequent accompaniment of mourning 
(Amos 8 : 10). In 2 Sam. 3 : 33, 34 is re- 
corded David's lament over Abner. Pro- 
phecy sometimes took the form of a lament 
when it predicted calamity (Ezek. 27 : 2, 
32; 28:12; 32:2, 16). 

Lamenta'tions, Book of, called in the 
Hebrew canon 'Ekhdh, meaning "how," 
being the formula for the commencement 
of a song of wailing. It is the first word of 
the book (see 2 Sam. 1 : 19-27). The LXX. 
adopted the name rendered "Lamenta- 
tions " (Gr. threnoi = Heb. qindth) now in 
common use, to denote the character of the 
book, in which the prophet mourns over the 
desolations brought on the city and the holy 
land by the Chaldeans. In the Hebrew Bible 
it is placed among the Khethubim or Hagio- 
grapha, between Ruth and Ecclesiastes. 

As to its authorship, there is no room 
for hesitancy in ascribing it to Jeremiah. 
The spirit, tone, language, and subject- 



matter are in accord with the testimony 
of tradition in assigning it to him. Ac- 
cording to tradition, he retired after the 
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
nezzar to a cavern outside the Damascus 
gate, where he wrote this book. That 
cavern is still pointed out. "In the face 
of a rocky hill, on the western side of the 
city, the local belief has placed 'the 
grotto of Jeremiah.' There, in that fixed 
attitude of grief which Michael Angelo 
has immortalized, the prophet may well be 
supposed to have mourned the fall of his 
country " (Stanley, Jeivish Church). 

The book consists of five separate poems. 
In chapter 1 the prophet dwells on the 
manifold miseries oppressed by which the 
city sits as a solitary widow weeping sorely. 
In chapter 2 these miseries are described 
in connection with the national sins that 
had caused them. Chapter 3 speaks of 
hope for the people of God. The chastise- 
ment would only be for their good ; a better 
day would dawn for them. Chapter 4 
laments the ruin and desolation that had 
come upon the city and temple, but traces 
it only to the people's sins. Chapter 5 
is a prayer that Zion's reproach may be 
taken away in the repentance and recov- 
ery of the people. 

The first four poems (chapters) are 
acrostics, like some of the Psalms (25, 34, 
37, 119) — i.e., each verse begins with a 
letter of the Hebrew alphabet taken in 
order. The first, second, and fourth have 
each twenty-two verses, the number of the 
letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The third 
has sixty-six verses, in which each three 
successive verses begin with the same letter. 
The fifth is not acrostic. 

Speaking of the " Wailing-place {q.v.) of 
the Jews " at Jerusalem — a portion of the 
old wall of the temple of Solomon — Schaff 
says: "There the Jews assemble every 
Friday afternoon to bewail the downfall 
of the holy city, kissing the stone wall 
and watering it with their tears. They 
repeat from their well-worn Hebrew Bibles 
and prayer-books the Lamentations of Jere- 
miah and suitable Psalms. The key-note 
of all these laments and prayers was struck 
by Jeremiah, the most pathetic and tender- 



LAMP 



415 



LASHA 



hearted of prophets, in the Lamentations, 
that funeral dirge of Jerusalem and the 
theocracy. Every year, on the 9th of the 
month Ab, it is read with loud weeping in 
all the synagogues of the Jews, and espe- 
cially at Jerusalem. It keeps alive the 
memory of their deepest humiliation and 
guilt, and the hope of final deliverance" 
{Through Bible Lands). 

Lamp. (1.) That part of the candle- 
sticks of the tabernacle and the temple 
which bore the light (Ex. 25 : 37 ; 1 Kings 
7:49; 2 Chr. 4:20; 13:11; Zech. 4:2). 
Their form is not described. Olive oil was 
generally burned in them (Ex. 27 : 20). 

(2.) A torch carried by the soldiers of 
Gideon (Judg. 7 : 16, 20). 

(3.) Domestic lamps (A.V., "candles") 
were in common use among the Hebrews 
(Matt. 5 : 15 ; Mark 4 : 21, etc.). 

(4. ) Lamps or torches were used in con- 
nection with marriage ceremonies (Matt. 
25 : 1). 

This word is also frequently metaphori- 
cally used to denote life, welfare, guidance, 
etc. (2 Sam. 21:17; Ps. 119:105; Prov. 
6:23; 13:9). 

Land law (Num. 26:. 53). "Every 
peasant was made a land-owner, but rather 
in trust for his descendants than as a 
freeholder. Jehovah himseK remained 
absolute owner -in-chief (Lev. 25 : 23), the 
occupants being only his stewards (Luke 
16 : 2, 3 ; 1 Cor. 4 : 2 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 10), holding 
X^ossession under stringent conditions. 
The first-fruits, the first-born of all farm 
stock, the tenth of all produce, must be 
paid in the name of God to the priests, the 
Levites, and the poor. Every seventh 
year the land must lie fallow, trusting to 
his bounty in the preceding harvests (Ex. 
23:10, 11; Lev. 25:3, 4; 26:34, 35, 43; 2 
Chr. 36 : 21). The soil was held, in fact, 
for the Crown, subject to certain payments 
and duties ; but the Crown was that of 
Heaven. These conditions honourably satis- 
fied, the title of the land-owner was in- 
defeasible" (Geikie's Hours, etc., v.) 

Land'mark, a boundary line indicated 
by a stone, stake, etc. (Deut. 19 : 14 ; 27 : 
17; Prov. 22:28; 23:10; Job 24:2). 
Landmarks could not be removed with- 



out incurring the severe displeasure of 
God. 

Laodice^a. The city of this name men- 
tioned in Scripture lay on the confines of 
Phrygia and Lydia, about 40 miles east of 
Ephesus (Rev. 3 : 14), on the banks of the 
Lycus, It was originally called Diospolis 
and then Phoas, but afterwards Laodicea, 
from Laodice, the wife of Antiochus II., 
king of Syria, who rebuilt it. It was one 
of the most important and flourishing cities 
of Asia Minor. At a very early period it 
became one of the chief seats of Christian- 
ity (Col. 2:1; 4 : 15 ; Rev. 1 : 11, etc. ). It 
is now a deserted place, called by the 
Turks Eski-hissar or "old castle." 

Laodice^a, Epistle from (Col. 4:16), was 
probably the Epistle to the Ephesians, as 
designed for general circulation. It would 
reach the Colossians by way of Laodicea. 

Lap^idoth — torches. Deborah is called 
" the wife of Lapidoth " (Judg. 4 : 4). Some 
have rendered the expression "a woman of 
a fiery spirit, " under the supposition that 
Lapidoth is not a proper name — a woman 
of a torch-like sj)irit. 

Lap^ping of water like a dog — i.e., by 
putting the hand filled with water to the 
mouth. The dog drinks by shaping the 
end of his long thin tongue into the form 
of a spoon, thus rapidly lifting up water, 
which he throws into his mouth. The three 
hundred men that went with Gideon thus 
employed their hands and lapped the water 
out of their hands (Judg. 7 : 7). 

Lap 'wing, the name of an unclean bird, 
mentioned only in Lev. 11 : 19 and Deut. 14 : 
18. The Hebrew name of this bird, duki- 
phath, has been generally regarded as de- 
noting the hoopoe ( Upupa epops), an onoma- 
topoetic word derived from the cry of the 
bird, which resembles the word "hoop ;" a 
bird not uncommon in Palestine. Others 
identify it with the English peewit. 

Lasse'^a, a city in the island of Crete 
(Acts 27 : 8). Its ruins are still found near 
Cape Leonda, about 5 miles east of "Pair 
Havens. " 

JiSL'slia,— fissure — a place apparently east 
of the Dead Sea (Gen. 10:19). It was 
afterwards known as Callirhoe, a place 
famous for its hot springs. 



LATCHET 



416 



LAW 



Latch'et, a thong (Acts 22 : 25), cord, or 
strap fastening the sandal on the foot (Isa. 
5 : 27; Mark 1:7; Luke 3 : 16). 




Lat'in, the vernacular language of the 
ancient Romans (John 19 : 20). 

Lat^'tice. (1.) Heb. 'eshndbh, a latticed 
opening through which the cool breeze 
passes (Judg. 5 : 28). The flat roofs of the 
houses were sometimes enclosed with a 
Xmrapet of lattice-work on wooden frames, 
to screen the women of the house from the 
gaze of the neighbourhood. 

(2.) Heb. harakim, the network or lat- 
tice of a window (Cant. 2 : 9). 

(3.) Heb. sebdkhdh, the latticed balustrade 
before a window or balcony (2 Kings 1 : 2). 
The lattice window is frequently used in 
Eastern countries. 

La'ver (Heb. My or), a "basin" for 
boiling in, a "pan" for cooking (1 Sam. 




2 : 14), a " fire-pan " or hearth (Zech. 12 : 6), 
the sacred wash-bowl of the tabernacle and 
temple (Ex. 30 : 18, 28 ; 31 : 9 ; 35 : 16 ; 38 : 
8; 39:39; 40:7, 11, 30, etc.), a basin for 



the water used by the priests in their ablu- 
tions. 
That which was originally used in the 
tabernacle was of brass (rather cop- 
per ; Heb. nihsheth), made from the 
metal mirrors the women brought 
out of Egypt (Ex. 38:8). It con- 
tained water wherewith the priests 
washed their hands and feet when 
they entered the tabernacle (40 : 32). 
It stood in the court between the 
altar and the door of the tabernacle 
(30 : 19, 21). 
In the temple there Avere ten lavers 
used for the sacrifices, and the molten sea 
for the ablutions of the priests (2 Chr. 4 : 
6). The position and uses of these are 
described 1 Kings 7 : 27-39 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 6. 
The "molten sea" was made of copper, 
taken from Tibhath and Chun, cities of 
Hadarezer, king of Zobah (1 Chr. 18 : 8 ; 
1 Kings 7 : 23-26). 

No lavers are mentioned in the second 
temple. 

Law, a rule of action. (1. ) The Law of 
Nature is the will of God as to human con- 
duct, founded on the moral difference of 
things, and discoverable by natural light 
(Rom. 1 : 20 ; 2 : 14, 15). This law binds 
all men at all times. It is generally de- 
signated by the term conscience, or the 
capacity of being influenced by the moral 
relations of things. 

(2. ) The Ceremonial Latv prescribes under 
the Old Testament the rites and ceremonies 
of worship. This law was obligatory only 
till Christ, of whom these rites were typical, 
had finished his work (Heb. 7 : 9, 11 : 10 : 1 ; 
Eph. 2 : 16). It was fulfilled rather than 
abrogated by the gospel. 

(3.) The Judicial Law, the law which 
directed the civil policy of the Hebrew 
nation. 

(4.) The Moral Laiv is the revealed will 
of God as to human conduct, binding on all 
men to the end of time. It was promul- 
gated at Sinai. It is perfect (Ps. 19 : 7), 
perpetual (Matt. 5:17, 18), holy (Rom. 
7 : 12), good, spiritual (14), and exceeding 
broad (Ps. 119 : 96). Although binding on 
all, we are not vmder it as a covenant of 
works (Gal. 3 : 15). (See Commandments. ) 



LAW 



4r 



LEAVEN 



(5.) Positive Laios are precepts founded 
only on the will of God. They are right 
because God commands them. 

(6.) Moral positive laws are commanded 
by God because they are right. 

Law of Moses is the whole body of the 
Mosaic legislation (1 Kings 2 : 3 ; 2 Kings 
23 : 25 ; Ezra 3 : 2). It is called by way of 
eminence simply "the Law " (Heb. Tor ah, 
Deut. 1:5; 4:8, 44; 17:18, 19; 27:3, 8). 
As a written code it is called the "book 
of the law of Moses " (2 Kings 14 : 6 ; Isa. 
8 : 20), the "book of the law of the Lord " 
(Josh. 24 : 26). 

The great leading principle of the Mosaic 
law is that it is essentially theocratic; i.e., 
it refers at once to the commandment of 
God as the foundation of all hiiman duty. 

Law'yer, among the Jews, was one 
versed in the laws of Moses, which he 
expounded in the schools and synagogues 
(Matt. 22:35; Luke 10:25). The func- 
tions of the " lawyer " and " scribe " were 
identical. (See Doctor.) 

Laz^arus, an abbreviation of Eleazar— 
XKliom God helps. (1. ) The brother of Mary 
and Martha of Bethany. He was raised 
from the dead after he had lain four days 
in the tomb (John 12 : 1-17). This miracle 
so excited the wrath of the Jews that they 
sought to put both Jesus and Lazarus to 
death. 

(2.) A beggar named in the parable re- 
corded Luke 16 : 19-31. 

Leaf of a tree. The olive-leaf mentioned 
Gen. 8 : 11. The barren fig-tree had noth- 
ing but leaves (Matt. 21 : 19 ; Mark 11 : 13). 
The oak -leaf is mentioned Isa. 1 : 30 ; 6 : 13. 
There are numerous allusions to leaves— 
their flourishing, their decay, and their 
restoration (Lev. 26 : 36 ; Isa. 34 : 4 ; Jer. 
8:13; Dan. 4:12, 14, 21; Mark 11:13; 
13 : 28). The fresh leaf is a sjrmbol of pros- 
perity (Ps. 1:3; Jer. 17 : 8 ; Ezek. 47 : 12) ; 
the faded, of decay (Job 13 : 25 ; Isa. 1 : 30 ; 
64 : 6 ; Jer. 8 : 13). 

Leaf of a door (1 Kings 6 : 34), the valve 
of a folding door. 

Leaf of a hook (Jer. 36:23), perhaps a fold 
of a roll. 

League, a treaty or confederacy. The 
Jews were forbidden to enter into an alli- 



ance of any kind (1) with the Canaanites 
(Ex. 23 : 32, 33 ; 34 : 12-16) ; (2) with the 
Amalekites (Ex. 17:8, 14; Deut. 25:17- 
19) ; (3) with the Moabites and Ammonites 
(Deut. 2 : 9, 19). Treaties were permitted 
to be entered into with all other nations. 
Thus David maintained friendly inter- 
course with the kings of Tj^re and Hamath, 
and Solomon with the kings of Tyre and 
Egypt. 

Le^ah — xoeary — the eldest daughter of 
Laban, and sister of Rachel (Gen. 29 : 16). 
Jacob took her to wife through a deceit of 
her father (Gen. 29 : 23). She was "tender- 
eyed " (17). She bore to Jacob six sons 
(32-35), also one daughter, Dinah (30 : 21). 
She accompanied Jacob into Canaan, and 
died there before the time of the going 
down into Egypt (Gen. 31), and was buried 
in the cave of Machpelah (49 : 31). 

Lean'noth— /or answering ; i.e., in sing- 
ing — occurs in the title to Ps. 88. The 
title "Mahalath {q.v.) Leannoth" may be 
rendered "concerning sickness, to be sung" 
— i.e., perhaps, to be sung in sickness. 

Leasing (Ps. 4 : 2 ; 5 : 6) an Old English 
word meaning lies, or lying, as the Hebrew 
word kdzdhh is generally rendered. 

Leath'^er, a girdle of, worn by Elijah 
(2 Kings 1 : 8) and John the Baptist (Matt. 
3 : 4). Leather was employed both for 
clothing (Job 31 : 20 ; Heb. 11 : 37) and for 
writing upon. The trade of a tanner is 
mentioned (Acts 9 : 43 ; 10 : 6, 32). It was 
probably learned in Egypt. 

Leav'en. (1.) Heb. seor (Ex. 12:15, 
19; 13:7; Lev. 2:11), the remnant of 
dough from the preceding baking which 
had fermented and become acid. 

(2.) Heb. Jiamets, properly "ferment." 
In Num. 6:3, "vinegar of wine "is more 
correctly "fermented \vine." In Ex. 13 : 7, 
the proper rendering would be, "Unfer- 
mented things [Heb. matstsoth] shall be 
consumed during the seven days ; and there 
shall not be seen with thee fermented 
things [hamets], and there shall not be 
seen with thee leavened mass [seSr] in all 
thy borders." The chemical definition of 
ferment or yeast is " a substance in a state 
of putrefaction, the atoms of which are in 
a continual motion. " 



LEBANON 



418 



LEFT 



The use of leaven was strictly forbidden 
in all offerings made to the Lord by fire 
(Lev. 2 : 11 ; 7 : 12 ; 8 : 2 ; Num. 6 : 15). Its 
secretly penetrating and diffusive power is 
referred to in 1 Cor. 5:6. In this respect 
it is used to illustrate the growth of the 
kingdom of heaven both in the individual 
heart and in the world (Matt. 13 : 33). It 
is a figure also of corruptness and of per- 
verseness of heart and life (Matt. 16 : 6, 11 ; 
Mark 8 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 5 : 7, 8). 

Leb^anon — white — "the white mountain 
of Syria, " is the loftiest and most celebrated 
mountain range in Syria. It is a branch 
running southward from the Caucasus, and 
at its lower end forking into two parallel 
ranges — the eastern or Anti-Lebanon, and 
the western or Lebanon proper. They 
enclose a long valley (Josh. 11 : 17) of from 
5 to 8 miles in width, called by Roman 
writers Coele-Syria, now called el-Buka'a, 
"the valley," a prolongation of the valley 
of the Jordan. 

Lebanon proper, Jebel es-Sharki, com- 
mences at its southern extremity in the 
gorge of the Leontes, the ancient Litany, 
and extends north-east, parallel to the Me- 
diterranean coast, as far as the river Eleu- 
therus, at the plain of Emesa, "the enter- 
ing of Hamath " (Num. 34 : 8 ; 1 Kings 8 : 
65), in all about 90 geographical miles in 
extent. The average height of this range 
is from 6,000 to 8,000 feet; the peak of 
Jehel Mukhmel is about 10,200 feet, and 
the Sanntn about 9,000. The highest peaks 
are covered with perpetual snow and ice. 
In the recesses of the range wild beasts as of 
old still abound (2 Kings 14 : 9 ; Cant. 4 : 8). 
The scenes of the Lebanon are remarkable 
for their grandeur and beauty, and sup- 
plied the sacred writers with many expres- 
sive similes (Ps. 29 : 5, 6 ; 72 : 16 ; 104 : 16- 
18 ; Cant. 4 : 15 ; Isa. 2 : 13 ; 35 : 2 ; 60 : 13 ; 
Hos. 14:5). It is famous for its cedars 
(Cant. 5 : 15), its wines (Hos. 14 : 7), and its 
cool waters ( Jer. 18 : 14). The ancient in- 
habitants were Giblites and Hivites (Josh. 
13 : 5 ; Judg. 3 : 3). It was part of the Phoe- 
nician kingdom (1 Kings 5 : 2-6). 

The eastern range, or Anti-Lebanon, or 
"Lebanon towards the sunrising," runs 
nearly parallel with the western from the 



plain of Emesa till it connects with the 
hills of Galilee in the south. The height 
of this range is about 5,000 feet. Its high- 
est peak is Hermon {q.v.), from which a 
number of lesser ra.nges radiate. 

Lebanon is first mentioned in the de- 
scription of the boundary of Palestine 
(Deut. 1:7; 11 : 24). It was assigned to 
Israel, but was never conquered (Josh. 13 : 
2-6 ; Judg. 3 : 1-3). 

The Lebanon range is now inhabited by 
a population of about 300,000 Christians, 
Maronites, and Druses, and is ruled by a 
Christian governor. The Anti-Lebanon is 
inhabited by Mohammedans, and is under 
a Turkish ruler. 

"Lebbae^vis—courageous—a, surname of Ju- 
das ( Jude), one of the twelve (Matt. 10 : 3), 
called also Thaddseus, not to be confounded 
with the Judas who was the brother of our 
Lord. 

Lebo''nah — frankincense — a town near 
Shiloh, on the north side of Bethel ( Jiidg. 
21 : 19). It has been identified with el- 
Lubban, to the south of NabMs. 

Leek (Heb. liatstr ; the Allium porrum), 
rendered "grass" in 1 Kings 18:5, 2 
Kings 19 : 26, Job 40 : 15, etc. ; " herb " 
in Job 8 : 12 ; " hay " in Pro v. 27 : 25, and 
Isa. 15:6; "leeks" only in Num. 11:5. 
This Hebrew word seems to denote in this 
last passage simply herbs, such as lettuce 
or savoury herbs cooked as kitchen vege- 
tables, and not necessarily what are now 
called leeks. The leek was a favourite 
vegetable in Egypt, and is still largely 
cultivated there and in Palestine. 

Lees (Heb. shemdrim), from a word 
meaning to keep or preserve. It was applied 
to "lees" from the custom of allowing wine 
to stand on the lees that it might thereby 
be better preserved (Isa. 25:6). "Men 
settled on their lees " (Zeph. 1 :12) are men 
"hardened or crusted." The image is de- 
rived from the crust formed at the bottom 
of wines long left undisturbed (Jer. 48 : 11). 
The effect of wealthy undisturbed ease on 
the ungodly is hardening. They become 
stupidly secure (comp. Ps. 55 : 19 ; Amos 
6 : 1). To drink the lees (Ps. 75 : 8) denotes 
severe suffering. 

Left hand, among the Hebrews, denoted 



LEFT 



419 



LEPROSY 



the north (Job 23:9; Gen. 14 : 15), the face 
of the person being supposed to be toward 
the east. 

Left-handed (Judg. 3 : 15 ; 20 : 16), one 
unable to use the right hand skilfully, and 
who therefore uses the left ; and also one who 
uses the left as well as the right — ambidex- 
ter. Such a condition of the hands is due 
to physical causes. This quality was com- 
mon apparently in the tribe of Benjamin. 

Le''gion, a regiment of the Roman army, 
the number of men composing which dif- 
fered at different times. It originally con- 
sisted of three thousand men, but in the 
time of Christ consisted of six thousand, 
exclusive of horsemen, who were in num- 
ber a tenth of the foot-men. The word is 
used (Matt. 26 : 53 ; Mark 5:9) to express 
simply a great multitude. 

Le^hi — a jaiobone — a place in the tribe 
of Judah where Samson achieved a victory 
over the Philistines (Judg. 15 : 9, 14, 16), 
slaying a thousand of them with the jaw- 
bone of an ass. The words in 15:19, "a 
hollow place that was in the jaw" (A.V.), 
should be, as in Revised Version, " the hol- 
low place that is in Lehi." 

Lem^uel — dedicated to God — a king 
whom his mother instructed (Prov. 31 : 1-6). 
Nothing is certainly known concerning him. 
The rabbis identified him with Solomon. 




Len'^tiles (Heb. 'addshim), a species of 
vetch (Gen. 25 : 34 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 11), com- 



mon in Syria under the name addas. The 
red pottage made by Jacob was of len- 
tils (Gen. 25:29-34). They were among 
the provisions brought to David when he 
fled from Absalom (2 Sam. 17 : 28). It is 
the Ervum lens of Linnaeus, a leguminous 
plant which produces a fruit resembling a 
bean. 

Leop^ard (Heb. ndmSr, so called because 
spotted — Cant. 4 : 8), was that great spotted 
feline which anciently infested the moun- 
tains of Syria, more appropriately called a 
panther {Felis pardus). Its fierceness (Isa. 
11 : 6), its watching for its prey ( Jer. 5 : 6), 
its swiftness (Hab. 1 : 8), and the spots of 
its skin (Jer. 13 : 23), are noticed. This 
word is used symbolically (Dan. 7:6; Rev. 
13 : 2). 

Lep^rosy (Heb. tsdra'ath, a "smiting," 
a "stroke," because the disease was re- 
garded as a direct providential infliction). 
This name is from the Greek lepra, by 
which the Greek physicians designated the 
disease from its scaliness. We have the 
description of the disease, as well as the 
regulations connected with it, in Lev. 13, 
14; Num. 12:10-15, etc. There were 
reckoned six different circumstances under 
which it might develop itself — (1) without 
any apparent cause (Lev. 13 : 2-8) ; (2) its 
reappearance (9-17) ; (3) from an inflamma- 
tion (18-28) ; (4) on the head or chin (29-37) ; 
(5) in white polished spots (38, 39) ; (6) at 
the back or in the front of the head (40-44). 

Lepers were required to live outside the 
camp or city (Num. 5 : 1-4 ; 12 : 10-15, etc. ). 
This disease was regarded as an awful 
punishment from the Lord (2 Kings 5:7; 
2 Chr. 26:20). (See Mikiam ; Gehazi; 
XJzziAH.) 

This disease "begins with specks on the 
eyelids and on the palms, gradually spread- 
ing over the body, bleaching the hair white 
wherever they appear, crusting the affected 
parts with white scales, and causing ter- 
rible sores and swellings. Erom the skin 
the disease eats inward to the bones, rot- 
ting the whole body piecemeal." "In 
Christ's day no leper could live in a walled 
town, though he might in an open village. 
But wherever he was he was required to 
have his outer garment rent as a sign of 



LETTER 



420 



LEVITE 



deep grief, to go bareheaded, and to cover 
his beard with his mantle, as if in lamen- 
tation at his own virtual death. He had 
further to warn passers-by to keep away 
from him, by calling out, ' Unclean ! un- 
clean ! ' nor could he speak to any one, or 
receive or return a salutation, since in the 
East this involves an embrace." 

That the disease was not contagious is 
evident from the regulations regarding it 
(Lev. 13 : 12, 13, 36 ; 2 Kings 5 : 1). Lep- 
rosy was "the outward and visible sign 
of the innermost spiritual corruption ; a 
meet emblem in its small beginnings, its 
gradual spread, its internal disfigurement, 
its dissolution little by little of the whole 
body, of that which corrupts, degrades, and 
defiles man's inner nature, and renders him 
unmeet to enter the presence of a pure and 
holy God" (Maclear's Handbook 0. T). 
Our Lord cured lepers (Matt. 8:2, 3 ; 
Mark 1 : 40-42). This divine power so 
manifested illustrates his gracious dealings 
with men in curing the leprosy of the soul 
— the fatal taint of sin. 

Let^ter in Rom. 2 : 27, 29 means the out- 
ward form. The "oldness of the letter" 
(7 : 6) is a phrase which denotes the old way 
of literal outward obedience to the law as 
a system of mere external rules of conduct. 
In 2 Cor. 3:6, "the letter" means the 
Mosaic law as a written law. (See Writing. ) 

Leum^mim — peoples; nations — the last 
mentioned of the three sons of Dedan, and 
head of an Arabian tribe (Gen, 25 : 3). 

Le''vi — adhesion. (1.) The third son of 
Jacob by Leah. The origin of the name is 
found in Leah's words (Gen. 29 : 34), "This 
time will my husband &e joined [Heb. yil- 
IdveK] unto me." He is mentioned as tak- 
ing a prominent part in avenging his sister 
Dinah (Gen. 34 : 25-31). He and his three 
sons went down with Jacob (46 : 11) into 
Egypt, where he died at the age of one 
hundred and thirty-seven years (Ex. 6 : 16). 

(2.) The father of Matthat, and son of 
Simeon, of the ancestors of Chi'ist (Luke 
3:29). 

(3.) Luke 3: 24. 

(4.) One of the apostles, the son of Al- 
phseus (Mark 2 : 14 ; Luke 5 : 27, 29), called 
also Matthew (Matt. 9 : 9). 



Levi^'athan, a transliterated Hebrew word 
{livydthdn), meaning "twisted," "coiled." 
In Job 3 : 8, Revised Version, and marg. of 
Authorized Version, it denotes the dragon 
which, according to Eastern tradition, is 
an enemy of light ; in ver. 41 the crocodile 
is meant; in Ps. 104:26 it "denotes any 
large animal that moves by writhing or 
wriggling the body — the whale, the mon- 
sters of the deep." This word is also used 
figuratively for a cruel enemy, as some think 
' ' the Egyptian host, crushed by the divine 
power, and cast on the shores of the Red 
Sea" (Ps. 74 : 14). As used in Isa. 27 : 1, " levi- 
athan the piercing [R.V. 'sAvift'] serpent, 
even leviathan that crooked [R.V. marg. 
'winding'] serpent," the Avord may prob- 
ably denote the two empires, the Assyrian 
and the Babylonian. 

Lev'irate Law, from Latin levir, "a 
husband's brother," the name of an an- 
cient custom ordained by Moses, by which, 
when an Israelite died without issue, his 
surviving brother was required to marry 
the widow, so as to continue his brother's 
family through the son that might be born 
of that marriage (Gen. 38 : 8 ; Deut. 25 : 5- 
10; comp. Ruth 3; 4:10). Its object was 
"to raise up seed to the departed brother." 

Le'vite, a descendant of the tribe of Levi 
(Ex. 6:25; Lev. 25:32; Num. 35:2; Josh. 
21 : 3, 41). This name is, however, gener- 
ally used as the title of that portion of the 
tribe which was set apart for the subordin- 
ate offices of the sanctuary service (1 Kings 
8:4; Ezra 2 : 70), as assistants to the 
priests. 

When the Israelites left Egypt, the an- 
cient manner of worship was still observed 
by them, the eldest son of each house in- 
heriting the priest's office. At Sinai the 
first change in this ancient practice was 
made. A hereditary priesthood in the 
family of Aaron was then instituted (Ex. 
28 : 1). But it was not till that terrible 
scene in connection with the sin of the 
golden calf that the tribe of Levi stood 
apart and began to occupy a distinct posi- 
tion (Ex. 32). The religious primogeniture 
M^as then conferred on this tribe, which 
henceforth was devoted to the service of 
the sanctuary (Num. 3 : 11-13). They were 



LEVITICUS 



421 



LEVITICUS 



selected for this purpose because of their 
zeal for the glory of God (Ex. 32 : 26), and 
because, as the tribe to which Moses and 
Aaron belonged, they would naturally 
stand by the lawgiver in his work. 

The Levitical order consisted of all the 
descendants of Levi's three sons, Gershon, 
Kohath, and Merari ; whilst Aaron, Am- 
ram's son ( Amram, son of Kohath), and his 
issue constituted the priestly order. 

The age and qualification for Levitical 
service are specified in Num. 4 : 3, 23, 30, 
39, 43, 47. 

They were not included among the 
armies of Israel (Num. 1 : 47 ; 2 : 33 ; 26 : 
62), but were reckoned by themselves. 
They were the special guardians of the 
tabernacle (Num. 1:51; 18:22-24). The 
Gershonites pitched their tents on the west 
of the tabernacle (3 : 23), the Kohathites 
on the south (3 : 29), the Merarites on the 
north (3 : 35), and the priests on the east 
(3 : 38). It was their duty to move the 
tent and carry the parts of the sacred 
structure from lolace to place. They were 
given to Aaron and his sons the priests 
to wait upon them and do work for them 
at the sanctuary services (Num. 8 : 19 ; 
18:2-6). 

As being wholly consecrated to the ser- 
vice of the Lord, they had no territorial 
possessions. Jehovah was their inheritance 
(Num. 18:20; 26:62; Deut. 10:9; 18:1,2), 
and for their support it was ordained that 
they should receive from the other tribes 
the tithes of the j^roduce of the land. Forty- 
eight cities also were assigned to them, thir- 
teen of which were for the priests "to dwell 
in" — i.e., along with their other inhabit- 
ants. Along with their dwellings they had 
' ' suburbs " — i.e., " commons " — for their 
herds and flocks, and also fields and vine- 
yards (Num. 35 : 2-5). Nine of these cities 
were in Judah, three in Naphtali, and four 
in each of the other tribes (Josh. 21). Six 
of the Levitical cities were set apart as 
"cities of refuge " {q.v.). Thus the Levites 
were scattered among the tribes to keep 
alive among them the knowledge and ser- 
vice of God. (See Priest.) 

Levit^icus, the third book of the Penta- 
teuch ; so called in the Vulgate, after the 



LXX., because it treats chiefly of the 
Levitical service. 

In the first section of the book (1-17), 
which exhibits the worship itself, there is 
— (1.) A series of laws (1-7) regarding 
sacrifices, burnt - off erings, meat-offerings, 
and thank-offerings (1-3), sin-offerings and 
trespass-offerings (4; 5), followed by the 
law of the i^riestly duties in connection 
with the offering of sacrifices (6; 7). (2.) 
An historical section (8-10), giving an 
account of the consecration of Aaron and 
his sons (8) ; Aaron's first offering for him- 
self and the people (9) ; Nadab and Abihu's 
presumption in offering "strange fire be- 
fore Jehovah," and their punishment (10). 
(3. ) Laws concerning purity, and the sacri- 
fices and ordinances for putting away im- 
purity (11-16). An interesting fact may 
be noted here. Canon Tristram, speaking 
of the remarkable discoveries regarding 
the flora and fauna of the Holy Land by 
the Palestine Exploration officers, makes 
the following statement: — "Take these 
two catalogues of the clean and unclean 
animals in the books of Leviticus [11] and 
Deuteronomy [14]. There are eleven in 
Deuteronomy which do not occur in Leviti- 
cus, and these are nearly all animals and 
birds which are not found in Egj'pt or the 
Holy Land, but which are nimierous in the 
Arabian desert. They are not named in 
Leviticus a few weeks after the departure 
from Egyjjt ; but after the people were 
thirty-nine years in the desert they are 
named — a strong proof that the list in 
Deuteronomy was written at the end of the 
journey, and the list in Leviticus at the 
beginning. It fixes the writing of that 
catalogue to one time and period only — 
viz., that when the children of Israel were 
familiar with the fauna and the flora of the 
desert" [Palest. Expl. Quart., Jan. 1887). 
(4.) Laws marking the separation between 
Israel and the heathen (17-20). (5. ) Laws 
about the personal purity of the priests, 
and their eating of the holy things (20 ; 21) ; 
about the offerings of Israel — that they 
were to be without blemish (22 : 17-33) ; and 
about the due celebration of the great 
festivals (23; 25). (6.) Then follow pro- 
1 mises and warnings to the people regarding 



LEVY 



422 



LIFE 



obedience to these commandments, closing 
with a section on vows. 

The various ordinances contained in this 
book were all delivered in the space of a 
month (comp. Ex. 40 : 17 ; Num. 1 : 1), the 
first month of the second year after the 
Exodus, 

No book contains more of the very- 
words of God. He is almost througho\it 
the whole of it the direct speaker. This 
book is a prophecy of things to come — a 
shadow whereof the substance is Christ 
and his kingdom. The principles on which 
it is to be interpreted are laid down in the 
Epistle to the Hebrews. It contains in its 
complicated ceremonial the gospel of the 
grace of God, 

Levy (1 Kings 4 : 6, R, V. ; 5 : 13), forced 
service. The service of tributaries was 
often thus exacted by kings. Solomon 
raised a " great levy " of 30,000 men, about 
two per cent, of the population, to work for 
him by courses on Lebanon. Adoram 
(12 : 18) presided over this forced labour 
service (Ger. Frohndienst ; Er. corvee). 

Lewd^ness (Acts 18:14), villany or 
wickedness, not lewdness in the modern 
sense of the word. The word "lewd" is 
from the Saxon, and means properly "ig- 
norant," "unlearned," and hence low, 
vicious (Acts 17 : 5). 

Lib^ertine, found only Acts 6 : 9, one 
who once had been a slave, but who had 
been set at liberty, or the child of such a 
person. In this case the name probably 
denotes those descendants of Jews who 
had been carried captives to Rome as 
prisoners of war by Pompey and other 
Roman generals in the Syrian wars, and 
had afterwards been liberated. In a.d. 
19 these manumitted Jews were banished 
from Rome. Many of them found their 
way to Jerusalem, and there established 
a synagogue. 

Lib'^nah — transparency ; ichiteness. (1.) 
One of the stations of the Israelites in the 
wilderness (Num. 33 : 20, 21). 

(2.) One of the royal cities of the Can- 
aanites taken by Joshua (Josh. 10 : 29-32 ; 
12 : 15). It became one of the Levitical 
towns in the tribe of Judah (21 : 13), and was 
strongly fortified. Sennacherib laid siege to 



it (2 Kings 19 : 8 ; Isa. 37 : 8). It was the 
native place of Hamutal, the queen of 
Josiah (2 Kings 23 : 31). It stood near 
Lachish, and has been identified with the 
modern ArdJc cl-MensMyeh. 

Lib^ni — tvhite — one of the two sons of 
Gershon, the son of Levi (Ex. 6 : 17 ; Num. 
3:18,21). (SeeLAADAN.) 

Lib'ya, the country of the Luhim (Gen. 
10 : 13), Northern Africa, a large tract 
lying along the Mediterranean, to the west 
of Egypt (Acts 2 : 10). Gyrene was one of 
its five cities. 

Lice (Heb. Mnnim), the creatures em- 
ployed in the third plague sent upon 
Egypt (Ex. 8:16-18). They were mir- 
aculously produced from the dust of the 
land. "The entomologists Kirby and 
Spence place these minute but disgusting 
insects in the very front rank of those 
which inflict injury upon man. A terrible 
list of examples they have collected of the 
ravages of this and closely allied parasitic 
pests." The plague of lice is referred to 
in Ps. 105 : 31. 

Some have supposed that the word de- 
notes not lice properly, but gnats. Others, 
with greater probability, take it to mean 
the " tick," which is much larger than lice. 

Lie, an intentional violation of the truth. 
Lies are emphatically condemned in Scrip- 
ture (John 8 : 44 ; 1 Tim. 1:9, 10 ; Rev. 
21 : 27 ; 22 : 15). Mention is made of the 
lies told by good men, as by Abraham (Gen. 
12 : 12, 13 ; 20 : 2), Isaac (26 : 7), and Jacob 
(27 : 24) ; also by the Hebrew midwives (Ex. 
1 : 15-19), by Michal (1 Sam. 19 : 14), and 
by David (1 Sam. 20 : 6). (See Ananias.) 

Lieuten^ant (only in A. V. Esther 3 : 12 ; 
8:9; 9:3; Ezra 8 : 36), a governor or vice- 
roy of a Persian province having both 
military and civil power. Correctly ren- 
dered in the Revised Version "satrap." 

Life, generally of physical life (Gen. 2:7; 
Luke 16 : 25, etc. ) ; also used figuratively 
(1) for immortality (Heb. 7 : 16) ; (2) con- 
duct or manner of life (Rom. 6:4); (3) 
spiritual life or salvation (John 3 : 16, 17, 
18, 36) ; (4) eternal life (Matt. 19 : 16, 17 ; 
John 3 : 15) ; of God and Christ as the 
absolute source and cause of all life (John 
1:4; 5:26, 39; 11:25; 12:50). 



LIGHT 



423 



LILY 



Light, the offspring of the divine com- 
mand (Gen. 1:3). "All the more joyous 
emotions of the mind, all the pleasing sen- 
sations of the frame, all the happy hours 
of domestic intercourse were habitually 
described among the Hebrews under im- 
agery derived from light " (1 Kings 11 : 36 ; 
Isa. 58 : 8 ; Esther 8 : 16 ; Ps. 97 : 11). Light 
came also naturally to typify true religion 
and the felicity it imparts (Ps. 119 : 105 ; 
Isa. 8 : 20 ; Matt. 4 : 16, etc.), and the glo- 
rious inheritance of the redeemed (Col. 1 : 
12 ; Rev. 21 : 23-25). God is said to dwell 
in light inaccessible (1 Tim. 6 : 16). It fre- 
quently signifies instruction (Matt. 5 : 16 ; 
John 5 : 35). In its highest sense it is ap- 
plied to Christ as the "Sun of righteous- 
ness" (Mai. 4:2; Luke 2:32; John 1: 
7-9). God is styled "the Father of lights" 
(James 1 : 17). It is used of angels (2 Cor. 
11 : 14), and of John the Baptist, who was 
a "burning and a shining light" (John 
5 : 35), and of all true disciples, who are 
styled "the light of the world" (Matt. 
5 : 14). 

Lightening, frequently referred to by 
the sacred writers (Nah. 1 : 3-6). Thunder 
and lightning are spoken of as tokens of 
God's wrath (2 Sam. 22 : 15 ; Job 28 : 26 ; 
37:4; Ps. 135:7; 144:6; Zech. 9:14). 
They represent God's glorious and awful 
majesty (Rev. 4 : 5), or some judgment of 
God on the world (20 : 9). 

Lign-al^oes (only in pi., Heb. 'ahdUm), 
a perfume derived from some Oriental tree 
(Num. 24 : 6), probably the agallochum or 
aloe-wood. (See Aloes.) 

Lig^ure (Heb. leshem) occurs only in 
Ex. 28 : 19 and 39 : 12, as the name of a 
stone in the third row on the high priest's 
breastplate. Some have supposed that 
this stone was the same as the jacinth {q.v.), 
others that it was the opal. There is now 
no mineral bearing this name. The 
"ligurite" is so named from Liguria in 
Italy, where it was found. 

Lil'y. The Hebrew name shUshdn or 
shoshdn — i.e., "whiteness" — was used as 
the general name of several plants common 
to Syria, such as the tulip, iris, anemone, 
gladiolus, ranunculus, etc. Some inter- 
pret it, with much probability, as denoting 



in the Old Testament the water-lily {Nym- 
phcea lotus of Linn.), or lotus (Cant. 2 : 1, 2; 
2:16; 4:5; 5:13; 6:2, 3; 7:2). "Its 
flowers are large, and they are of a white 
colour, with streaks of pink. They sup- 
plied models for the ornaments of the 
pillars and the molten sea " (1 Kings 7 : 19, 
22, 26 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 5). In the Canticles its 
beauty and fragrance shadow forth the pre- 
ciousness of Christ to the Church. Groser, 
however {Scrip. If at. Hist. ), strongly argues 
that the word, both in the Old and New 
Testaments, denotes liliaceous plants in 
general, or if one genus is to be selected, 
that it must be the genus Iris, which is 
" large, vigorous, elegant in form, and gor- 
geous in colouring." 

The lilies (Gr. krinia) spoken of in the 
New Testament (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12: 
27) were probably the scarlet martagon 
{Lilium Chalcedonicum) ov "red Turk's-cap 




LILIUM CHALCEDONICUM. 

lily," which "comes into flower at the 
season of the year when our Lord's sermon 
on the mount is supposed to have been 
delivered. It is abundant in the district of 
Galilee ; and its fine scarlet flowers render 
it a very conspicuous and shovi^ object, 
which would naturally attract the atten- 
tion of the hearers " (Balfour's Plants of the 
Bible). 

Of the true "floral glories of Palestine" 
the pheasant's eye {Adonis Palestina), the 
ranunculus {R. Asiaticus), and the anemone 



LIME 



424 



LINTEL 



{A. coronaria), the last named is, how- 
ever, with the greatest probability re- 
garded as the "lily of the field" to which 
our Lord refers. "Certainly," says Tris- 
tram {Nat. Hist, of the Bible), "if, in the 
wondrous richness of bloom which charac- 
terizes the land of Israel in spring, any 
one plant can claim pre-eminence, it is the 
anemone, the most natural flower for our 




ANEMONE CORONARIA. 

Lord to pluck and seize upon as an illustra- 
tion, whether walking in the fields or sitting 
on the hill-side." "The white water-lily 
{Nyniphcea alba) and the yellow water-lily 
[Nuphar lutea) are both abundant in the 
marshes of the Upper Jordan, but have no 
connection with the lily of Scripture." 

Lime. The Hebrew word so rendered 
means ' ' boiling " or " effervescing. " From 
Tsa. 33 : 12 it appears that lime was made 
in a kiln lighted by thorn-bushes. In 
Amos 2 : 1 it is recorded that the king of 
Moab "burned the bones of the king of 
Edom with lime." The same Hebrew 
word is used in Deut. 27 : 2-4, and is there 
rendered "plaster." Limestone is the chief 
constituent of the mountains of Syria. 

Lines were used for measuring and 
dividing land ; and hence the word came 
to denote a portion or inheritance measured 
out ; a possession (Ps. 16 : 6). 

Linden. (1.) 'Keh. pishet, pishtali,denoteii 
"flax," of which linen is made (Isa. 19 : 9) ; 
wrought flax — i.e., "linen cloth" — Lev. 
13 : 47, 48, 52, 59 ; Deut. 22 : 11. 



Flax was early cultivated in Egypt (Ex. 
9 : 31), and also in Palestine (Josh. 2:6; 
Hos. 2 : 9). Various articles were made of 
it : garments (2 Sam. 6 : 14), girdles ( Jer. 
13 : 1), ropes and thread (Ezek. 40 : 3), 
napkins (Luke 24 : 12 ; John 20 : 7), turbans 
(Ezek. 44 : 18), and lamp-wicks (Isa. 42 : 3). 

(2.) Heb. hUts, "whiteness;" rendered 
"fine linen " in 1 Chr. 4 : 21 ; 15 : 27 ; 2 Chr. 
2 : 14 ; 3 : 14 ; Esther 1 : 6; 8 : 15, and "white 
linen " 2 Chr. 5 : 12. It is not certain 
whether this word means cotton or linen. 

(3.) Heb. had; rendered "linen" Ex. 
28:42; 39:28; Lev. 6:10; 16:4, 23, 32; 1 
Sara. 2 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14, etc. It is uni- 
formly used of the sacred vestments worn 
by the priests. The word is from a root 
signifying "separation." 

(4.) Heb. shesh; rendered "fine linen" 
Ex. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36, etc. In Prov. 
31 : 22 it is rendered in Authorized Version 
"silk," and in Revised Version "fine 
linen. " The word denotes Egyptian linen 
of peculiar tvhiteness and fineness [byssus). 
The finest Indian linen— the finest now 
made — has in an inch one hundred threads 
of warp and eighty-four of woof ; while the 
Egyptian had sometimes one hundred and 
forty in the warp and sixty -four in the 
woof. This was the usual dress of the 
Egyptian priest. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph 
in a dress of linen (Gen. 41 : 42). 

(5.) Heb. 'etun. Prov. 7:16, "fine linen 
of Egypt;" in Revised Version, "the yarn 
of Egypt." 

(6.) Heb. sddin. Prov. 31:24, "fine 
linen;" in Revised Version, "linen gar- 
ments" (Judg. 14 : 12, 13; Isa. 3 : 23). From 
this Hebrew word is probably derived the 
Greek word sindon, rendered "linen" in 
Mark 14 : 51, 52 ; 15 : 46 ; Matt. 27 : 59. 

The word " linen " is used as an emblem 
of moral purity (Rev. 15 : 6). In Liike 16 : 
19 it is mentioned as a mark of luxury. 

Linden-yarn. (See Yakn.) 

Lin^'tel. (1.) Heb. mfts/<A;(5p7?, a projecting 
cover (Ex. 12:22, 23; ver. 7, "upper door 
post," but R.V. "lintel"); the head-piece 
of a door, which the Israelites were com- 
manded to mark with the blood of the 
paschal lamb. 

(2. ) Heb. kaphtdr. Amos 9:1; Zech. 



LIONS 



425 



LIZARD 



2:14 (E/.V. correctly "chapiters," as in 
A.Y. marg.). 

Li^ons, the most powerful of all carnivor- 
ous animals. Although not now found in 
Palestine, they must have been in ancient 
times very numerous there. They had 
their lairs in the forests ( Jer. 5:6; 12 : 8 ; 
Amos 3 : 4), in the caves of the mountains 
(Cant. 4:8; Nah. 2 : 12), and in the cane- 
brakes on the banks of the Jordan (Jer. 
49 : 19 ; 50 : 44 ; Zech. 11 : 3). 

No fewer than at least six different words 
are used in the Old Testament for the lion. 
(1. ) Got {i.e., a "suckling "), the lion's whelp 
(Gen. 49 : 9 ; Jer. 51 : 38, etc. ). (2. ) KepMr 
{i.e., "shaggy "), the young lion (Judg. 14 : 
5 ; Job 4 : 10 ; Ps. 91 : 13 ; 104 : 21), a term 
which is also used figuratively of cruel 
enemies (Ps. 34 : 10 ; 35 : 17 ; 58 : 6 ; Jer. 2 : 
15). (3.) ^Ari {i.e., the "puller" in pieces), 
denoting the lion in general, without refer- 
ence to age or sex (Num. 23 : 24 ; 2 Sam. 
17 : 10, etc. ). (4. ) Shahal (the " roarer "), the 
mature lion (Job 4 : 10 ; Ps. 91 : 13 ; Prov. 
26:13; Hos. 5:14). (5.) Laish, so called 
from its strength and bravery (Job 4 : 11 ; 
Prov. 30 : 30 ; Isa. 30 : 6). The capital of 
Northern Dan received its name from this 
word. (6.) Ldht, from a root meaning "to 
roar," a grown lion or lioness (Gen. 49 : 9 ; 
Num. 23:24; 24:9; Jer. 19:2; Nah. 2: 
11). 

The lion of Palestine was properly of the 
Asiatic variety, distinguished from the 
African variety, which is larger. Yet it 
not only attacked flocks in the presence of 
the shepherd, but also laid waste towns 
and villages (2 Kings 17 : 25, 26) and de- 
voured men (1 Kings 13 : 24, 25). Shep- 
herds sometimes, single-handed, encoun- 
tered lions and slew them (1 Sam. 17 : 34, 
35 ; Amos 3 : 12). Samson seized a young 
lion with his hands and "rent him as 
he would have rent a kid" (Judg. 14:5, 
6). The strength (Judg. 14 : 18), courage 
(2 Sam. 17 : 10), and ferocity (Gen. 49 : 9) of 
the lion were proverbial. 

Lip, besides its literal sense (Isa. 37 : 29, 
etc. ), is used in the original {sciphdh) meta- 
phorically for an edge or border, as of a 
cup (1 Kings 7 : 26), a garment (Ex. 28 : 32), 
a ciirtain (26 :4), the sea (Gen. 22 : 17), the 



Jordan (2 Kings 2:13). To "open the 
lips " is to begin to speak (Job 11 : 5) ; to 
"refrain the lips" is to keep silence (Ps. 
40 : 9). The "fruit of the lips " (Heb. 13 : 
15 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 10) is praise, and the ' ' calves 
of the lips " thank-offerings (Hos. 14 : 2). 
To "shoot out the lips" is to manifest 
scorn and defiance (Ps. 22 : 7). Many 
similar forms of expression are found in 
Scripture. 

Lifter (Heb. tsdb, as being lightly and 
gently borne), a sedan or palanquin for the 
conveyance of persons of rank (Isa. 66 : 20). 
In Num. 7 : 3, the words "covered wagons " 
are more literally "carts of the litter kind." 
There they denote large and commodious 
vehicles drawn by oxen, and fitted for 
transporting the furniture of the temple. 

Liv'er (Heb. kdbhed, " heavy ; " hence the 
liver, as beingthe/z-mfics^of the viscera — Ex. 
29 : 13, 22 ; Lev. 3 : 4, 10, 15) was burnt upon 
the altar, and not used as sacrificial food. 
In Ezek. 21 : 21 there is allusion, in the 
statement that the king of Babylon "looked 
upon the liver," to one of the most ancient 
of all modes of divination. The first re- 
corded instance of divination {q.v.) is that 
of the teraphim of Laban. By the tera- 
phim the LXX. and Josephus understood 
"the liver of goats." By the "caul above 
the liver," in Lev. 4:9; 7:4, etc., some 
understand the great lobe of the liver itself. 

Liv^ing crea'tures, as represented by 
Ezekiel (1-10) and John (Rev. 4, etc.), are 
the cherubim. They are distinguished 
from angels (Rev. 15 : 7) ; they join the 
elders in the "new song" (5:8, 9); they 
warn of danger from divine justice (Isa. 
6 : 3-5), and deliver the commission to 
those who execute it (Ezek. 10 : 2, 7) ; they 
associate with the elders in their sjonpathy 
with the hundred and forty-four thousand 
who sing the new song (Rev. 14 : 3), and 
with the Church in the overthrow of her 
enemies (19 : 4). 

They are supposed to represent mercy, 
as distinguished from justice— mercy in its 
various instrumentalities, and especially as 
connected with the throne of God, the 
" throne of grace." 

Liz^ard. Only in Lev. 11 : 30, as ren- 
dering of Hebrew letd'dh, so called from its 



LO-AMMI 



426 



LOCUST 



"hiding." Supposed to be the Lacerta 
gecko or fan-foot lizard, from the toes of 
which poison exudes. (See Chameleon. ) 

Lo-ain''mi — not my people — a symbohcal 
name given by God's command to Hosea's 
second son in token of Jehovah's rejection 
of his people (Hos. 1 : 9, 10), his treatment 
of them as a foreign people. This Hebrew 
word is rendered by "not my people " in 
ver. 10 ; 2 : 23. 

Loan. The Mosaic law required that 
when an Israelite needed to borrow, what 
he asked was to be freely lent to him, and 
no interest was to be charged, although 
interest might be taken of a foreigner 
(Ex. 22:25; Deut. 23:19, 20; Lev. 25: 
35-38). At the end of seven years all 
debts were remitted. Of a foreigner the 
loan might, however, be exacted. At a 
later period of the Hebrew commonwealth, 
when commerce increased, the practice of 
exacting usury or interest on loans, and of 
suretiship in the commercial sense, grew 
up. Yet the exaction of it from a Hebrew 
was regarded as discreditable (Ps. 15 : 5 ; 
27 : 13 ; Prov. 6:1, 4; 11 : 15; 17 : 18; 20 : 16; 
Jer. 15 : 10). 

Limitations are prescribed by the law to 
the taking of a pledge from the borrower. 
The outer garment in which a man slept at 
night, if taken in pledge, was to be returned 
before sunset (Ex. 22:26, 27; Deut. 24: 
12, 13). A widow's garment (Deut. 24 : 17) 
and a millstone (6) could not be taken. A 
creditor could not enter the house to re- 
claim a pledge, but must remain outside 
till the borrower brought it (10, 11). The 
Hebrew debtor could not be retained in 
bondage longer than the seventh year, or 
at farthest the year of jubilee (Ex. 21 : 2 ; 
Lev. 25 : 39, 42), but foreign sojourners were 
to be " bondmen for ever " (Lev. 25 : 44-54). 

Lock. The Hebrews usually secured 
their doors by bars of wood or iron (Isa. 
45 : 2 ; 1 Kings 4 : 3). These were the locks 
originally used, and were opened and shut 
by large keys applied through an opening 
in the outside (Judg. 3 : 24). (See Key.) 

Lock of hair (Judg. 16 : 13, 19 ; Ezek. 
8:3; Num. 6:5, etc.). 

Lo'cust. There are ten Hebrew words 
used in Scripture to signify locust. In the 



New Testament locusts are mentioned as 
forming part of the food of John the Bap- 
tist (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6). By the 
Mosaic law they were reckoned "clean," 
so that he could lawfully eat them. The 
name also occurs in Rev. 9:3, 7, in allu- 
sion to this Oriental devastating insect. 

Locusts belong to the class of the Or- 
thoptera — i.e., straight-winged. They are 
of many species. The ordinary Syrian 
locust resembles the grasshopper, but is 
larger and more destructive. "The legs 
and thighs of these insects are so powerful 
that they can leap to a height of two hun- 
dred times the length of their bodies. 
When so raised they spread their wings 
and fly so close together as to appear like 
one compact moving mass." Locusts are 
prepared as food in various ways. Some- 
times they are pounded, and then mixed 
with flour and water, and baked into cakes ; 




"sometimes boiled, roasted, or stewed in 
butter, and then eaten. " They were eaten 
in a preserved state by the ancient Assyr- 
ians. The devastations they make in East- 
ern lands are often very appalling. 

The invasions of locusts are the heaviest 
calamities that can befall a country. 
" Their numbers exceed computation: the 
Hebrews called them 'the countless,' and 
the Arabs knew them as ' the darkeners of 
the sun. ' Unable to guide their own flight, 
though capable of crossing large spaces, 
they are at the mercy of the wind, which 
bears them as blind instruments of Provi- 
dence to the doomed region given over to 
them for the time. Innumerable as the 
drops of water or the sands of the seashore, 
their flight obscures the sun and casts a 
thick shadow on the earth (Ex. 10 : 15 ; Judg. 
6 : 5 ; 7 : 12 ; Jer. 46 : 23 ; Joel 2 : 10). It 
seems indeed as if a great aerial mountain, 



LO-DEBAR 



427 



LORD 



many miles in breadth, were advancing 
with a slow, unresting progress. Woe to 
the countries beneath them if the wind 
fall and let them alight ! They descend un- 
numbered as flakes of snow and hide the 
ground. It may be 'like the garden of 
Eden before them, but behind them is a 
desolate wilderness. At their approach 
the people are in anguish ; all faces lose 
their colour ' (Joel 2 : 6). No walls can stop 
them ; no ditches arrest them ; fires kindled 
in their path are forthwith extinguished by 
the myriads of their dead, and the count- 
less armies march on (Joel 2 : 8, 9). If a 
door or a window be open, they enter and 
destroy everything of wood in the house. 
Every terrace, court, and inner chamber 
is filled vnth them in a moment. Such an 
awful visitation swept over Egypt (Ex. 10 : 
1-19), consuming before it every green 
thing, and stripping the trees, till the land 
was bared of all signs of vegetation. A 
strong north-west wind from the Mediter- 
ranean swept the locusts into the Red Sea. " 
— Geikie's Hours, etc., ii., 149. 

Lo-de^bar — no pasture— [2 Sam. 17 : 27), 
a town in Gilead not far from Mahanaim, 
north of the Jabbok (9 : 4, 5). It is prob- 
ably identical with Debir (Josh. 13 : 26). 

Lodge, a shed for a watchman in a gar- 
den (Isa. 1 : 8). The Hebrew name meMndh 
is rendered "cottage" {q.v.) in Isa. 24:20. 
It also denotes a hammock or hanging-bed. 

Log, the smallest measure for liquids 
used by the Hebrews (Lev. 14 : 10, 12, 15, 
21, 24), called in the Vulgate sextarius. It 
is the Hebrew unit of measure of capacity, 
and is equal to the contents of six ordinary 
hen's eggs=the twelfth part of a hin, or 
nearly a pint. 

Lo'^is, the maternal grandmother of Tim- 
othy. She is commended by Paul for her 
faith (2 Tim. 1 : 5). 

Loop, a knotted "eye" of cord, corre- 
sponding to the "taches" or knobs in the 
edges of the curtains of the tabernacle, for 
joining them into a continuous circuit, 
fifty to a curtain (Ex. 26 : 4, 5, 10, 11). 

Lord. There are various Hebrew and 
Greek words so rendered. 

(1.) Heb. Jehovah, has been rendered 
in the English Bible LOKD, printed in 



small capitals. This is the proper name 
of the God of the Hebrews. The form 
" Jehovah " is retained only in Ex. 6:3; 
Ps. 83 : 18 ; Isa. 12 : 2 ; 26 : 4, both in the 
Authorized and the Revised Version. 

(2.) Heb. 'addn, means one possessed 
of absolute control. It denotes a master, 
as of slaves (Gen. 24 : 14, 27), or a ruler of 
his subjects (45 : 8), or a husband, as lord 
of his wife (18 : 12). 

The old plural form of this Hebrew word 
is 'adonai. From a superstitious reverence 
for the name " Jehovah," the Jews, in read- 
ing their Scriptures, whenever that name 
occurred, always pronounced it 'Adonai. 

(3.) Greek kurios, a supreme master, etc. 
In the LXX. this is invariably used for 
" Jehovah " and " 'Adonai." 

(4.) Heb. ba^al, a master, as having 
domination. This word is applied to 
human relations, as that of husband, to 
persons skilled in some art or profession, 
and to heathen deities. "The men of 
Shechem," literally "the baals of She- 
chem" (Judg. 9:2, 3). These were the 
Israelite inhabitants who had reduced the 
Canaanites to a condition of vassalage 
(Josh. 16 : 10 ; 17 : 13). 

(5.) Heb. seren, applied exclusively to 
the " lords of the Philistines " (Judg. 3 : 3). 
The LXX. render it by satrapies. At 
this period the Philistines were not, as at 
a later period (1 Sam. 21 : 10), under a 
kingly government. (See Josh. 13 : 3 ; 1 
Sam. 6:17.) There were five such lord- 
ships — viz., Gath, Ashdod, Gaza, Ashkelon, 
and Ekron. 

Lord's day — only once, in Rev. 1 : 10 — 
was in the early Christian ages used to 
denote the first day of the week, which 
commemorated the Lord's resurrection. 
There is every reason to conclude that 
John thus used the name. (See Sabbath. ) 

Lord's Prayer, the name given to the 
only form of prayer Christ taught his dis- 
ciples (Matt. 6:9-13). The closing dox- 
ology of the prayer is omitted by Luke 
(11 : 2-4), also in the Revised Version of 
Matt. 6 : 13. This prayer contains no allu- 
sion to the atonement of Christ, nor to the 
offices of the Holy Spirit ; and it was ap- 
parently never used or cited by the apostles 

28 



LORD 



428 



LOT 



themselves, and hence it is concluded that 
it was not designed to be a formula of 
Christian prayer in general. 

Lord's Supper (1 Cor. 11:20), called 
also "the Lord's table" (10:21), "com- 
munion," "cup of blessing" (10:16), and 
"breaking of bread " (Acts 2 : 42). 

In the early Church it was called also 
"eucharist," or giving of thanks (comp. 
Matt. 26 : 27), and generally by the Latin 
Church "mass," a name derived from the 
formula of dismission, Ite, missa est — i.e., 
" Go, it is discharged." 

The account of the institution of this 
ordinance is given in Matt. 26 : 26-29, 
Mark 14:22-25, Luke 22:19, 20, and 
1 Cor. 11 : 24-26. It is not mentioned by 
John. 

It was designed — (1.) To commemorate 
the death of Christ : " This do in remem- 
brance of me." (2.) To signify, seal, and 
apply to believers all the benefits of the 
new covenant. In this ordinance Christ 
ratifies his promises to his people, and they 
on their part solemnly consecrate them- 
selves to him and to his entire service. 
(3.) To be a badge of the Christian pro- 
fession. (4.) To indicate and to promote 
the communion of believers with Christ. 
(5.) To represent the mutual communion 
of believers with each other. 

The elements used to represent Christ's 
body and blood are bread and wine. The 
kind of bread, whether leavened or un- 
leavened, is not specified. Christ used un- 
leavened bread simply because it was at 
that moment on the paschal table. Wine, 
and no other liquid, is to be used (Matt. 
26 : 26-29). Believers " feed " on Christ's 
body and blood, (1) not with the mouth in 
any manner, but (2) by the soul alone, and 
(3) by faith, which is the mouth or hand of 
the soul. This they do (4) by the power 
of the Holy Ghost. This "feeding" on 
Christ, however, takes place not in the 
Lord's Supper alone, but whenever faith 
in him is exercised. 

This is a permanent ordinance in the 
Church of Christ, and is to be observed 
"till he come " again. 

Lo-ruha''inah — not pitied — the name of 
the prophet Hosea's first daughter, a tj'pe 



of Jehovah's temporary rejection of his 
people (Hos. 1:6; 2 : 23). 

Lot (Heb. gdrdl, a "pebble"), a small 
stone used in casting lots (Num. 33 : 54 ; 
Jonah 1:7). The lot was always resorted 
to by the Hebrews with strictest reference 
to the interposition of God, and as a method 
of ascertaining the divine will (Prov. 16 : 
33), and in serious cases of doubt (Esther 
3:7). Thus the lot was used at the divi- 
sion of the land of Canaan among the sev- 
eral tribes (Num. 26:55; 34:13), at the 
detection of Achan (Josh. 7 : 14, 18), the 
election of Saul to be king (1 Sam. 10 : 20, 
21), the distribution of the priestly offices 
of the temple service (1 Chr. 24 : 3, 5, 19 ; 
Luke 1 : 9), and over the two goats at the 
feast of Atonement (Lev. 16 : 8). Matthias, 
who was "numbered with the eleven" 
(Acts 1 : 24-26), was chosen by lot. 

This word also denotes a portion or an 
inheritance (Josh. 15 : 1 ; Ps. 125 : 3 ; Isa. 
17 : 4), and a destiny, as assigned by God 
(Ps. 16 : 5 ; Dan. 12 : 13). 

Lot (Heb. lot) — a covering ; veil — the son 
of Haran, and nephew of Abraham (Gen. 
11 : 27). On the death of his father, he was 
left in charge of his grandfather Terah (31), 
after whose death he accompanied his uncle 
Abraham into Canaan (12 : 5), thence into 
Egypt (10), and back again to Canaan 
(13 : 1). After this he separated from him 
and settled in Sodom (13:5-13). There 
his righteous soul was " vexed " from day 
to day (2 Pet. 2 : 7), and he had great cause 
to regret this act. Not many years after 
the separation he was taken captive by 
Chedorlaomer, and was rescued by Abra- 
ham (Gen. 14). At length, when the judg- 
ment of God descended on the guilty cities 
of the plain (Gen. 19 : 1-20), Lot was mirac- 
ulously delivered. When fleeing from the 
doomed city his wife "looked back from 
behind him, and became a pillar of salt. " 
There is to this day a peculiar crag at the 
south end of the Dead Sea, near Kumran, 
which the Arabs call Bint Sheik Lot — i.e., 
Lot's wife. It is "a tall, isolated needle 
of rock, which really does bear a curious 
resemblance to an Arab woman with a 
child upon her shoulder. " From the words 
of warning in Liike 17:32, "Remember 



LOVE 



429 



LUKE 



Lot's wife," it would seem as if she had 
gone back, or tarried so long behind in the 
desire to save some of her goods, that she 
became involved in the destruction which 
fell on the city, and became a stiffened 
corpse — fixed for a time in the saline in- 
crustations. She became " a pillar of salt " 
— i.e., as some think, of asphalt. (See Salt.) 

Lot and his daughters sought refuge first 
in Zoar, and then, fearing to remain there 
longer, retired to a cave in the neigh- 
bouring mountains (Gen. 19 : 30). There, 
through an act of the vilest wickedness, 
his two daughters became the mothers of 
two sons, Moab and Ammon (31-38). Noth- 
ing more is recorded of Lot. 

Love. This word seems to require ex- 
planation only in the case of its use by our 
Lord in his interview with "Simon, the 
son of Jonas," after his resurrection (John 
21 : 16, 17). When our Lord says, "Lovest 
thou me?" he uses the Greek word agapds; 
and when Simon answers, he uses the Greek 
word jpMo — i.e., "I love." This is the 
usage in the first and second questions put 
by our Lord; but in the third our Lord 
uses Simon's word. The distinction be- 
tween these two Greek words is thus fitly 
described by Trench : — " Agapdn has more 
of judgment and deliberate choice ; philein 
has more of attachment and peculiar per- 
sonal affection. Thus the ' Lovest thou ' 
(Gr. agapds) on the lips of the Lord seems 
to Peter at this moment too cold a word, 
as though his Lord were keeping him at a 
distance, or at least not inviting him to 
draw near, as in the passionate yearning 
of his heart he desired now to do. There- 
fore he puts by the word and substitutes 
his own stronger ' I love ' (Gr. philo) in 
its room. A second time he does the same. 
And now he has conquered ; for when the 
Lord demands a third time whether he 
loves him, he does it in the word which 
alone Avill satisfy Peter ('Lovest thou,' 
Gr. phileis), which alone claims from him 
that personal attachment and affection 
with which indeed he knows that his heart 
is full." 

In 1 Cor. 13 the apostle sets forth the 
excellency of love, as the word "charity" 
there is rendered in the ReAdsed Version. 



Lo''tan — coverer — one of the sons of 
Seir, the Horite (Gen. 36 : 20, 29). 

Lu'bims, the inhabitants of a thirsty or 
scorched land; the Lybians, an African 
nation under tribute to Egypt (2 Chr. 12 : 
3; 16:8). Their territory was apparently 
near Egypt. They were probably the Miz- 
raite Lehabim. 

Lu''cas, a friend and companion of Paul 
during his imprisonment at Rome; Luke 
(g.r.), the beloved phj'sician (Philemon 24; 
Col. 4 : 14). 

Lu^'cifer — brilliant star — a title given to 
the king of Babylon (Isa. 14 : 12) to denote 
his glory. 

Lu^'cius of Cyrene, a Christian teacher 
at Antioch (Acts 13 : 1), and Paul's kins- 
man (Rom. 16 : 21). His name is Latin, but 
his birthplace seems to indicate that he 
was one of the Jews of Cyrene, in Xorth 
Africa. 

Lu'cre — from the Lat. lucrum, "gain." 
1 Tim. 3:3, "not given to filthy lucre." 
Some MSS. have not the word so rendered, 
and the expression has been omitted in the 
Revised Version. 

Lud. (1.) The fourth son of Shem (Gen. 
10:22; 1 Chr. 1:17), ancestor of the Ly- 
dians probably. 

(2. ) One of the Hamitic tribes descended 
from Mizraim (Gen. 10 : 13), a people of 
Africa (Ezek. 27 : 10; 30 : 5), on the west of 
Egypt. The people called Lud were noted 
archers (Isa. 66 : 19 ; comp. Jer. 46 : 9). 

Lu^dim, probably the same as Lud (2) 
(comp. Gen. 10:13; 1 Chr. 1:11). They 
are associated (Jer. 46 : 9) with African 
nations as mercenaries of the king of 
Egypt. 

Lu^hith — made of hoards — a Moabitish 
place between Zoar and Horonaim (Isa. 
15:5; Jer. 48:5). 

Luke, the evangelist, was a Gentile. 
The date and circumstances of his conver- 
sion are unknown. According to his own 
statement (Luke 1 : 2), he was not an "eye- 
witness and minister of the word from the 
beginning." It is probable that he was a 
physician in Troas, and was there converted 
by Paul, to whom he attached himself. He 
accompanied him to Philippi, but did not 
there share his imprisonment, nor did he 



LUKE 



430 



LUKE 



accompany him further after his release in 
his missionary journey at this time (Acts 
17 : 1). On Paul's third visit to Philippi 
(20:5, 6) we again meet with Luke, who 
probably had spent all the intervening 
time in that city, a period of seven or eight 
years. Erom this time Luke was Paul's 
constant companion during his journey to 
Jerusalem (20 : 6-21 : 18). He again dis- 
appears from view during Paul's imprison- 
ment at Jerusalem and Csesarea, and only 
reappears when Paul sets out for Pome (27 : 
1), whither he accompanies him (28 : 2, 12- 
16), and where he remains with him till 
the close of his first imprisonment (Phile- 
mon 24 ; Col. 4 : 14). The last notice of the 
" beloved physician " is in 2 Tim, 4 : 11. 

There are many passages in Paul's 
epistles, as well as in the writings of Luke, 
which show the extent and accuracy of his 
medical knowledge. 

Luke, Gospel according to, was writ- 
ten by Luke. He does not claim to have 
been an eye-witness of our Lord's ministry, 
but to have gone to the best sources of in- 
formation within his reach, and to have 
written an orderly narrative of the facts 
(Luke 1 : 1-4). The authors of the first 
three Gospels — the synoptics — wrote in- 
dependently of each other. Each wrote his 
independent narrative under the guidance 
of the Holy Spirit. 

Each writer has some things, both in 
matter and style, peculiar to himself, yet 
all the three have mvich in common. Luke's 
Gospel has been called ' ' the Gospel of the 
nations, full of mercy and hope, assured to 
the world by the love of a siiffering Sav- 
iour;" "the Gospel of the saintly life;" 
"the Gospel for the Greeks; the Gospel 
of the future; the Gospel of progressive 
Christianity, of the universality and gra- 
tuitousness of the gospel; the historic 
Gospel; the Gospel of Jesus as the good 
Physician and the Saviour of mankind ; " 
the "Gospel of the Fatherhood of God 
and the brotherhood of man;" "the Gos- 
pel of womanhood;" "the Gospel of the 
outcast, of the Samaritan, the publican, 
the harlot, and the prodigal;" "the Gos- 
pel of tolerance." The main characteristic 
of this Gospel, as Farrar {Cambridge Bible, 



Luke, Introd.) remarks, is fitly expressed 
in the motto, "Who went about doing 
good, and healing all that were oppressed 
of the devil " (Acts 10 : 38 ; comp. Luke 4 : 
18). Luke wrote for the ' ' Hellenic world. " 
This Gospel is indeed "rich and pre- 
cious. " It is the production of one 

" Whose joy is, to the wandering sheep, 
To tell of the great Shepherd's love, 

To learn of mourners while they weep 
The music that makes mirth above ; 

Who makes the gospel all his theme, 
The gospel all his pride and praise." 

There are seventeen of our Lord's par- 
ables peculiar to this Gospel. (See List of 
Parables in Appendix. ) 

Luke also records seven of our Lord's 
miracles which are omitted by Matthew 
and Mark. (See List of Miracles in Ap- 
pendix. ) 

The synoptical Gospels are related to 
each other after the following scheme. 
If the contents of each Gospel be repre- 
sented by 100, then when compared this 
result is obtained : — 

Mark has 7 peculiarities, 93 coincidences. 
Matthew 42 peculiarities, 58 coincidences. 
Luke 59 peculiarities, 41 coincidences. 

That is, thirteen-fourteenths of Mark, 
four-sevenths of Matthew, and two-fifths 
of Luke are taken up in describing the 
same things in very similar language. 

Luke's style is more finished and class- 
ical than that of Matthew and Mark. 
There is less in it of the Hebrew idiom. He 
uses a few Latin words (Luke 12 : 6 ; 7 : 41 ; 
8:30; 11:33; 19:20), but no Syriac or 
Hebrew words except sikera, an exciting 
drink of the nature of wine, but not made 
of grapes (from Heb. shakar, "he is intoxi- 
cated " — Lev. 10 : 9), probably palm wine. 

This Gospel contains twenty-eight dis- 
tinct references to the Old Testament. 

The date of its composition is uncertain. 
It must have been written before the 
Acts, the date of the composition of which 
is generally fixed at about 63 or 64 a.d. 
This Gospel was written, therefore, prob- 
ably about 60 or 63, when Luke may have 
been at Csesarea in attendance on Paul, 
who was then a prisoner. Others have 
conjectured that it was written at Rome 



LUNATIC 



431 



LYSIAS 



during Paul's imprisonment there. But on 
this point no positive certainty can be at- 
tained. 

It is commonly supposed . that Luke 
wrote under the direction, if not at the 
dictation of Paul. Many words and phrases 
are common to both; e.g. — 

Com.'pare with 

Luke 4 : 22 Col. 4 : 6. 

4 : 32 1 Cor. 2 : 4. 

„ 6 : 36 2 Cor. 1 : 3. 

„ 6:39 Kom. 2:19. 

9:56 2 Cor. 10:8. 

„ 10:8 1 Cor. 10:27. 

„ 11 : 41 Titus 1 : 15. 

„ 18 : 1 2 Thess. 1 : 11. 

„ 21:36 Eph. 6:18. 

„ 22 : 19, 20 1 Cor. 11 : 23-29. 

„ 24 : 46 Acts 17 : 3. 

„ 24 : 34 1 Cor. 15 : 5. 

Lu'natic, probably the same as epileptic, 
the symptoms of which disease were sup- 
posed to be more aggravated as the moon 
increased. In Matt. 4 : 24 " lunatics " are 
distinguished from demoniacs. In 17 : 15 
the name "lunatic " is applied to one who 
is declared to have been possessed. (See 
Demoniac.) 

Lust, sinful longing; the inward sin 
which leads to the falling away from God 
(Rom. 1:21). "Lust, the origin of sin, 
has its place in the heart, not of necessity, 
but because it is the centre of all moral 
forces and impulses and of spiritual activ- 
ity." In Mark 4:19 "lusts" are objects 
of desire. 

Luz — a nut-bearing tree, the almond. 
(1.) The ancient name of a royal Canaan- 
itish city near the site of Bethel (Gen. 28 : 
19 ; 35 : 6), on the border of Benjamin 
(Josh. 18 : 13). Here Jacob halted, and had 
a prophetic vision. (See Bethel.) 

(2. ) A place in the land of the Hittites, 
founded (Judg. 1:26) by "a man who 
came forth out of the city of Luz. " It is 
identified with Luweiziyeh, 4 miles north- 
west of Banias. 

Lycao'nia, an inland province of Asia 
Minor, on the west of Cappadocia and the 
south of Galatia. It was a Koman pro- 
vince, and its chief towns were Iconium, 
Lystra, and Derbe. The "speech of Ly- 
caonia " (Acts 14 : 11) was probably the 
ancient Assyrian language, or perhaps, as 



others think, a corrupt Greek intermingled 
with Syriac words. Paul preached in this 
region, and revisited it (Acts 16 : 1-6 ; 18 : 
23; 19:1). 

Ly^cia — a loolf — a province in the south- 
west of Asia Minor, opposite the island of 
Rhodes, It forms part of the region now 
called Tekeh. It was a province of the 
Roman empire when visited by Paul 
(Acts 21 : 1 ; 27 : 5). Two of its towns are 
mentioned — Patara (21 : 1, 2) and Myra 
(27:5). 

Lyd^da, a town in the tribe of Ephraim, 
mentioned only in the New Testament 
(Acts 9 : 32, 35, 38) as the scene of Peter's 
miracle in healing the paralytic ^neas. 
It lay about 9 miles east of Joppa, on the 
road from that sea-port to Jerusalem. In 
the Old Testament (1 Chr. 8 : 12) it is called 
Lod. It was burned by the Romans, but 
was afterwards rebuilt, and was known by 
the name of Diospolis. Its modern name 
is Ludd. The so-called patron saint of 
England, St. George, is said to have been 
born here. 

Lyd^ia. (1.) Ezek. 30:5 (Heb. Lud), 
a province in the west of Asia Minor, 
which derived its name from the fourth 
son of Shem (Gen. 10 : 22). It was bounded 
on the east by the greater Phrygia, and on 
the west by Ionia and the ^gean Sea. 

(2.) A woman of Thyatira, a "seller of 
purple, " who dwelt in Philippi (Acts 16 : 
14, 15). She was not a Jewess but a 
proselyte. The Lord opened her heart as 
she heard the gospel from the lips of Paul 
(16 : 13). She thus became the first in Eu- 
rope who embraced Christianity. She was 
a person apparently of considerable wealth, 
for she could afford to give a home to Paul 
and his companions. (See Thyatika.) 

Lysa^nias, tetrarch of Abilene (Luke 3 : 
1), on the eastern slope of Anti-Lebanon, 
near the city of Damascus. 

Lys^'ias, Clau''dius, the chief captain 
(chiliarch) who commanded the Roman 
troops in Jerusalem, and sent Paul under 
guard to the procurator EeHx at Caesarea 
(Acts 21 : 31-38 ; 22 : 24-30). His letter to 
his superior oflacer is an interesting speci- 
men of Roman military correspondence (23 : 
26-30). He obtained his Roman citizenship 



LYSTRA 



432 



MAAZIAH 



by purchase, and was therefore probably a 
Greek. (See Claudius.) 

Lys'tra, a town of Lycaonia, in Asia 
Minor, in a wild district and among a rude 
population. Here Paul preached the gos- 
pel after he had been driven by persecution 
from Iconium (Acts 14 : 2-7). Here also he 
healed a lame man (8), and thus so im- 
pressed the ignorant and superstitious 
people that they took him for Mercury, 
because he was the "chief speaker," and 
his companion Barnabas for Jupiter, prob- 
ably in consequence of his stately, vener- 
able appearance ; and were proceeding to 
offer sacrifices to them (13), when Paul 



earnestly addressed them and turned their 
attention to the true source of all bless- 
ings. But soon after, through the influence 
of the Jews from Antioch in Pisidia and 
Iconiiim, they stoned Paul and left him for 
dead (14 : 19). On recovering, Paul left for 
Derbe ; but soon returned again, through 
Lystra, encouraging the disciples there to 
steadfastness. He in all likelihood visited 
this city again on his third missionary 
tour (Acts 18 : 23). Timothy, who was 
probably born here (2 Tim. 3 : 10, 11), was 
no doubt one of those who were on this 
occasion witnesses of Paul's persecution 
and his courage in Lystra. 



M 



Ma^achah — oppression — a small Syrian 
kingdom near Geshur, east of the Hauran, 
the district of Batanea (Josh. 13:13; 2 
Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chr. 19:7). 

(2.) A daughter of Talmai, king of the 
old native population of Geshur. She be- 
came one of David's wives, and was the 
mother of Absalom (2 Sam. 3 : 3). 

(3.) The father of Hanan, who was one 
of David's body-guard (1 Chr. 11 : 43). 

(4.) The daughter of Abishalom (called 
Absalom, 2 Chr. 11 : 20-22), the third wife of 
Rehoboam, and mother of Abijam (1 Kings 
15 : 2). She is called " Michaiah the daugh- 
ter of Uriel," who was the husband of Ab- 
salom's daughter Tamar (2 Chr. 13 : 2). Her 
son Abij ah or Abijam was heir to the throne. 

(5.) The father of Achish, the king of 
Gath (1 Kings 2:39), called also Maoch 
(1 Sam. 27 : 2). 

Ma^aleh-acrab^bim — ascent of the scor- 
pions; i.e., "scorpion-hill" — a pass on the 
south-eastern border of Palestine (Num. 34 : 
4 ; Josh. 15 : 3). It is identified with the 
pass of Sufdh, entering Palestine from the 
great WMy el-Fikreh, south of the Dead 
Sea. (See Akrabbim.) 

Ma'arath — desolation — a place in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 59), prob- 
ably the modern village Beit Ummar, 6 
miles north of Hebron. 



Maase'iah — the work of Jehovah. (1.) 
One of the Levites whom David appointed 
as porter for the ark (1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20). 

(2.) One of the "captains of hundreds" 
associated with Jehoiada in restoring king 
Jehoash to the throne (2 Chr. 23 : 1). 

(3.) The "king's son," probably one of 
the sons of king Ahaz, killed by Zichri in 
the invasion of Judah by Pekah, king of 
Israel (2 Chr. 28 : 7). 

(4. ) One who was sent by king Josiah to 
repair the temple (2 Chr. 34 : 8). He was 
governor (Heb. sar, rendered elsewhere in 
the Authorized Version "prince," "chief 
captain," "chief ruler") of Jerusalem. 

(5.) The father of the priest Zephaniah 
(Jer. 21:1; 37:3). 

(6.) The father of the false prophet 
Zedekiah (Jer. 29 : 21). 

Maase''iah — refuge of Jehovah — a priest, 
the father of Neriah (Jer. 32 : 12 ; 51 : 59). 

Maasi'^ai — loork of Jehovah — one of the 
priests resident at Jerusalem at the Cap- 
tivity (1 Chr. 9 : 12). 

Ma^ath — STnall — a person named in our 
Lord's ancestry (Luke 3 : 26). 

Maazi'^ah — strength or consolation of 
Jehovah. (1.) The head of the twenty- 
fourth priestly course (1 Chr. 24:18) in 
David's reign. 

(2.) A priest (Neh. 10:8). 



MACCABEES 



433 



MACH^RUS 



Mac'cabees. This word does not occur 
in Scripture. It was the name given to 
the leaders of the national party among 
the Jews who suffered in the persecution 
under Antiochus Epiphanes, who succeeded 
to the Syrian throne B.C. 175. It is sup- 
posed to have been derived from the Hebrew 
word [makkdbdh) meaning "hammer," as 
suggestive of the heroism and power of 
this Jewish family, who are, however, 
more properly called Asmoneans or Has- 
monseans, the origin of which is much dis- 
puted. 

After the expulsion of Antiochus Epi- 
phanes from Egypt by the Romans, he 
gave vent to his indignation on the Jews, 
great numbers of whom he mercilessly put 
to death in Jerusalem. He oppressed 
them in every way, and tried to abolish 
altogether the Jewish worship. Matta- 
thias, an aged priest, then residing at 
Modin, a city to the west of Jerusalem, 
became now the courageous leader of the 
national party ; and having fled to the 
mountains, rallied round him a large band 
of men prepared to fight and die for their 
country and for their religion, which was 
now violently suppressed. In 1 Mace. 2 : 
60 is recorded his dying counsels to his sons 
with reference to the war they were now 
to carry on. His son Judas, "the Mac- 
cabee," succeeded him (b.c. 166) as the 
leader in directing the war of independ- 
ence, which was carried on with great 
heroism on the part of the Jews, and was 
terminated in the defeat of the Syrians. 

Mac^cabees, Books of the. There were 
originally five books of the Maccabees. The 
first contains a history of the war of inde- 
pendence, commencing (b.c. 175) in a series 
of patriotic struggles against the tyranny 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, and terminating 
B.C. 135. It became part of the Vulgate 
Version of the Bible, and was thus retained 
among the Apocrypha. 

The second gives a history of the Macca- 
bees' struggle from B.C. 176 to B.C. 161. 
Its object is to encourage and admonish 
the Jews to be faithful to the religion of 
their fathers. 

The third does not hold a place in the 
Apocrypha, but is read in the Greek 



Church. Its design is to comfort the 
Alexandrian Jews in their perseciition. 
Its writer was evidently an Alexandrian 
Jew. 

The fourth was found in the Library of 
Lyons, but was afterwards burned. The 
fifth contains a history of the Jews from 
B.C. 184 to B.C. 86. It is a compilation 
made by a Jew after the destruction of 
Jerusalem, from ancient memoirs, to which 
he had access. It need scarcely be added 
that none of these books has any divine 
authority. 

Macedo'nia, in New Testament times, 
was a Roman province lying north of 
Greece. It was governed by a propraetor 
with the title of proconsul. Paul was 
summoned by the vision of the "man of 
Macedonia" to preach the gospel there 
(Acts 16 : 9). Erequent allusion is made 
to this event (18 : 5 ; 19 : 21 ; Rom. 15 : 26 ; 
2 Cor. 1 : 16 ; 11 : 9 ; Phil. 4 : 15). The his- 
tory of Paul's first journey through Mace- 
donia is given in detail in Acts 16 : 10-17 : 
15. At the close of this journey he re- 
turned from Corinth to Syria. He again 
passed through this country (20 : 1-6), al- 
though the details of the route are not 
given. After many years he probably 
visited it for a third time (Phil. 2 : 24 ; 1 
Tim. 1 : 3). The first convert made by Paul 
in Europe was (Acts 16 : 13-15) Lydia (g.f.), 
a "seller of purple," residing in Philippi, 
the chief city of the eastern division of 
Macedonia. 

Machae^rus — the Black Fortress — was 
built by Herod the Great in the gorge of 
CaUirhoe, one of the wadies 9 miles east of 
the Dead Sea, as a frontier rampart against 
Arab marauders. John the Baptist was 
probably cast into the prison connected 
with this castle by Herod Antipas, whom he 
had reproved for his adulterous marriage 
with Herodias. Here Herod "made a 
supper " on his birthday. He was at this 
time marching against Aretas, king of 
Perea, to whose daughter he had been 
married. During the revelry of the ban- 
quet held in the border fortress, to please 
Salome, who danced before him, he sent 
an executioner, who beheaded John, and 
"brought his head in a charger, and gave 



MACHBANAI 



434 



MADNESS 



it to the damsel " (Mark 6 : 14-29). This 
castle stood "starkly bold and clear" 3,860 
feet above the Dead Sea, and 2,546 above 
the Mediterranean. Its ruins, now called 
M'khaur, are still visible on the northern 
end of Jebel Attarlls. 

Machban''ai — clad with a mantle, or 
hond of the Lord — one of the Gadite heroes 
who joined David in the wilderness (1 Chr. 
12 : 13). 

Ma^chir — sold. (1.) Manasseh's oldest 
son (Josh. 17 : 1), or probably his only son 
(see 1 Chr. 7 : 14, 15 ; comp. Num. 26 : 29- 
33 ; Josh. 13 : 31). His descendants are re- 
ferred to under the name of Machirites, 
being the offspring of Gilead (Num. 26 : 29). 
They settled in land taken from the Amor- 
ites (32 : 39, 40 ; Deut. 3 : 15) by a special 
enactment (Num. 36 : 1-3 ; Josh. 17 : 3, 4). 
He is once mentioned as the representative 
of the tribe of Manasseh east of Jordan 
( Judg. 5 : 14). 

(2.) A descendant of the preceding, re- 
siding at Lo-debar, where he maintained 
Jonathan's son, Mephibosheth, till he was 
taken under the care of David (2 Sam. 9 : 4), 
and where he afterwards gave shelter to 
David himself when he was a fugitive 
(17 : 27). 

]VIachpe''lah — portion; double cave — the 
cave which Abraham bought, together with 
the field in which it stood, from Ephron 
the Hittite, for a family burying-place 
(Gen. 23). It is one of those Bible localities 
about the identification of which there can 
be no doubt. It was on the slope of a hill 
on the east of Hebron "before Mamre." 
Here were laid the bodies of Abraham and 
Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah 
(Gen. 23 : 19 ; 25 : 9 ; 49 : 31 ; 50 : 13). Over 
the cave an ancient Christian church was 
erected, probably in the time of Justinian, 
the Roman emperor. This church has been 
converted into a Mohammedan mosque. 
The whole is surrounded by the el-Haram 
— i.e., "the sacred enclosure" — about 200 
feet long, 115 broad, and of an average 
height of about 50. This building, from 
the immense size of some of its stones, and 
the manner in which they are fitted to- 
gether, is supposed by some to have been 
erected in the days of David or Solomon, 



while others ascribe it to the time of Herod. 
It is looked upon as the most ancient and 
the finest relic of Jewish architecture. 

On the floor of the mosque are erected six 
large cenotaphs as monuments to the dead 
who are buried in the cave beneath. Be- 
tween the cenotaphs of Isaac and Rebekah 
there is a circular opening in the floor into 
the cavern below, the cave of Machpelah. 
Here it may be that the body of Jacob, 
which was embalmed in Egypt, is still pre- 
served (much older embalmed bodies have 
recently been found in the cave of Deir el- 
Bahari in Egypt — see Phakaoh), though 
those of the others there buried may have 
long ago mouldered into dust. The interior 
of the mosque was visited by the Prince of 
Wales in 1862 by a special favour of the 
Mohammedan authorities. An interesting 
account of this visit is given in Dean Stan- 
ley's Lectures on the Jewish Church. It was 
also visited in 1866 by the Marquis of Bute, 
and in 1869 by the late Emperor (Frederick) 
of Germany, then the Crown Prince of 
Prussia. In 1881 it was visited by the two 
sons of the Prince of Wales, accompanied 
by Sir C. Wilson and others. (See Pales- 
tine Quarterly Statement, October 1882.) 

Mad^ai — viiddle land — the third "son" 
of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2), the name by which 
the Medes are known on the Assyrian 
monuments. 

Madinan''nah — dunghill — the modern 
el-Minydy, 15 miles south-south-west of 
Gaza (Josh. 15 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 49), in the 
south of Judah. The Pal. Mem., however, 
suggest Umm Deimneh, 12 miles north-east 
of Beersheba, as the site. 

Mad^men — ibid. — a Moabite town 
threatened with the sword of the Baby- 
lonians ( Jer. 48 : 2). 

Madme^nah — ibid. — a town in Benjamin, 
not far from Jerusalem, towards the north 
(Isa. 10 : 31). The same Hebrew word 
occurs in Isa. 25 : 10, where it is rendered 
" dunghill." This verse has, however, been 
interpreted as meaning "that Moab will 
be trodden down by Jehovah as teben 
[broken straw] is trodden to fragments on 
the threshing-floors of Madmenah." 

Mad^ness. This word is used in its 
proper sense in Deut. 28 : 34, John 10 : 20, 



MADON 



436 



MAGOG 



1 Cor. 14 : 23, It also denotes a reckless 
state of mind arising from various causes, 
as over-study (Eccl. 1 : 17 ; 2 : 12), blind 
rage (Luke 6 : 11), or a depraved temper 
(Eccl. 7 : 25 ; 9 : 3 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 16). David 
feigned madness (1 Sam. 21 : 13) at Gath 
because he " was sore afraid of Achish." 

Ma^don — strife — a Canaanitish city in 
the north of Palestine (Josh. 11 : 1 ; 12 : 19) 
whose king was slain by Joshua ; perhaps 
the ruin Madin, near Hattln, some 5 miles 
west of Tiberias. 

Mag^'dala — a tower— s, town in Galilee, 
mentioned only in Matt. 15 : 39. In the 
parallel passage in Mark 8 : 10 this place 
is called Dalmanutha. It was the birth- 
place of Mary called the Magdalen, or 
Mary Magdalene. It was on the west 
shore of the Lake of Tiberias, and is now 
probably the small obscure village called 
el-Mejdel, about 3 miles north-west of Ti- 
berias. In the Talmud this city is called 
"the city of colour," and a particular 
district of it was called "the tower of 
dyers." The indigo plant was much culti- 
vated here. 

Magdale^ne, a surname derived from 
Magdala, the place of her nativity, given 
to one of the Maries of the Gospel to dis- 
tinguish her from the other Maries (Matt, 
27 : 56, 61 ; 28 : 1, etc.). A mistaken notion 
has prevailed that this Mary was a woman 
of bad character — that she was the woman 
who is emphatically called "a sinner" 
(Luke 7 : 36-50). (See Mary. ) 

Magic. The Jews seem early to have 
consulted the teraphim {q.v.) for oracular 
answers ( Judg. 18 : 5, 6 ; Zech. 10 : 2). There 
is a remarkable illustration of this divining 
by teraphim in Ezek. 21 : 19-22. We read 
also of the divining cup of Joseph (Gen. 
44 : 5). The magicians of Egypt are fre- 
quently referred to in the history of the 
Exodus. Magic was an inherent part of 
the ancient Egyptian religion, and entered 
largely into their daily life. 

All magical arts were distinctly pro- 
hibited under penalty of death in the 
Mosaic law. The Jews were commanded 
not to learn the "abomination" of the 
people of the Promised Land (Lev. 19 : 31 ; 
Deut. 18:9-14). The history of Saul's 



consulting the witch of Endor (1 Sam. 28 : 
3-20) gives no warrant for attributing 
supernatural power to magicians. From 
the first the witch is here only a bystander. 
The practice of magic lingered among the 
people till after the Captivity, when they 
gradually abandoned it. 

It is not much referred to in the New 
Testament. The Magi mentioned in Matt. 

2 : 1-12 were not magicians in the ordinary 
sense of the word. They belonged to a 
religious caste, the followers of Zoroaster, 
the astrologers of the East. Simon, a 
magician, was found by Philip at Samaria 
(Acts 8 : 9-24), and Paul and Barnabas 
encountered Elymas, a Jewish sorcerer, at 
Paphos (13 : 6-12). At Ephesus there was 
a great destruction of magical books (Acts 
19 : 18, 19). 

Magi^cians — Heb. hartumim — (Dan. 1 : 
20) were sacred scribes who acted as inter- 
preters of omens or "revealers of secret 
things." 

Mag^istrate, a public civil officer invested 
with authority. The Hebrew shophetim, 
or judges, were magistrates having autho- 
rity in the land (Deut. 1 : 16, 17). In Judg. 
18:7 the word "magistrate" (A. V.) is 
rendered in the Revised Version "possess- 
ing authority " — i.e., having power to do 
them harm by invasion. In the time of 
Ezra (9:2) and Nehemiah (2:16; 4:14; 
13 : 11) the Jewish magistrates were called 
segdnim, properly meaning "nobles." In 
the New Testament the Greek word archon, 
rendered "magistrate" (Luke 12:58; Titus 

3 : 1), means one first in power, and hence a 
prince, as in Matt. 20 : 25, 1 Cor. 2 : 6, 8. 
This term is used of the Messiah, "Prince 
of the kings of the earth " (Rev. 1 : 5). In 
Acts 16 : 20, 22, 35, 36, 38, the Greek term 
strategos, rendered "magistrate," properly 
signifies the leader of an army, a general, one 
having military authority. The strategoi 
were the duumviri, the two praetors ap- 
pointed to preside over the administration 
of justice in the colonies of the Romans. 
They were attended by the sergeants (pro- 
perly lictors or "rod bearers "). 

Ma^gog — region of Gog — the second of 
the "sons " of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 5). In Ezekiel (38 : 2 ; 39 : 6) it is the 



MAGOR-MISSABIB 



438 MAHER-SHALAL-HASH-BAZ 



name of a nation, probably some Scythian 
or Tartar tribe descended from Japheth. 
They are described as skilled horsemen, 
and expert in the use of the bow. The 
Latin father Jerome says that this word 
denotes "Scythian nations, fierce and 
innumerable, who live beyond the Caucasus 
and the Lake Mseotis, and near the Caspian 
Sea, and spread out even onward to India. " 
They seem to have been a terror to Middle 
or Western Asia. 

Ma'gor-missa'bib— /car on every side — 
( Jer. 20 : 3), a symbolical name given to 
the priest Pashur, expressive of the fate 
announced by the prophet as about to come 
upon him. Pashur was to be carried to 
Babylon, and there to die. 

Maha^laleel — praise of God. (1.) The 
son of Cainan, of the line of Seth (Gen. 5 : 
12-17), called Malaleel (Luke 3 : 37). 
(2.) Neh. 11 : 4, a descendant of Perez. 
Ma^halath — a lute; or lyre. (1.) The 
daughter of Ishmael, and third wife of 
Esau (Gen. 28 : 9) ; called also Bashemath 
(Gen. 36 : 3). 

(2.) The daughter of Jerimoth, who was 
one of David's sons. She was one of Reho- 
boam's wives (2 Chr. 11 : 18). 

Ma''halath Maschil, in the title of Ps. 
53, denoting that this was a didactic psalm, 
to be sung to the accompaniment of the 
lute or guitar. Others regard this word 
"mahalath" as the name simply of an old 
air to which the psalm was to be sung. 
Others again take the word as meaning 
"sickness," and regard it as alluding to 
the contents of the psalm. 

Ma^halath Lean^noth Maschil. This 
word leannoth seems to point to some 
kind of instrument unknown (Ps. 88, title). 
The whole phrase has by others been ren- 
dered, "On the sickness of affliction: a 
lesson;" or, "Concerning afflictive sick- 
ness : a didactic psalm." 

Mahana^im — tivo camps — a place near 
the Jabbok, beyond Jordan, where Jacob 
was met by the "angels of God," and 
where he divided his retinue into "two 
hosts" on his return from Padan-aram 
(Gen. 32 : 2). This name was afterwards 
given to the town which was built at that 
place. It was the southern boundary of 



Bashan (Josh. 13:26, 30), and became a 
city of the Levites (21 : 38). Here Saul's 
son Ishbosheth reigned (2 Sam. 2 : 8, 12), 
while David reigned at Hebron. Here 
also, after a troubled reign, Ishbosheth was 
murdered by two of his own body-guard (2 
Sam. 4 : 5-7), who brought his head to 
David at Hebron, but were, instead of 
being rewarded, put to death by him for 
their cold-blooded murder. Many years 
after this, when he fled from Jerusalem on 
the rebellion of his son Absalom, David 
made Mahanaim, where Barzillai enter- 
tained him, his head-quarters, and here he 
mustered his forces which were led against 
the army that had gathered around Absa- 
lom. It was while sitting at the gate of 
this town that tidings of the great and 
decisive battle between the two hosts and 
of the death of his son Absalom reached 
him, when he gave way to the most violent 
grief (2 Sam. 17 : 24-27). 

The only other reference to Mahanaim 
is as a station of one of Solomon's pur- 
veyors (1 Kings 4 : 14). It has been 
identified with the modern Mukhumah, 
a ruin found in a depressed plain called 
el-Bukie'a, "the little vale," near Penuel, 
south of the Jabbok, and north-east of 
es-Salt. 

Ma'haneh-dan— Judg. 18 : 12 = "camp 
of Dan " 13 : 25 (R.V., " Mahaneh-dan ")— 
a place behind {i.e., west of) Kirjath-jearim, 
where the six hundred Danites from Zorah 
and Eshtaol encamped on their way to 
capture the city of Laish, which they re- 
built and called ' ' Dan, after the name of 
their father" (18:11-31). The Palestine 
Explorers point to a ruin called 'Erma, 
situated about 3 miles from the great corn 
valley on the east of Samson's home. 

Ma^hath — grasping. (1.) A Kohathite 
Levite, father of Elkanah (1 Chr. 6 : 35). 

(2.) Another Kohathite Levite, of the 
time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29 : 12). 

Maha'zioth — visions — a Kohathite Le- 
vite, chief of the twenty-third course of 
musicians (1 Chr. 25 : 4, 30). 

Mather - sha^lal - hash' - baz — plunder 
speedeth; spoil kasteth — (Isa. 8 : 1-3 ; comp. 
Zeph. 1 : 14), a name Isaiah was commanded 
first to write in large characters on a tablet, 



MAHLAH 



439 



MALCAM 



and afterwards to give as a symbolical name 
to a son that was to be born to him (Isa. 8 : 1, 
3), as denoting the sudden attack on Da- 
mascus and Syria by the Assyrian army. 

Mah''lah — disease — one of the five daugh- 
ters of Zelophehad (Num. 27 : 1-11) who 
had their father's inheritance, the law of 
inheritance having been altered in their 
favour. 

Mah^lon — sickly — the elder of Elimelech 
the Bethlehemite's t^^o sons by Naomi. 
He married Ruth, and died childless (Ruth 
1 : 2, 5 ; 4 : 9, 10) in the land of Moab. 

Ma^hol — dance — the father of four sons 
(1 Kings 4 : 31) who were inferior in wis- 
dom only to Solomon. 

Mail, Coat of, "a corselet of scales," a 
cuirass formed of pieces of metal OTerlapping 
each other, like fish-scales (1 Sam. 17 : 5) ; 
also (38) a corselet or garment thus encased. 

Main-sail (Gr. artemon), answering to 
the modern "mizzen-sail," as some sup- 
pose. Others understand the "jib," near 
the prow, or the "fore-sail," as likely to 
be most useful in bringing a ship's head to 
the wind in the circumstances described 
(Acts 27 : 40). 

Makhe'lotb.— assemblies— a, station of the 
Israelites in the desert (Num. 33 : 25, 26). 

Mak''kedah — herdsman's place — one of 
the royal cities of the Canaanites (Josh. 
12 : 16), near which was a cave where the 
five kings who had confederated against 
Israel sought refuge (10:10-29). They 
were put to death by Joshua, who after- 
wards suspended their bodies upon five 
trees. It has been identified with the 
modern village called Sumeit, standing on 
a low hill about 7 miles to the north-west 
of Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin), where are 
ancient remains and a great cave. The 
Palestine Exploration surveyors have, how- 
ever, identified it with el-Mughdr, or ' ' the 
caves," 3 miles from Jabneh and 2^ south- 
west of Ekron, because, they say, " at this 
site only of all possible sites for Makke- 
dah in the Palestine plain do caves still 
exist." 

Mak'^tesh — mortar — a place in or near 
Jerusalem inhabited by silver-merchants 
(Zeph. 1 : 11). It has been conjectured 
that it was the "Phoenician quarter" of 



the city, where the traders of that nation 
resided, after the Oriental custom. 

Mal^achi — messenger or angel — the last 
of the minor prophets, and the writer of 
the last book of the Old Testament canon 
(Mai. 4:4, 5, 6). Nothing is known of him 
beyond what is contained in his book of 
prophecies. Some have supposed that the 
name is simply a title descriptive of his 
character as a messenger of Jehovah, and 
not a proper name. There is reason, how- 
ever, to conclude that Malachi was the 
ordinary name of the prophet. 

He was contemporary with Nehemiah 
(comp. Mai. 2 : 8 with Neh. 13 : 15 ; Mai. 
2 : 10-16 with Neh. 13 : 23). No allusion is 
made to him by Ezra, and he does not 
mention the restoration of the temple, and 
hence it is inferred that he prophesied after 
Haggai and Zechariah, and when the 
temple services were in existence (Mai. 
1 : 10 ; 3:1, 10). It is probable that he de- 
livered his prophecies aboiit B.C. 420, after 
the second return of Nehemiah from Persia 
(Neh. 13 : 6). 

Mal^achi, Prophecies of. The contents 
of the book are comprised in four chapters. 
In the Hebrew text the third and fourth 
chapters (of the A.V.) form but one. The 
whole consists of three sections, preceded 
by an introduction (Mai. 1 : 1-5), in which 
the prophet reminds Israel of Jehovah's love 
to them. The first section (1 : 6-2:9) con- 
tains a stern rebuke addressed to the priests 
who had despised the name of Jehovah, 
and been leaders in a departure from his 
worship and from the covenant, and for 
their partiality in administering the law. 
In the second (2 : 9-16) the people are re- 
buked for their intermarriages with idol- 
atrous heathen. In the third (2 : 17-4 : 6) 
he addresses the people as a whole, and 
warns them of the coming of the God of 
judgment, preceded by the advent of the 
Messiah. 

This book is frequently referred to in 
the New Testament (Matt. 11 : 10 ; 17 : 12 ; 
Mark 1:2; 9 : 11, 12 ; Luke 1 : 17 ; Rom. 
9 : 13). 

Marcam (2 Sam. 12:30, Heb., R.V., 
" their king ; " Jer. 49 : 1, 3, R. Y. ; Zeph. 
1 : 5), the national idol of the Ammonites. 



MALCHIAH 



440 



MAN 



When Rabbah was taken by David, the 
crown of this idol was among the spoils. 
The weight is said to have been "a talent 
of gold" (above 100 lbs.). The expression 
probably denotes its value rather than its 
weight. It was adorned with precious 
stones. 

Malchi''ah — Jehovah's king. (1.) The 
head of the fifth division of the priests in 
the time of David (1 Chr. 24 : 9). 

(2. ) A priest, the father of Pashur (1 Chr. 
9 : 12 ; Jer. 38 : 1). 

(3.) One of the priests appointed as 
musicians to celebrate the completion of 
the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12 : 42). 

(4.) A priest who stood by Ezra when he 
"read in the book of the law of God " (Neh. 
8:4). 

(5.) Neh. 3:11. 

(6.) Neh. 3:31. 

(7.) Neh. 3:14. 

Malchi-shu'a— Hw^r of help— one of the 
four sons of Saul (1 Chr. 8 : 33). He per- 
ished along with his father in the battle of 
Gilboa (1 Sam. 31 : 2). 

Mal'chus — reigning — the personal ser- 
vant or slave of the high priest Caiaphas. 
He is mentioned only by John. Peter cut 
off his right ear in the garden of Gethse- 
mane (John 18 : 10), But our Lord cured 
it with a touch (Matt. 26 : .51 ; Mark 14 : 47 ; 
Luke 22 : 51). This was the last miracle 
of bodily cure wrought by our Lord. It is 
not mentioned by John. 

Mallo''thi — mp fulness — a Kohathite 
Levite, one of the sons of Heman the 
Levite (1 Chr. 25 : 4), and chief of the nine- 
teenth division of the temple musicians (26). 

Mal'^lows occurs only in Job 30 : 4 (R. V., 
" saltwort "). The word so rendered [mal- 
luah, from melah, "salt") most probably 
denotes the Atriplex halimus of Linnaeus, a 
species of sea purslane found on the shores 
of the Dead Sea, as also of the Mediter- 
ranean, and in salt marshes. It is a tall 
shrubby orach, growing to the height 
sometimes of 10 feet. Its buds and leaves, 
with those of other saline plants, are eaten 
by the poor in Palestine. 

Mal^luch — reigned over, or reigning. 
(1.) A Levite of the family of Merari (1 
Chr. 6 : 44). 



(2. ) A priest who returned from Babylon 
(Neh. 12 : 2). 

(3.) Ezra 10: 29. 

(4.) Ezra 10: 32. 

Mam^mon, a Chaldee or Syriac word 
meaning "wealth" or "riches" (Luke 16: 
9-11) ; also, by personification, the god of 
riches (Matt. 6 : 24 ; Luke 16 : 9-11). 

"SUsLVafrQ— fatness. (1. ) An Amoriti sh chief 
in alliance with Abraham (Gen. 14 : 13, 24). 

(2. ) The name of ihe place in the neigh- 
bourhood of Hebron [q.v.) where Abraham 
dwelt (Gen. 23 : 17, 19 ; 35 : 27) ; called also 
in Authorized Version (13:18) the "plain 
of Mamre," but in Revised Version more 
correctly "the oaks [marg., 'terebinths'] 
of Mamre." The name probably denotes 
the " oak grove " or the "wood of Mamre," 
thus designated after Abraham's ally. 

This "grove" must have been within 
sight of or "facing" Machpelah [q.v.). 
The site of Mamre has been identified with 
Ballatet Selta — i. e. , " the oak of rest " — where 
there is a tree called "Abraham's oak," 
about a mile and a half west of Hebron. 
Others identify it with. er-Rdmeh, 2 miles 
north of Hebron. 

Man. (1.) Heb. 'Adam, used as the pro- 
per name of the first man. The name 
is derived from a word meaning "to be 
red," and thus the first man was called 
Adam because he was formed from the red 
earth. It is also the generic name of the 
human race (Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 5:2; 8 : 21 ; 
Deut. 8 : 3). Its equivalents are the Latin 
homo &,nd the Greek anthr'opos (Matt. 5 : 
13, 16). It denotes also man in opposition 
to woman (Gen. 3 : 12 ; Matt. 19 : 10). 

(2.) Heb. 'ish, like the Latin vir and 
Greek aner, denotes properly a man in 
opposition to a woman (1 Sam. 17 : 33 ; 
Matt. 14 : 21) ; a husband (Gen. 3 : 16 ; Hos. 
2 : 16) ; man with reference to excellent 
mental qualities. 

(3.) Heb. 'enosh, man as mortal, tran- 
sient, perishable (2 Chr. 14 : 11 ; Isa. 8:1; 
Job 15 : 14 ; Ps. 8:4; 9 : 19, 20 ; 103 : 15). 
It is applied to women (Josh. 8 : 25). 

(4.) Heb. geber, man with reference to 
his strength, as distingriished from woman 
(Deut. 22 : 5) and from children (Ex. 12 : 
37) ; a husband (Prov. 6 : 34). 



MAN 



441 



MANASSEH 



(5.) Heb. methtm, men as mortal (Isa. 
41 : 14), and as opposed to women and 
children (Deut. 3:6; Job 11 : 3 ; Isa. 3 : 
25). 

Man was created by the immediate hand 
of God, and is generically different from 
all other creatures (Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 2 : 7). 

His complex nature is composed of two 
elements, two distinct substances — viz., 
body and soul (Gen. 2:7; Eccl. 12:7; 2 
Cor. 5 : 1-8). 

The words translated " spirit " and 
"soul," in 1 Thess. 5:23, Heb. 4:12, are 
habitually used interchangeably (Matt. 10 : 
28 ; 16 : 26 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 22). The " spirit " 
(Gr. pneuma) is the soul as rational ; the 
" soul " (Gr. psuche) is the same, considered 
as the animating and vital principle of the 
body. 

Man was created in the likeness of God 
as to the perfection of his nature, in 
knowledge (Col. 3 : 10), righteousness, and 
holiness (Eph. 4 : 24), and as having domin- 
ion over aU the inferior creatures (Gen. 1 : 
28). He had in his original state God's 
law written on his heart, and had power 
to obey it, and yet was capable of dis- 
obeying, being left to the freedom of his 
own will. He was created with holy dis- 
positions, prompting him to holy actions ; 
but he was fallible, and did fall from his 
integrity (3 : 1-6). (See Eall. ) 

Man of sin, a designation of Antichrist 
given in 2 Thess. 2 : 3-10, usually regarded 
as descriptive of the Papal power; but 
"in whomsoever these distinctive features 
are found — whoever wields temporal and 
spiritual power in any degree similar to 
that in which the man of sin is here de- 
scribed as wielding it — he, be he pope or 
potentate, is beyond all doubt a distinct 
type of Antichrist." 

Man^aen — consoles — a Christian teacher 
at Antioch. Nothing else is known of 
him beyond what is stated in Acts 13 : 1, 
where he is spoken of as having been 
brought up with (Gr. syntruphos ; rendered 
in E..V. "foster brother "of) Herod — i.e., 
Herod Antipas, the tetrarch, who, with 
his brother Archelaus, was educated at 
Rome. 

Manas^seh — roho makes to forget. ' ' God 



hath made me forget " (Heb. nashshani). 
Gen. 41:51. (1.) The elder of the two 
sons of Joseph. He and his brother Eph- 
raim were afterwards adopted by Jacob as 
his own sons (48 : 1). There is an account 
of his marriage to a Syrian (1 Chr. 7 : 14) ; 
and the only thing afterwards recorded 
of him is, that his grandchildren were 
"brought up upon Joseph's knees" (Gen. 
50 : 23 ; E,. V., "born upon Joseph's knees ") 
— i.e., were from their birth adopted by 
Joseph as his own children. 

The tribe of Manasseh was associated 
with that of Ephraim and Benjamin 
during the wanderings in the wilderness. 
They encamped on the west side of the 
tabernacle. According to the census taken 
at Sinai, this tribe then numbered 32,200 
(Num. 1 : 10, 35 ; 2 : 20, 21). Eorty years 
afterwards its numbers had increased to 
52,700 (26 : 34, 37), and it was at this time 
the most distinguished of all the tribes. 

The half of this tribe, along with Reuben 
and Gad, had their territory assigned them 
by Moses on the east of the Jordan (Josh. 
13 : 7-14) ; but it was left for Joshua to 
define the limits of each tribe. This terri- 
tory on the east of Jordan was more valu- 
able, and of larger extent, than all that 
was allotted to the nine and a half tribes 
in the land of Palestine. It is called some- 
times "the land of Gilead," and is also 
spoken of as "on the other side of Jordan." 
The portion given to the half tribe of 
Manasseh was the largest on the east of 
Jordan. It embraced the whole of Bashan. 
It was bounded on the south by Maha- 
naim, and extended north to the foot of 
Lebanon. Argob, with its sixty cities, 
that "ocean of basaltic rocks and boulders 
tossed about in the wildest confusion," lay 
in the midst of this territory. 

The whole "land of Gilead" having been 
conquered, the two and a half tribes left 
their wives and families in the fortified 
cities there, and accompanied the other 
tribes across the Jordan, and took part 
with them in the wars of conquest. The 
allotment of the land having been com- 
pleted, Joshua dismissed the two and a 
half tribes, commending them for their 
heroic ser\dce (Josh. 22 : 1-34). Thus dis- 



MANASSEH 



442 



MANDRAKES 



missed, they returned oyer Jordan to their 
own inheritance. (See Ed.) 

On the west of Jordan the other half of 
the tribe of Manasseh was associated with 
Ephraim, and they had their portion in 
the very centre of Palestine — an area of 
about 1,300 square miles — the most valu- 
able part of the whole country, abounding 
in springs of water. Manasseh's portion 
was immediately to the north of that of 
Ephraim (Josh. 16). Thus the western 
Manasseh defended the passes of Esdraelon 
as the eastern kept the passes of the 
Hatlran. 

(2.) The only son and successor of Heze- 
kiah on the throne of Judah. He was 
twelve years old when he began to reign 
(2 Kings 21 : 1), and he reigned fifty-five 
years (b.c. 698-643). Though he reigned 
so long, yet comparatively little is known of 
this king. His reign was a continuation of 
that of Ahaz, both in religion and national 
polity. He early fell under the influence 
of the heathen court circle, and his reign 
was characterized by a sad relapse into 
idolatry with all its vices, showing that the 
reformation under his father had been to a 
large extent only superficial (Isa. 1 : 10 ; 2 
Kings 21 : 10-15). A systematic and per- 
sistent attempt was made, and all too suc- 
cessfully, to banish the worship of Jehovah 
out of the land. Amid this wide-spread 
idolatry there were not wanting, however, 
faithful prophets (Isaiah, Micah) who lifted 
up their voice in reproof and in warning. 
But their fidelity only aroused bitter 
hatred, and a period of cruel persecution 
against all the friends of the old religion 
began. "The days of Alva in Holland, 
of Charles IX. in Erance, or of the Cove- 
nanters under Charles II. in Scotland, were 
anticipated in the Jewish capital. The 
streets were red with blood." There is an 
old Jewish tradition that Isaiah was put 
to death at this time (2 Kings 21 : 16 ; 24 : 
3, 4 ; Jer. 2 : 30), having been sawn asunder 
in the trunk of a tree. Psalms 49, 73, 77, 
140, and 141 seem to express the feelings 
of the pious amid the fiery trials of this 
great persecution. He has been called the 
"Nero of Palestine." 
Esarhaddon, Sennacherib's successor on 



the Assyrian throne, who had his residence 
in Babylon for thirteen years (the only 
Assyrian monarch who ever reigned in 
Babylon), took Manasseh prisoner (B.C. 
681) to Babylon. Such captive kings were 
usually treated with great cruelty. They 
were brought before the conqueror with a 
hook or ring passed through their lips or 
their jaws, having a cord attached to it, by 
which they were led. This is referred to 
in 2 Chr. 33 : 11, where the Authorized 
Version reads that Esarhaddon " took 
Manasseh among the thorns ; " while the 
Revised "Version renders the words ' ' took 
Manasseh, in chains;" or literally, as in the 
margin, "with hooks." (Corap. 2 Kings 
19:28.) 

The severity of Manasseh's imprison- 
ment brought him to repentance. God 
heard his cry, and he was restored to his 
kingdom (2 Chr. 33 : 11-13). He abandoned 
his idolatrous ways and enjoined the 
people to worship Jehovah ; but there was 
no thorough reformation. After a length- 
ened reign extending through fifty -five 
years — the longest in the history of Judah 
— he died, and was buried in the garden of 
Uzza, the "garden of his own house" (2 
Kings 21 : 17, 18 ; 2 Chr. 33 : 20), and not 
in the city of David, among his ancestors. 
He was succeeded by his son Amon. 

In Judg. 18 : 30 the correct reading is 
"Moses," and not "Manasseh." The 
name "Manasseh" is supposed to have 
been introduced by some transcriber to 
avoid the scandal of naming the grandson 
of Moses the great lawgiver as the founder 
of an idolatrous religion. 

Man^drakes - — Hebrew duddtm; i.e., 
"love-plants" — occurs only in Gen. 30: 
14-16 and Cant. 7 : 13. Many interpreta- 
tions have been given to this word duddtm. 
It has been rendered "violets," "lilies," 
" jasmines," " truffles or mushrooms," 
"flowers," the "citron," etc. The weight 
of authority is in favour of its being re- 
garded as the Mandragora officinalis of 
botanists — "a near relative of the night- 
shades, the 'apple of Sodom' and the 
potato plant." It possesses stimulating 
and narcotic properties (Gen. 30 : 14-16). 
The fruit of this plant resembles the 



MANEH 



443 



MANNA 



potato-apple in size, and is of a pale orange 
colour. It has been called the " love- 




MANDRAKE (mANDRAGORA OFFICINALIS). 

apple. " The Arabs call it ' ' Satan's apple. ' ' 
It still grows near Jerusalem, and in other 
parts of Palestine. 

M.a,^neh— portion (Ezek. 45 : 12), ren- 
dered " pound " (1 Kings 10 : 17 ; Ezra 2 : 
69; Neh. 7:21, 22)— a weight variously 
estimated, probably about 2| or 3 lbs. A 
maneh of gold consisted of a hundred com- 
mon shekels {q.v.). (Comp. 1 Kings 10 : 17, 
and 2 Chr. 9 : 16). 

Manager (Luke 2 : 7, 12, 16), the name 
(Gr. phatne, rendered " stall" in Luke 13 : 
15) given to the place w^here the infant 
Redeemer was laid. It seems to have been 
a stall or crib for feeding cattle. Stables 
and mangers in our modern sense were in 
ancient times unknown in the East. The 
word here properly denotes ' ' the ledge or 
projection in the end of the room used as a 
stall on which the hay or other food of the 
animals of travellers was placed. " (See Inn. ) 

Man'na— Heb. mdn-hu, ' ' What is that ? " 
— the name given by the Israelites to the 
food miraculously supplied to them during 
their wanderings in the wilderness (Ex. 
16 : 15-35). The name is commonly taken 
as derived from man, an expression of sur- 
prise, "What is it?" but more probably 
it is derived from mctnan, meaning "to 
allot," and hence denoting an " allotment " 
or a "gift." This "gift" from God is 



described as "a small round thing," like 
the "hoar-frost on the ground," and "like 
coriander seed," "of the colour of bdel- 
lixim," and in taste "like wafers made with 
honey." It was capable of being baked 
and boiled, ground in mills, or beaten in a 
mortar (Ex. 16 : 23 ; Num. 11 : 7). If any was 
kept over tiU the following morning, it be- 
came corrupt with worms ; but as on the 
Sabbath none fell, on the preceding day a 
double portion was given, and that could 
be kept over to supply the wants of the 
Sabbath without becoming corrupt. Direc- 
tions concerning the gathering of it are 
fuUy given (Ex. 16 : 16-18, 33 ; Deut. 8 : 3, 
16), It fell for the first time after the eighth 
encampment in the desert of Sin, and w^as 
daily furnished, except on the Sabbath, for 
all the years of the wanderings, till they 
encamped at Gilgal, after crossing the Jor- 
dan, when it suddenly ceased, and where 
they "did eat of the old corn of the land ; 
neither had the children of Israel manna 
any more " (Josh. 5 : 12). They now no 
longer needed the "bread of the wilder- 
ness." 

This manna was evidently altogether 




FLOWER OF MANNA ASH. 

a miraculous gift, wholly different from 
any natural product with which we are 

29 



MANOAH 



444 



MAEA 



acquainted, and which bears this name. 
The manna of European commerce comes 
chiefly from Calabria and Sicily. It drops 
from the twigs of a species of ash during 
the months of June and July. At night it 
is fluid and resembles dew, but in the 
morning it begins to harden. The manna 
of the Sinaitic peninsula is an exudation 
from the "manna-tamarisk" tree {Tamarix 
mannifera), the cl-tarfah of the Arabs. 




branch of maxna-tamarisk tree 
(tamarix mannifera.) 

This tree is found at the present day in 
certain well-watered valleys in the penin- 
sula of Sinai. The, manna with which the 
people of Isra.el were fed for forty years 
differs in many particulars from all these 
natural products. 

Our Lord refers to the manna when he 
calls himself the "true bread from heaven " 
(John 6:31-35; 48-51). He is also the 
" hidden manna " (Rev. 2 : 17 ; comp. John 
G : 49, 51). 

Mano^ah — rest — a Danite, the father of 
Samson ( Judg. 13 : 1-22, and 14 : 2-4). 

Man'slayer. one who was guilty of 
accidental homicide, and was entitled to 



flee to a city of refuge (Num. 35 : 6, 12, 22, 
23), his compulsory residence in which ter- 
minated with the death of the high priest. 
(See City of Refuge.) 

Man^tle. (1.) Heb. 'addereth, a large 
over-garment. This word is used of Elijah's 
mantle (1 Kings 19 : 13, 19 ; 2 Kings 2 : 8, 
13, etc. ), which was probably a sheepskin. 
It appears to have been his only garment, 
a strip of skin or leather binding it to his 
loins. ' Adder cth twice occurs -with the 
epithet "hairy" (Gen. 25:25; Zech. 13: 
4, R.V.). It is the word denoting the 
" goodly Babylonish garment " which 
Achan coveted (Josh. 7 : 21). 

(2.) Heb. meHl, frequently applied to 
the ''robe of the ephod" (Ex. 28:4, 31; 
Lev. 8 : 7), which was a splendid under 
tunic wholly of blue, reaching to below the 
knees. It was woven without seam, and 
was put on by being drawn over the head. 
It was worn not only by priests but by 
kings (1 Sam. 24 : 4), prophets (15 : 27), and 
rich men (Job 1:20; 2:12). This was 
the "little coat" which Samuel's mother 
brought to him from year to year to 
Shiloh (1 Sam. 2 : 19), a miniature of the 
official priestly robe. 

(3.) Semikah, "a rug," the garment 
which Jael threw as a covering over Sisera 
(Judg. 4 : 18). The Hebrew word occurs 
nowhere else in Scripture. 

(4.) Maatdphoth, plural, only in Isa. 3: 
22, denoting a large exterior tunic worn by 
females. (See Dress.) 

Ma^och — compressed — the father of Ach- 
ish, king of Gath (1 Sam. 27 : 2). Called 
also Maachah (1 Kings 2 : 39). 

Ma'on — habitation — a town in the 
tribe of Judah, about 7 miles south of 
Hebron, which gave its name to the 
wilderness, the district round the conical 
hill on which the town stood. Here David 
hid from Saul, and here Nabal had his 
possessions and his home (1 Sam. 23 : 24, 
25 ; 25 : 2). " Only some small foundations 
of hewn stone, a square enclosure, and 
several cisterns are now to be seen at 
Maon. Are they the remains of Nabal's 
great establishment?" The hill is now 
called Tell M'am. 

Ma^ra —bittfr ; sad — a symbolical name 



MARAH 



445 



MARK 



which Naomi gave to l^erself because of 
her misfortunes (Ruth 1 : 20). 

Ma^rah — hitterness — a fountain at the 
sixth station of the Israelites (Ex. 15 : 23, 24 ; 
Num. 33 : 8) whose waters were so bitter 
that they could not drink them. On this 
account they murmured against Moses, 
who, under divine direction, cast into the 
fountain "a certain tree" which took away 
its bitterness, so that the people drank of 
it. This was probably the "Ain Hcncdrah, 
where there are still several springs of 
water that are very "bitter," distant some 
47 m.iles from '^Aydn Mousa. 

"Mar^alsib.— trembling — a place on the 
southern boundary of Zebulun (Josh. 19 : 
11). It has been identified with the modem 
M'dlul, about 4 miles south - west of 
Nazareth. 

Maran^atha (1 Cor. IG : 22) consists of 
two Aramean words, Maran' athah, mean- 
ing, "our Lord comes," or is "coming." 
If the latter interpretation is adopted, the 
meaning of the phrase is, "Our Lord is 
coming, and he will judge those who have 
set him at nought." (Comp. Phil. 4:5; 
James 5:8, 9.) 

Mar^ble, as a mineral, consists of car- 
bonate of lime, its texture varying from 
the highly crystalline to the compact. In 
Esther 1 : 6 there are four Hebrew words 
which are rendered marble: — (1.) SMsh, 
"pillars of marble." But this word prob- 
ably designates dark-blue limestone rather 
than marble. (2.) Dar some regard as 
Parian marble. It is here rendered 
" white marble." But nothing is certainly 
known of it. (3.) Bahat, "red marble," 
probably the verd-antique or half -porphyry 
of Egypt. (4.) Sohdreth, "black marble," 
probably some spotted variety of marble. 
" The marble pillars and tesserae of various 
colours of the palace at Susa came doubt- 
less from Persia itself, where marble of 
various colours is found, especially in the 
province of Hamadan Susiana. " The mar- 
ble of Solomon's architectural works may 
have been limestone from near Jerusalem, 
or from Lebanon, or possibly white marble 
from Arabia. Herod employed Parian 
marble in the temjjle, and marble columns 
still exist in great abundance at Jerusalem. 



Marchesh^van, the post-biblical name 
of the month which was the eighth of the 
sacred and the second of the civil year of 
the Jews. It began with the new moon 
of our November. It is once called Bui 
(1 Kings 6 : 38). Assyrian, Arah Samna, 
"eighth month." 

Mar'cus, Col. 4:10; Philemon 24; 1 
Pet. 5:13; R. v., "Mark" {q.v.). 

Mare^Shah — possession — a city in the 
plain of Judah (Josh. 15 : 44). Here Asa 
defeated Zerah the Ethiopian (2 Chr. 14 : 
9, 10). It is identified with the ruin el- 
Mer^ash, about 1^ mile south of Beit 
Jibrin. 

Mark, the evangelist; "John, whose 
surname was Mark " (Acts 12 : 12, 25). 
Mark {Marcus, Col. 4:10, etc.) was his 
Roman name, which gradually came to 
supersede his Je^vish name John. He is 
called John in Acts 13 : 5, 13, and Mark 
in 15 : 39, 2 Tim. 4 : 11, etc. 

He was the son of Mary, a woman 
apparently of some means and influence, 
and was probably born in Jerusalem, where 
his mother resided (Acts 12 : 12). Of his 
father we know nothing. He was cousin 
of Barnabas (Col. 4 : 10). It was in his 
mother's house that Peter found "many 
gathered together praying" when he was 
released from prison ; and it is probable 
that it was here that he was converted by 
Peter, who calls him his "son" (1 Pet. 5: 
13). It is probable that the "young man" 
spoken of in Mark 14 : 51, 52 was Mark 
himself. He is first mentioned in Acts 12 : 
25. He went with Paul and Barnabas on 
their first journey (about a.d. 47) as their 
"minister," but from some cause turned 
back when they reached Perga in Pam- 
phylia (Acts 12 : 25 ; 13 : 13). Three years 
afterwards a "sharp contention" arose be- 
tween Paul and Barnabas (15 : 36-40), be- 
cause Paul would not take Mark with him. 
He, however, was evidently at length re- 
conciled to the apostle, for hp was with him 
in his first imprisonment at Rome (Col. 
4 : 10 ; Philemon 24). At a later period he 
was with Peter in Babylon (1 Pet. 5 : 13), 
then, and for some centuries afterwards, 
one of the chief seats of Jewish learning ; 
and he was with Tipiothy in Ephesus 



MARK 



446 



MAROTH 



when Paul wrote him during his second 
imprisonment (2 Tim. 4 : 11). He then 
disappears from view. 
Mark, Gospel according to. It is the 

current and apparently well-founded tradi- 
tion that Mark derived his information 
mainly from the discourses of Peter. In 
his mother's house he would have abundant 
opportunities of obtaining information from 
the other apostles and their coadjutors, yet 
he was "the disciple and interpreter of 
Peter " specially. 

As to the time when it was written, the 
Gospel furnishes us with no definite informa- 
tion. Mark makes no mention of the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, hence it must have 
been written before that event, and prob- 
ably about A.D. 63. 

The place where it was written was 
probably Rome. Some have supposed 
Antioch (comp. Mark 15 : 21 with Acts 
11 : 20). 

It was intended primarily for Romans. 
This appears probable when it is considered 
that it makes no reference to the Jewish 
law, and that the writer takes care to in- 
terpret words which a Gentile would be 
likely to misunderstand — such as, ' ' Boan- 
erges" (3:17); "Talitha cumi" (5:41); 
" Corban " (7 : 11) ; " Bartimeeus " (10 : 46) ; 
"Abba" (14:36); "Eloi," etc. (15:34). 
Jewish usages are also explained (7:3; 
13:3; 14:12; 15:42). Mark also uses 
certain Latin words not found in any of 
the other Gospels, as "speculator" (6:27, 
rendered, A.V., " executioner ; " R.V. 
"soldier of the guard"), "xestes"(a cor- 
ruption of sextarius, rendered " pots," 7 : 4, 
8), " quadrans " (12 : 42, rendered " a 
farthing"), "centurion" (15:39, 44, 45). 
He only twice quotes from the Old Testa- 
ment (1:2; 15 : 28). 

The characteristics of this Gospel are — (1) 
the absence of the genealogy of our Lord, 
(2) whom he represents as clothed Avith 
power, the "lion of the tribe of Judah." 
(3.) Mark also records with wonderful 
minuteness the very words (3 : 17 ; 5 : 41 ; 
7 : 11, 34 ; 14 : 36) as well as the position 
(9 : 35) and gestures (3 : 5, 34 ; 5 : 32 ; 9 : 36 ; 
10 : 16) of our Lord. (4. ) He is also careful 
to record particulars of person (1 : 29, 36 ; 



3:6, 22, etc.), number (5:13; 6:7, etc.), 
place (2:13; 4:1; 7:31, etc.), and time 
(1 : 35 ; 2:1; 4 : 35, etc. ), which the other 
evangelists omit. (5.) The phrase "and 
straightway " occurs nearly forty times in 
this Gospel ; while in Luke's Gospel, which 
is much longer, it is used only seven times, 
and in John only four times. 

"The Gospel of Mark," says Westcott, 
"is essentially a transcript from life. The 
course and issue of facts are imaged in it 
with the clearest outline." "In Mark we 
have no attempt to draw up a continuous 
narrative. His Gospel is a rapid succession 
of vivid pictures loosely strung together 
without much attempt to bind them into a 
whole or give the events in their natural 
sequence. This pictorial power is that 
which specially characterizes this evan- 
gelist, so that ' if any one desires to know 
an evangelical fact, not only in its main 
features and grand results, but also in its 
most minute and so to speak more graphic 
delineation, he must betake himself to 
Mark.'" The leading principle running 
through this Gospel may be expressed in 

the motto : "Jesus came preaching the 

gospel of the kingdom " (Mark 1 : 14). 

It has been described as ' ' the Gospel of 
incident ; the anecdotal Gospel ; the Gospel 
which represents Christ as the Son of God 
and the Lord of the world." 

Mar''ket-place, any place of public re- 
sort, and hence a public place or broad 
street (Matt. 11:16; 20:3), as well as a 
forum or market-place proper, where goods 
were exposed for sale, and where public 
assemblies and trials were held (Acts 16 : 
19 ; 17 : 17). This word occurs in the Old 
Testament only in Ezek. 27 : 3. 

In early times markets were held at the 
gates of cities, where commodities were 
exposed for sale (2 Kings 7 : 18). In large 
towns the sale of particular articles seems 
to have been confined to certain streets, as 
we may infer from such expressions as "the 
bakers' street " ( Jer. 37 : 21), and from the 
circumstance that in the time of Josephus 
the valley between Mounts Zionand Moriah 
was called the Tyropoeon or the " valley of 
the cheesemakers. " 

Ma^'roth — bitternesses ; i.e., " perfect 



MAREIAGE 



447 



MARRIAGE 



grief " — a place not far from Jerusalem ; 
mentioned in connection with the invasion 
of the Assyrian army (Micah 1 : 12). 

Mar'riage was instituted in Paradise 
when man was in innocence (Gen. 2 : 18- 
24). Here we have its original charter, 
which was confirmed by our Lord, as the 
basis on which all regulations are to be 
framed (Matt. 19 : 4, 5). It is evident that 
monogamy was the original law of marriage 
(Matt. 19 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 16). This law was 
violated in after times, when corrupt usages 
began to be introduced (Gen. 4 : 19 ; 6:2). 
We meet with the prevalence of polygamy 
and concubinage in the patriarchal age 
(Gen. 16 : 1-4 ; 22 : 21-24 ; 28 : 8, 9 ; 29 : 23- 
30, etc. ). Polygamy was acknowledged in 
the Mosaic law and made the basis of 
legislation, and continued to be practised 
all down through the period of Jewish 
history to the Captivity, after which there 
is no instance of it on record. 

It seems to have been the practice from 
the beginning for fathers to select wives 
for their sons (Gen. 24 : 3 ; 38 : 6). Some- 
times also proposals were initiated by the 
father of the maiden (Ex. 2:21). The 
brothers of the maiden were also some- 
times consulted (Gen. 24 : 51 ; 34 : 11), but 
her own consent was not required. The 
young man was bound to give a price to 
the father of the maiden (31 : 15 ; 34 : 12 ; 
Ex. 22 : 15, 16 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 23, 25 ; Ruth 
4 : 10 ; Hos. 3 : 2) On these patriarchal 
customs the Mosaic law made no change. 

In the pre-Mosaic times, when the pro- 
posals were accepted and the marriage 
l^rice given, the bridegroom could come at 
once and take away his bride to his own 
house (Gen. 24 : 63-67). But in general 
the marriage was celebrated by a feast in 
the house of the bride's parents, to which 
all friends were invited (29 : 22, 27) ; and on 
the day of the marriage the bride, con- 
cealed under a thick veil, was conducted 
to her future husband's home. 

Our Lord corrected many false notions 
then existing on the subject of marriage 
(Matt. 22 : 23-30), and placed it as a divine 
institution on the highest grounds. The 
apostles state clearly and enforce the 
nuptial duties of husband and wife (Eph. 



5:22-33; Col. 3:18, 19; 1 Pet. 3:1-7). 
Marriage is said to be "honourable" (Heb. 
13 : 4), and the prohibition of it is noted 
as one of the marks of degenerate times 
(1 Tim. 4 : 20). 

The marriage relation is used to repre- 
sent the union between God and his people 
(Isa. 54:5; Jer. 3:1-14; Hos. 2:9, 20). 
In the New Testament the same figure is 
employed in representing the love of Christ 
to his saints (Eph. 5 : 25-27). The Church 
of the redeemed is the " Bride, the Lamb's 
Avife " (Rev. 19 : 7-9). 

Mar^riage-feasts (John 2 : 1-11) "lasted 
usually for a whole week ; but the cost of 
such prolonged rejoicing is very small in 
the East. The guests sit round the great 
bowl or bowls on the floor, the meal usually 
consisting of a lamb or kid stewed in rice 
or barley. The most honoured guests sit 
nearest, others behind ; and all in eating 
dip their hand into the one smoking mound, 
pieces of the thin bread, bent together, 
serving for spoons when necessary. After 
the first circle have satisfied themselves, 
those lower in honour sit down to the 
rest — the whole company being men, for 
women are never seen at a feast. Water 
is poured on the hands before eating; 
and this is repeated when the meal closes, 
the fingers having first been wiped on 
pieces of bread, which, after serving the 
same purpose as table-napkins with us, 
are thrown on the ground to be eaten by 
any dog that may have stolen in from the 
streets through the ever-open door, or 
picked up by those outside when gathered 
and tossed out to them (Matt. 15 : 27 ; 
Mark 7 : 28). Rising from the ground and 
retiring to the seats round the walls, the 
guests then sit do^\Ti cross-legged and 
gossip, or Hsten to recitals, or puzzle over 
riddles, light being scantily supplied by a 
small lamp or two, or if the night be 
chilly, by a smouldering fire of weeds 
kindled in the middle of the room, per- 
haps in a brazier, often in a hole in the 
floor. As to the smoke, it escapes as it 
best may ; but indeed there is little of it, 
though enough to blacken the water or 
vnne or milk skins hung up on pegs on the 
waU. (Comp. Ps. 119:83.) To some 



MARS* HILL 



448 



MARY 



such marriage-feast Jesus and his five dis- 
ciples were invited at Cana of Galilee. " — 
G-eikie's Life of Christ. (See Cana, ) 

Mars' Hill, the Areopagus or rocky hill 
in Athens, north-west of the Acropolis, 
where the Athenian supreme tribunal and 
court of morals was held. From some 
part of this hill Paul delivered the address 
recorded in Acts 17 : 22-31. (See Aeeo- 
TAGUS. ) 

Mar^tha — bitterness — the sister of Laz- 
arus and Mary, and probably the eldest 
of the family, who all resided at Bethany 
(Luke 10 : 38, 40, 41 ; John 11 : 1-39). From 
the residence being called "her house," 
some have supposed that she was a widow, 
and that her brother and sister lodged with 
her. She seems to have been of an anxious, 
bustling spirit, anxious to be helpful in 
providing the best things for the Master's 
use, in contrast to the quiet earnestness 
of Mary, who was more concerned to avail 
herself of the opportunity of sitting at his 
feet and learning of him. Afterwards at 
a supper given to Christ and his disciples 
in her house "Martha served." Nothing 
further is known, of her. 

"Mary and Martha are representatives 
of two orders of human character. One 
was absorbed, preoccupied, abstracted ; 
the other was concentrated and single- 
hearted. Her own world was thfe all of 
Martha ; Christ was the first thought with 
Mary. To Martha life was ' a succession 
of particular businesses ; ' to Mary life ' was 
rather the flow of one spirit. ' Martha was 
Petrine, Mary was Johannine. The one 
was a well-meaning, bustling busybody ; 
the other was a reverent disciple, a wistful 
listener." Pavil had such a picture as that 
bf Martha in his mind when he spoke of 
serving the Lord "without distraction" 
(1 Cor. 7 : 35). 

Mar^tyr, one who bears witness of the 
truth, and suffers death in the cause of 
Christ (Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13; 17:6). 
In this sense Stej)hen was the first inartyr. 
The Greek word so rendered in all other 
cases is translated "witness." (1.) In a 
court of justice (Matt. 18 : 16 ; 26 : 65 ; 
Acts 6 : 13 ; 7 : 58 ; Heb. 10 : 28 ; 1 Tim. 5 : 
19). (2.) As of one bearing testimony to 



the truth of what he has sbeti or known 
(Luke 24 : 48 ; Acts 1:8, 22 ; Rom. 1:9; 
2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 5, 10). 

Ma^ry — Hebrew Miriam. (1.) The wife 
of Joseph, the mother of Jesus, called the 
' ' Vitgin Mary, " though never so designated 
in Scripture (Matt. 2:11; Acts 1:14). 
Little is known of her personal history. 
Her genealogy is given in Luke 3. She 
was of the tribe of Judah and the lineage 
of David (Ps. 132 : 11 ; Luke 1 : 32). She 
was conne(3ted by marriage with Elisabeth, 
who was of the lineage of Aaron (Luke 
1 : 36). 

While she resided at Nazareth with her 
parents, before she became the wife of 
Joseph, the angel Gabriel announced to 
her that she was to be the hiother of the 
promised Messiah (Luke 1 : 35). After this 
she went to visit her cotisin Elisabeth, who 
was hving with her husband Zacharias 
(probably at Juttah, Josh. 15 : 55 ; 21 : 16, 
in the neighbourhood of Maon), at a con- 
siderable distance, about 100 miles, from 
Nazareth. Immediately on entering the 
house she was saluted by Elisabeth as the 
mother of her Lord, and then forthwith 
gave utterance to her hymn of thanks- 
giving (Luke 1 : 46-56 ; comp. 1 Sam. 2 : 
1-10). After three months Mary returned 
to Nazareth to her own home. Joseph 
was supernaturally made aware (Matt. 1 : 
18-25) of her condition, and took her to his 
own home. Soon after this the decree of 
Augustus (Luke 2 : 1) required that they 
should proceed to Bethlehem (Micah 5 : 2), 
some 80 or 90 miles from Nazareth ; and 
while they were there they found shelter 
in the inn or khan provided for strangers 
(Luke 2 : 6, 7). But as the inn was crowded, 
Mary had to retire to a place among the 
cattle, and there she brought forth her son, 
who was called Jesus (Matt. 1 : 21), because 
he was to save his people from their sins. 
This was followed by the presentation in 
the temple, the flight into Egypt, and their 
return in the following year and residence 
at Nazareth (Matt. 2). There for thirty 
years Mary, the wife of Joseph the car- 
penter, resides, filling her own humble 
sphere, and pondering over the strange 
things that had happened to her. During 



MARY 



449 



MARY 



these years only one event in the history 
of Jesus is recorded — viz., his going up to 
Jerusalem when twelve years of age, and 
his being found among the doctors in the 
temple (Luke 2 : 41-52). Probably also 
during this period Joseph died, for he is 
not again mentioned. 

After the commencement of our Lord's 
public ministry little notice is taken of 
Mary. She was present at the marriage 
in Cana. A year and a haK after this we 
find her at Capernaum (Matt. 12 : 46, 48, 
49), where Christ uttered the memorable 
words, ' ' Who is my mother ? and who are 
my brethren ? And he stretched forth his 
hand toward his disciples, and said. Be- 
hold my mother and my brethren ! " The 
next time we find her is at the cross along 
with her sister Mary, and Mary Magda- 
lene, and Salome, and other women (John 
19 : 26). From that hour John took her to 
his own abode. She was with the little 
company in the upioer room after the As- 
cension (Acts 1 : 14). From this time she 
Avholly disappears from iDublic notice. The 
time and manner of her death are unknown. 

(2.) Mary Magdalene — i.e., Maryof Mag- 
dala, a town on the western shore of the 
Lake of Tiberias. She is for the first time 
noticed in Luke 8 : 3 as one of the women 
who "ministered to Christ of their sub- 
stance. " Their motive was that of grati- 
tude for deliverances he had wrought for 
them. Out. of Mary were cast seven 
demons. Gratitude to her great Deliverer 
prompted her to become his folloAver. These 
woinen accompanied him also on his last 
journey to Jerusalem (Matt. 27 : 55 ; Mark 
15 : 41 ; Luke 23 : 55). They stood near the 
cross. There Mary remained till all was 
over, and the body was taken down and laid 
in Joseph's tomb. Again, in the earliest 
dawn of the first day of the week she, with 
Salome and Mary the mother of James 
(Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:2), came to the 
sepulchre, bringing with them sweet spices, 
that they might anoint the body of Jesus. 
They found the sepulchre empty, but saw 
the " vision of angels " (Matt. 28 : 5). She 
hastens to tell Peter and John, who were 
probably living together at this time (John 
20 : 1, 2), and again immediately returns to 



the sepulchre. There she lingers thought- 
fully, weeping at the door of the tomb. 
The risen Lord appears to her, but at first 
she knows him not. His utterance of her 
name "Mary "recalls her to consciousness, 
and she litters the joyful, reverent cry, 
' ' Rabboni. " She would fain cling to him, 
but he forbids her, saying, "Touch me 
not ; for I am not yet ascended to my 
Father." This is the last record regarding 
Mary of Magdala, who now returned to 
Jerusalem. The idea that this Mary was 
"the woman who was a sinner," or that 
she was unchaste, is altogether groundless. 

(3.) Mary the sister of Lazarus is brought 
to our notice in connection with the visits 
of our Lord to Bethany. She is contrasted 
with her sister Martha, who was "cum- 
bered about many things " while Jesus was 
their guest, while Mary had chosen "the 
good part." Her character also appears 
in connection with the death of her brother 
(John 11 : 20, 31, 33). On the occasion of our 
Lord's last visit to Bethany, Mary brought 
"a pound of ointment of spikenard, very 
costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus " as 
he recHned at table in the house of one 
Simon, who had been a leper (Matt. 26 : 6 ; 
Mark 14 : 3 ; John 12 : 2, 3). This was an 
evidence of her overflowing love to the 
Lord. Nothing is known of her subsequent 
history. It would appear from this act of 
Mary's, and from the circumstance that 
they possessed a family vault (11 : 38), and 
that a large number of Jews from Jerusalem 
came to condole with them on the death of 
Lazarus (11 : 19), that this family at Beth- 
any belonged to the wealthier class of the 
people. (See Maetha.) 

(4.) Mary the wife of Cleopas is men- 
tioned (John 19 : 25) as standing at the 
cross in company with Mary of Magdala 
and Mary the mother of Jesus. By com- 
paring Matt. 27 : 56 and Mark 15 : 40, we 
find that this Mary and "Mary the mother 
of James the little " are one and the same 
person, and that she was the sister of our 
Lord's mother. She was that "other 
Mary" who was present with Mary of 
Magdala at the burial of our Lord (Matt. 
27 : 61 ; Mark 15 : 47) ; and she was one of 
those who went early in the morning of the 



MASCHIL 



450 



MATTHEW 



first day of the week to anoint the body, 
and thus became the first witness of the 
resurrection (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1; 
Luke 24 : 1). 

(5.) Mary the mother of John Mark, was 
one of the earliest of our Lord's disciples. 
She was the sister of Barnabas (Col. 4 : 10), 
and joined with him in disposing of their 
land and giving the proceeds of the sale 
into the treasury of the Church (Acts 4 : 37 ; 
12 : 12). Her house in Jerusalem was the 
common meeting-place for the disciples 
there. 

(6.) A Christian at Rome who treated 
Paul with special kindness (E-om. 16 : 6). 

Mas^chil — instructing — occurs in the 
title of thirteen Psalms (32, 42, 44, etc.). 
It denotes a song enforcing some lesson of 
wisdom or piety, a didactic song. In Ps. 
47 : 7 it is rendered. Authorized Version, 
"with understanding;" He vised Version, 
marg., "in a skilful psalm." 

Mash ( — Meshech, 1 Chr. 1 : 17), one of 
the four sons of Aram, and the name of a 
tribe descended from him (Gen. 10 : 23) 
inhabiting some part probably of Mesopo- 
tamia. Some have supposed that they 
were the inhabitants of Mount Masius, the 
present Karja Baghlar, which forms part 
of the chain of Taurus. 

Ma'^shal — entreaty — a Levitical town in 
the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 6 : 74) ; called 
Mishal (Josh. 21 : 30). 

Ma^'son, an artificer in stone. The 
Tyrians seem to have been specially skilled 
in architecture (1 Kings 5 : 17, 18 ; 2 Sam. 
5 : 11). This art the Hebrews no doubt 
learned in Egypt (Ex. 1 : 11, 14), where 
ruins of temples and palaces fill the travel- 
ler with wonder at the present day. 

Mas'^rekah — vineyard of noble vines — a 
place in Idumea, the native place of Sam- 
lah, one of the Edomitish kings (Gen. 36 : 
36 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 47). 

Mas^sa — a lifting up, gift — one of the 
sons of Ishmael, the founder of an Arabian 
tribe (Gen. 25 : 14) ; a nomad tribe inhabit- 
ing the Arabian desert toward Babylonia. 

Mas'^sah — trial, temptation — a name 
given to the place where the Israelites, by 
their murmuring for want of water, pro- 
voked Jehovah to anger against them. It 



is also called Meribah (Ex. 17 : 7 ; Deut. 6 : 
16 ; Ps. 95 : 8, 9 ; Heb. 3 : 8). 

"yLaX'taxi—gift. (1.) A priest of Baal, 
slain before his altar during the reforma- 
tion under Jehoiada (2 Kings 11 : 18). 

(2.) The son of Eleaziar, and father of 
Jacob, who was the father of Joseph, the 
husband of the Virgin Mary (Matt. 1 : 15). 

(3.) The father of Shephatiah (Jer. 38 : 1). 

]VIat''tanah — a gift — a station of the 
Israelites (Num. 21 : 18, 19) between the 
desert and the borders of Moab, in the 
Wady Waleh. 

Mattani^ah — gift of Jehovah. (1.) A 
Levite, son of Heman, the chief of the ninth 
class of temple singers (1 Chr. 25 : 4, 16). 

(2. ) A Levite who assisted in purifying 
the temi:)le at the reformation under Heze- 
kiah (2 Chr. 29 : 13). 

(3. ) The original name of Zedekiah [q.v.), 
the last of the kings of Judah (2 Kings 24 : 
17). He was the third son of Josiah, who 
fell at Megiddo. He succeeded his nej^hew 
Jehoiakin. 

Mattathi^as — ibid. (1.) The son of 
Amos, in the genealogy of our Lord (Luke 
3 : 25). 

(2.) The son of Semei, in the same gene- 
alogy (Luke 3 : 26). 

Mat^than — gift — one of our Lord's an- 
cestry (Matt. 1 : 15). 

'S/la.t'fhaX—gift of God. (1.) The son of 
Levi, and father of Eli (Luke 3 : 29). 

(2.) Son of another Levi (Luke 3 : 24). 

Mat''thew — gift of God — a common Jew- 
ish name after the Exile. He was the son 
of Alpheeus, and was a publican or tax- 
gatherer at Capernaum. On one occasion 
Jesus, coming up from the side of the lake, 
passed the custom-house where Matthew 
was seated, and said to him, "Follow me." 
Matthew arose and followed him, and be- 
came his disciple (Matt. 9 : 9). Formerly 
the name by which he was known was Le\d 
(Mark 2 : 14 ; Luke 5 : 27) ; he now changed 
it, possibly in grateful memory of his call, 
to Matthew. The same day on which 
Jesus called him he made a "great feast" 
(Luke 5 : 29), a farewell feast, to which he 
invited Jesus and his disciples, and prob- 
ably also many of his old associates. He 
was afterwards selected as one of the twelve 



MATTHEW 



451 



MATTITHIAH 



(6 : 15). His name does not occur again in 
the Gospel history except in the lists of the 
apostles. The last notice of him is in Acts 
1 : 13. The time and manner of his death 
are unknown. 

Mat^thew, Gospel according to. The 
author of this book was beyond a doubt the 
Matthew, an apostle of our Lord, whose 
name it bears. He wrote the Gospel of 
Christ according to his own plans and 
aims, and from his own point of view, as 
did also the other "evangelists." 

As to the time of its composition, there is 
little in the Gospel itself to indicate. It 
was evidently written before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem (Matt. 24), and some time 
after the events it records. The jDrobability 
is that it was written between the years 
A.D. 60 and 65. 

The cast of thought and the forms of ex- 
pression employed by the writer show that 
this Gospel was written for Jewish Chris- 
tians of Palestine. His great object is to 
prove that Jesus of Nazareth was the 
promised Messiah, and that in him the 
ancient prophecies had their fulfilment. 
The Gospel is full of allusions to those 
passages of the Old Testament in which 
Christ is predicted and foreshadowed. The 
one aim pervading the whole book is to 
show that Jesus is he "of whom Moses in 
the law and the prophets did write. " This 
Gospel contains no fewer than sixty-five 
references to the Old Testament, forty- 
three of these being direct verbal citations, 
thus greatly outnumbering those found in 
the other Gospels. The main feature of 
this Gospel may be expressed in the motto, 
" I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil." 

As to the language in which this Gospel 
was written there is much controversy. 
Many hold, in accordance with old tradi- 
tion, that it was originally written in 
Hebrew [i.e., the Aramaic or Syro-Chaldee 
dialect, then the vernacular of the in- 
habitants of Palestine), and afterwards 
translated into Greek, either by Matthew 
himself or by some person unknown. This 
theory, though earnestly maintained by 
able critics, we cannot see any ground for 
adopting. From the first this Gospel in 
Greek was received as of authority in the 



Church. There is nothing in it to show 
that it is a translation. Though Matthew 
wrote mainly for the Jews, yet they were 
everywhere familiar with the Greek lan- 
guage. The same reasons which would 
have suggested the necessity of a transla- 
tion into Greek would have led the evan- 
gelist to write in Greek at first. It is con- 
fessed that this Gospel has never been 
found in any other form than that in which 
we now possess it. 

The leading characteristic of this Gospel 
is that it sets forth the kingly glory of 
Christ, and shows him to be the true heir 
to David's throne. It is the Gospel of the 
kingdom. Matthew uses the expression 
"kingdom of heaven" (thirty-two times), 
while Luke uses the expression "kingdom of 
God " (thirty-three times). Some Latinized 
forms occur in this Gospel, as Jcodrantes 
(Matt. 5 : 26), for the Latin quadrans, and 
phragello (27 : 26), for the Jadlva. jiagello. It 
must be remembered that Matthew was a 
tax-gatherer for the Roman government, 
and hence in contact with those using the 
Latin language. 

As to the relation of the Gospels to each 
other, we must maintain that each writer 
of the synoptics (the first three) wrote in- 
dependently of the other two, Matthew 
being probably first in point of time. 

The book is fitly divided into these four 
parts : — 

(1.) Containing the genealogy, the birth, 
and the infancy of Jesus (1 ; 2). 

(2.) The discourses and actions of John 
the Baptist preparatory to Christ's public 
ministry (3 ; 4 : 11). 

(3. ) The discourses and actions of Christ 
in Galilee (4 : 12-20 : 16). 

(4.) The sufferings, death, and resurrec- 
tion of our Lord (20 : 17-28). 

Matthi^as — gift of God. Acts 1 : 23. 

Mattithi^ah — gift of Jehovah. (1.) One 
of the sons of Jeduthun, chief of the 
fourteenth section of the temple musicians 
(1 Chr. 25 : 3, 21 ; 16 : 5), appointed by 
David to play the harp. 

(2.) The eldest son of Shallum, of the 
family of Korah. He had charge of the 
baked offerings of the temple after the 
Exile (1 Chr, 9 : 31). 



MATTOCK 



452 



MEASURE 



(3.) One who stood by Ezta while read- 
ing the law (Neh. 8 : 4). 

(4.) The son of Amos, and father of 
Jbseph, in the genealogy of our Lord (Luke 
3 : 25). 

Mat^tock. (1.) Heb. ma''eder, an in- 
strument for dressing or pruning a vine- 
yard (Isa. 7 : 25) ; a weeding-hoe. 

(2.) Heb, maharSshdh (1 Sam, 13:1), 
perhaps the ploughshare or coulter, 

(3.) Heb, herehh, marg, of text (2 Chr, 
34:6), Authorized Version, "with their 
mattocks," marg, "mauls," The Revised 
Version retiders "in their ruins," marg, 
"with their axes," The Hebrew text is 
probably corrupt. 

Maul, an old name for a mallet, the 
rendering of the Hebrew mephits (Prov, 
25 : 18), properly a war-club, 

Maz'^zaroth — prognostications — found 
Only Job 38:32, probably meaning "the 
twelve signs" (of the zodiac), as in the 
margin (comp, 2 Kings 23 : 5), 

Mead^ow. (1.) Heb. ha-'dhu (Gen. 
41 : 2, 18), probably an Egyptian word 
transferred to the Hebrew ; some kind of 
reed or water-plant. In the Revised Ver- 
sion it is rendered "reed-grass" — i.e., the 
sedge or rank grass by the river side. 

(2.) Heb. ma'arSh (Judg. 20:33), pL, 
"meadows of Gibeah" (R.V., after the 
LXX., " Maareh-geba "). Some have 
adopted the rendering " after Gibeah had 
been left open." The Vulgate translates 
the word "from the west." 

Me''ah — an hundred — a tower in Jeru- 
salem on the east wall (Neh. 3 : 1) in the 
time of Nehemiah. 

Meals are at the present day "eaten 
from a round table little higher than a 
stool, guests sitting cross-legged on mats 
or small carpets in a circle, and dipping 
their fingers into one large dish heaped 
with a mixtiire of boiled rice and other 
grain and meat. But in the time of our 
Lord, and perhaps even from the days of 
Amos (6:4, 7), the foreign custom had 
been largely introduced of having broad 
couches, forming three sides of a small 
square, the guests reclining at ease on 
their elbows during meals, with their faces 
to the space within, up and down which 



servants passed offering various dishes, or 
in the absence of servants, helloing them- 
selves from dishes laid on a table set be- 




THE ROMAN TRICLINIUM. 

tween the couches. "— Geikie's Life of Christ. 
(Comp. Luke 7:36-50.) (See Abeaham's 
BOSOM; Banquet; Eeast.) 

Mea''rah— a cave— a, place in the northern 
boundary of Palestine (Josh. 13 : 4). This 
may be the cave of Jezzin in Lebanon, 10 
miles east of Sidon, on the Damascus road ; 
or probably, as others think, Mogheirtzch, 
north of Sidon. 

Meas^ure. Several words are so ren- 
dered in the Authorized Version. 

(1.) Those whicb are indefinite, (a) H6k, 
Isa. 5:14, elsewhere "statute." (6) Mad, 
Job 11:3; Jer. 13:25, elsewhere "gar- 
ment." (c) 3Iidddh, the word most fre- 
quently thus translated, Ex. 26 : 2, 8, etc. 

(d) Me'sUrdh, Lev. 19:35; 1 Chr. 23:39. 

[e) Mishpat, Jer, 30:2, elsewhere "judg- 
ment." (/) Mithkoneth and token, Ezek. 
45 : 11. [g) In New Testament metron, the 
usual Greek word thus rendered (Matt. 
7 : 2 ; 23 : 32 ; Mark 4 : 24). 

(2.) Those which are definite, (a) 'Ei/phdh^ 
Deut. 25 : 14, 15, usually "ephah." {b) Am- 
mdh, Jer. 51 :13, usually "cubit." (c) Kor, 
1 Kings 4:22, elsewhere "cor;" Greek 
koros, Luke 16 : 7. {d) Sedh, Gen. 18 : 6 ; 
1 Sam. 25 : 18, a seah ; Greek saton. Matt. 
13 : 33 ; Luke 13 : 21. (e) Shalish, "a great 
measure," Isa. 11:12; literally a third — 
i.e., of an ephah. (/) In New Testament 
hatos, Luke 16:6, the Hebrew "bath;" 
and choinix, Rev, 6 : 6, the choenix, equal in 
dry commodities to one-eighth of a modius. 



MEAT-OFFERING 



453 



MEDIATOR 



Meat-offering (Heb. niinhdh), originally 
a gift of any kind. This Hebrew word 
came latterly to denote an "unbloody" 
sacrifice, as opposed to a " bloody " sacri- 
fice. A " drink-offering " generally accom- 
panied it. The law regarding it is given 
in Lev. 2, and 6 : 14-23. It was a recogni- 
tion of the sovereignty of God and of his 
bounty in giving all earthly blessings (1 
Chr. 29 : 10-14 ; Deut. 26 : 5-11). It was 
an offering which took for granted and was 
based on the offering for sin. It followed 
the sacrifice of blood. It was presented 
every day with the biirnt-offering (Ex. 29 : 
40, 41), and consisted of flour or of cakes 
prepared in a special way with oil and 
frankincense. 

Mebun^nai — construction, huilding of Je- 
hovah — one of David's bodyguard (2 Sam. 
23 : 27 ; comp. 21 : 18) ; called Sibbechai and 
Sibbecai (1 Chr. 11 : 29 ; 27 : 11). 

Me^'dad — love — one of the elders nomi- 
nated to assist Moses in the government 
of the people. He and Eldad "prophesied 
in the camp " (Num. 11 : 24-29). 

Me^dan — contention— the third son of 
Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 2). 

Mede (Heb. Madai), a Median or inhabi- 
tant of Media (Dan. 11 : 1). In Gen. 10 : 2 the 
Hebrew word occurs in the list of the sons 
of Japheth. But probably this is an ethnic 
and not a personal name, and denotes sim- 
\Ay the Medes as descended from Japheth. 

Med^eba — luatcrs of quiet — an ancient 
Moabite town (Num. 21 : 30). It was as- 
signed to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 
16). Here was fought the great battle in 
which Joab defeated the Ammonites and 
their allies (1 Chr. 19 : 7-15 ; comj). 2 Sam. 
10 : 6-14). In the time of Isaiah (15 : 2) the 
Moabites regained j)ossession of it from 
the Ammonites. (See Hanux.) 

The ruins of this imj)ortant city, now 
Mddeba or Madiyahah, are seen about 8 
miles south-west of Heshbon, and 14 east 
of the Dead Sea. Among these are the 
ruins of what must "have been a large tem- 
ple, and of three cisterns of considerable 
extent, which are now dry. These cisterns 
may have originated the name Medeba, 
" waters of quiet. " (See Omei. ) 

Me'dia— Heb. Madai— which is rendered 



in the Authorized Version (1) "Madai," 
Gen. 10:2; (2) "Medes," 2 Kings 17:6; 
18:11; (3) "Media," Esther 1 : 3 ; 10:2; 
Isa. 21 : 2 ; Dan. 8 : 20 ; (4) " Mede," only 
in Dan. 11 : 1. 

This country lay to the north-west of 
Persia and the south and south-west of the 
Casj)ian Sea. The Medes appear to have 
been a branch of the Aryans, who came from 
the east bank of the Indus, and were prob- 
ably the ^predominant race for a while in the 
Mesopotamian valley. They consisted for 
three or four centuries of a number of tribes, 
each ruled by its own chief, who at length 
were brought under the Assyrian yoke (2 
Kings 17 : 6). From this subjection they 
achieved deliverance, and formed themselves 
into an empire under Cyaxares (B.C. 633). 
This monarch entered into an alliance with 
the king of Babylon, and invaded Assyria, 
capturing and destroyi ng the city of Nineveh 
(B.C. 625), thus putting an end to the Assyr- 
ian monarchy (Nah. 1:8; 2 : 5, 6 ; 3:13, 14). 

Media now rose to a place of great power, 
vastly extending its boundaries. But it did 
not long exist as an independent kingdom. 
It rose with Cyaxares, its first king, and it 
passed away with him ; for during the rei gn of 
his son and successor Astyages, the Persians 
waged war against the Medes and conquered 
them, the two nations being united under 
one monarch, Cyriis the Persian (b.c. 558). 

The "cities of the Medes" are first men- 
tioned in connection with the deportation of 
the Israelites on the destruction of Samaria 
(2 Kings 17 : 6 ; 18 : 11). Soon afterwards 
Isaiah (13 : 17 ; 21:2) speaks of the part taken 
by the Medes in the destruction of Babylon 
(comp. Jer. 51 : 11, 28). Daniel gives an ac- 
count of the reign of Darius the Mede, who 
was made viceroy by Cyrus (Dan. 6 : 1-28). 
The decree of Cyrus, Ezra informs us (6 : 
2-5), was found in "the i>alace that is in 
the province of the Medes," Achmetha or 
Ecbatana of the Greeks, which is the only 
Median city mentioned in Scripture. 

Media''tor, one who intervenes between 
two persons who are at variance, with a 
view to reconcile them. This word is not 
found in the Old Testament ; but the idea 
it expresses is found in Job 9 : 33, in the 
word "daysman" {q.v.) — marg., "umpire." 



MEEKNESS 



454 



MEHUNIMS 



This word is used in the New Testament 
to denote simply an internuncius, an am- 
bassador, one who acts as a medium of 
communication between two contracting 
parties. In this sense Moses is called a 
mediator in Gal. 3 : 19. 

Christ is the one and only mediator be- 
tween God and man (1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 
8:6; 9 : 15 ; 12 : 24). He makes reconcilia- 
tion between God and man by his all- 
perfect atoning sacrifice. Such a mediator 
must be at once divine and human — divine, 
that his obedience and his sufferings might 
possess infinite worth, and that he might 
possess infinite wisdom and knowledge and 
power to direct all things in the kingdoms 
of providence and grace which are com- 
mitted to his hands (Matt. 28 : 18 ; John 
5:22, 25, 26, 27); and human, that in his 
work he might represent man, and be 
capable of rendering obedience to the law 
and satisfying the claims of justice (Heb. 
2 : 17, 18 ; 4 : 15, 16), and that in his glori- 
fied humanity he might be the head of a 
glorified Church (Rom. 8 : 29). 

This office involves the three functions 
of prophet, priest, and king, all of which 
are discharged by Christ both in his estate 
of humiliation and exaltation. These func- 
tions are so inherent in the one office that 
the quality appertaining to each gives 
character to every mediatorial act. They 
are never separated in the exercise of the 
office of mediator. 

Meek^ness, a calm temper of mind, not 
easily provoked (James 3 : 7, 8). Peculiar 
promises are made to the meek (Matt. 5:5; 
Isa. 66 : 2). The cultivation of this spirit 
is enjoined (Col. 3:12; 1 Tim. 6:11; Zeph. 
2 : 3) and exemplified in Christ (Matt. 11.: 
28), Abraham (Gen. 13; 16:5, 8), Moses 
(Num. 12 : 3), David (Zech. 12 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 
16 : 10, 12), and Paul (1 Cor. 9 : 19). 

Megid^do — place of troops — originally 
one of the royal cities of the Canaanites 
(Josh. 12:21), belonged to the tribe of 
Manasseh ( Judg. 1 : 27), but does not seem 
to have been fully occupied by the Israel- 
ites till the time of Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 
12 ; 9 : 15). 

The valley or plain of Megiddo was part 
of the plain of Esdraelon, the great battle- 



field of Palestine. It was here Barak 
gained a notable victory over Jabin, the 
king of Hazor, whose general, Sisera, led 
on the hostile army. Barak rallied the 
warriors of the northern tribes, and under 
the encouragement of Deborah [q.v.), the 
prophetess, attacked the Canaanites in the 
great plain. The army of Sisera was 
thrown into complete confusion, and was 
engulfed in the waters of the Kishon, which 
had risen and overflowed its banks (Judg. 
4:5). 

Many years after this (B.C. 610), Pharaoh- 
necho II., on his march against the king of 
Assyria, passed through the plains of Phil- 
istia and Sharon; and King Josiah, at- 
tempting to bar his progress in the plain 
of Megiddo, was defeated by the Egyp- 
tians, He was wounded in battle, and died 
as they bore him away in his chariot 
towards Jerusalem (2 Kings 23 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 
35 : 22-24), and all Israel mourned for him. 
So general and bitter was this mourning th at 
it became a proverb, to which Zechariah 
(12:11, 12) alludes. Megiddo has been 
identified with the modern el-LejjUn, at the 
head of the Kishon, under the north-eastern 
brow of Carmel, on the south-western edge 
of the plain of Esdraelon, and 9 miles west 
of Jezreel. Others identify it with Mu- 
jedd'a, 4 miles south-west of Bethshean, but 
the question of its site is still undetermined. 

Mehet''abeel — whose benefactor is God — 
the father of Delaiah, and grandfather of 
Shemaiah, who joined Sanballat against 
Nehemiah (Neh. 6 : 10). 

Mehet^abel, wife of Hadad, one of the 
kings of Edom (Gen. 36 : 39). 

Mehu^jael — smitten by God — the son of 
Irad, and father of Methusael (Gen. 4 : 18). 

"B/lehn^maji— faithful— one of the eunuchs 
whom Ahasuerus (Xerxes) commanded to 
bring in Vashti (Esther 1 : 10). 

Mehu^nims — habitations — (2 Chr. 26 : 
7; R.V. "Meunim," Vulg. Ammonitoi), a 
people against whom Uzziah waged a suc- 
cessful war. This word is in Hebrew the 
plural of Md''6n, and thus denotes the 
Maonites who inhabited the country on the 
eastern side of the Wady el-Arabah, They 
are again mentioned in 1 Chr. 4:41 (R.V.), 
in the reign of King Hezekiah, as a Hamite 



ME-JARKON 



455 



MELITA 



people, settled in the eastern end of the 
valley of Gedor, in the wilderness south of 
Palestine. In this passage the Authorized 
Version has "habitation," erroneously fol- 
lowing the translation of Luther, 

They are mentioned in the list of those 
from whom the Nethinim were made up 
(Ezra 2 : 50 ; Neh. 7 : 52). 

Me-jar''kon — xvaters of yelloioness, or 
clear tcaters — a river in the tribe of Dan 
(Josh. 19 : 46). It has been identified with 
the river 'Aiijeh, which rises at Antipatris. 

Mek''onah — a base or foundation— a, town 
in the south of Judah (Neh. 11 : 28), near 
Ziklag. 

Mel^chi — my king. (1, ) The son of Addi, 
and father of Neri (Luke 3 : 28). (2. ) Luke 
3 : 24, 28. 



Melchiz''edek — king of righteousness — 
the king of Salem {q.v.). All we know of 
him is recorded in Gen. 14 : 18-20. He is sub- 
sequently mentioned only once in the Old 
Testament, in Ps. 110 : 4. The typical sig- 
nificance of his history is set forth in detail 
in the Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. 7. The 
apostle there points out the superiority of 
his priesthood to that of Aaron in these 
several respects — (1) Even Abraham paid 
him tithes ; (2) he blessed Abraham ; (3) 
he is the type of a Priest who lives for 
ever ; (4) Levi, yet unborn, paid him 
tithes in the person of Abraham ; (5) the 
permanence of his priesthood in Christ 
implied the abrogation of the Levitical 
system ; (6) he was made priest not with- 
out an oath ; and (7) his priesthood can 




MAP OF MALTA. 



neither be transmitted nor interrupted by 
death: "this man, because he continueth 
ever, hath an unchangeable priesthood." 

The question as to who this mysterious 
personage was has given rise to a great 
deal of modem speculation. It is an old 
tradition among the Jews that he was 
Shem, the son of Noah, who may have 
survived to this time. This opinion also 
was held by Luther and others. It is, 
however, quite untenable. Melchizedek 
was simply a Canaanitish prince, a worship- 
per of the living and true God, preserving 
alive the ancient faith amid prevailing 
idolatry and sin, and in his peculiar his- 
tory and character an instructive type of 
our Lord, the great High Priest (Heb. 5 : 
6, 7 ; : 20). 



M.e'lea— fulness — the son of Menan and 
father of Eliakim, in the genealogy of our 
Lord (Luke 3 : 31). 

Me'lech — king — the second of Micah's 
four sons (1 Chr. 8 : 35), and thus grandson 
of Mephibosheth, 

Meli^ta (Acts 27 : 28), an island in the 
Mediterranean, the modern Malta, Here 
the ship in which Paul was being conveyed 
a prisoner to Rome was wrecked. The 
bay in which it was wrecked now bears the 
name of "St. Paul's Bay" — "a certain 
creek wdth a shore." It is about 2 miles 
deep and 1 broad, and the whole physical 
condition of the scene answers the descrip- 
tion of the shipwreck given in Acts 28. 
It was originally colonized by Phoenicians 
("barbarians." 28:2). It came into the 



MELONS 



456 



MEMUCAN 



possession of the Greeks (b.c. 736), from 
whom it was taken by the Carthaginians 
(B.C. 528). In B.C. 242 it was conquered 
by the Romans, and was governed by a 
Rqman propraetor at the time of the ship- 
wreck (Acts 28 : 7). Since 1800, when the 
Erench garrison surrendered to the En- 
glish force, it has been a British depend- 
ency. The island is about 17 miles long 
and 9 wide, and about 60 in circumference. 
After a stay of three months on this island, 
during which the "barbarians" showed 
them no little kindness, Julius procured 
for himself and his company a passage in 
another Alexandrian corn-ship which had 
wintered in the island, in which they pro- 
ceeded on their voyage to Rome (Acts 28 : 
13, 14). 

Meltons, only in Num. 11 : 5, the trans- 
lation of the Hebrew abattiMm, the LXX, 
and Vulgate pepones, Arabic britikh. Of 
this plant there are various kinds — the 
Egyptian melon, the Cucumus chate, which 
has been called "the queen of cucumbers;" 
the water melon, the Cucurbita citruUus; 
and the common or flesh melon, the Cu- 
cumus melo. " A traveller in the East who 




PROSTRATE STATUE OF RAMESES THE GREAT AT MEMPHIS. 

recollects the intense gratitude which a 
gift of a slice of melon inspired while jour- 
neying over the hot and dry plains, will 
readily comprehend the regret with which 
the Hebrews in the Arabian desert looked 
bapk upon the melons of Eg3''pt " (Kitto), 
Mel^zar, probably a Persian word mean- 



ing master of winp — i.e., chief butler; the 
title of an officer at the Babylonian court 
(Dan. 1 : 11, 16) who had charge of the diet 
of the Hebrew youths. 

Mem'phis, only in Hos. 9 : 6 — Hebrew 
Noph. In Isa. 9:3; Jer. 2 : 16 ; 46 : 14, 19 ; 
Ezek. 30 : 13, 16, it is mentioned under the 
name Noph. It was the capital of Lower, 
i.e., of Northern Egypt. Erom certain 
remains found half buried iii the sand, the 
site of this ancient city has been discovered 
near the modern village of Minyet Rahineh, 
or Mitraheny, about 16 miles above the 
ancient head of the Delta, and 9 miles 
south of Cairo, on the west bank of the 
Nile, It is said to have been founded by 
Menes, the first king of Egypt, and to have 
been in circumference about 19 miles. 
"There are few remains above ground," 
says Manning [The Land of the Pharaohs), 
"of the splendour of ancient Memphis. 
The city has utterly disappeared. If any 
traces yet exist, they are buried beneath 
the vast mounds of crumbling bricks and 
broken pottery which meet the eye in every 
direction. Near the village of Mitraheny 
is a colossal statue of Rameses the Great. 
It is apparently one of 
the two described by 
Herodotus and Dio- 
dorus as standing in 
front of the temple of 
Ptah. They were 
originally 50 feet in 
height. The one which 
remains, though muti- 
lated, measures 48 feet. 
It is finely carved in 
limestone, which takes 
a high polish, and is 
evidently a portrait. 
It lies in a pit, which, 
during the inundation, 
is filled with water. 
As we gaze on this 
fallen and battered statue of the mighty 
conqueror who was probably contemporan- 
eous with Moses, it is impossible not to re- 
member the words of the prophet Isaiah. 
19 : 13 ; 44 : 16-19, and Jeremiah, 46 : 19." 

Memu^caii — dignified — one of the royal 
counsellors at the court of Ahasuerus, by 



MENAHEM 



457 



MERARI 



whose suggestion Vashti was divorced 
(Esther 1 : 14, 16, 21). 

Men' Siiiera— comforting — the son of Gadi, 
and successor of Shalkim, king of Israel, 
whom he slew. After a reign of about ten 
years (B.C. 771-760) he died, leaving the 
throne to his son Pekahiah. His reign 
was one of cruelty and oppression (2 Kings 
15:14-22). During his reign, Pul {q.v.), 
king of Assyria, came with a powerful force 
g,gainst Israel, but was induced to retire 
by a gift from Menahem of 1,000 talents 
of silver. 

Me'ne (Dan. 5 : 25, 26) — nuvibered — one of 
the words of the mysterious inscription 
written " upon the plaister of the wall " in 
Belshazzar's palace at Babylon. The writ- 
ing was explained by Daniel. (See Bel- 

SHAZZAR.) 

Me'ni, Isa. 65:11, marg. (A.V., "that 
number;" R.V., "destiny"), probably an 
idol which the captive Israelites worshipped 
after the example of the Babylonians. It 
may have been a symbol of destiny. LXX. , 
tuche. 

Meo'nenim (Judg. 9:37; A.V., "the 
plain of Meonenim ; " R.V., "the oak of 
Meonenim ") means properly " sooth- 
sayers '' or "sorcerers," "wizards" (Deut. 
18:10, 14; 2 Kings 21:6; Micah 5:12). 
This may be the oak at Shechem under 
which Abram pitched his tent (see She- 
chem), the "enchanter's oak," so called, 
perhaps, from Jacob's hiding the "strange 
gods " under it (Gen. 35 : 4). 

Mepha^ath — splendour — a Levitical city 
(Josh. 21 : 37) of the tribe of Reuben (13 : 18). 

'S/lephiWosheth— exterminator of shame; 
i.e., of idols. (1.) The name of Saul's 
son by the concubine Rizpah {q.v.), the 
daughter of Aiah. He and his brother 
Armoni were with five others " hanged on 
a hill before the Lord " by the Gibeonites, 
and their bodies exposed in the sun. for five 
months (2 Sam. 21 : 8-10). (2.) The son of 
Jonathan, and grandson of Saul (2 Sam. 
4 : 4). He was but five years old when 
his father and grandfather fell on Mount 
Gilboa. The child's nurse hearing of this 
calamity, fled with him from Gibeah, the 
roj^al residence, and stumbling in her haste, 
the child was thrown to the ground and 



maimed in both his feet, and ever after 
was unable to walk (19 : 26). He was 
carried to the land of Gilead, where he 
found a refuge in the house of Machir, the 
son of Ammiel, at Lo-debar, by whom he 
was brought up. 

Some years after this, when David had 
subdued all the adversaries of Israel, he 
began to think of the family of Jonathan, 
and discovered that Mephibosheth was 
residing in the house of Machir. Thither 
he sent royal messengers, and brought him 
and his infant son to Jerusalem, where he 
ever afterwards resided (2 Sam. 9). 

When David was a fugitive, according to 
the story of Ziba (2 Sam. 16 : 3-4) Mephib- 
osheth proved unfaithful to him, and was 
consequently deprived of half of his estates ; 
but according to his own story, however 
(19 : 24-30), he had remained loyal to his 
friend. After this incident he is only men- 
tioned as ha\'ing been protected by David 
against the vengeance the Gibeonites were 
permitted to execute on the house of Saul 
(21:7). He is also called Merib-baal (1 
Chr. 8 : 34 ; 9 : 40). (See Ziba.) 

Me'rab — increase — the eldest of Saul's 
two daughters (1 Sam. 14 : 49), She was 
betrothed to David after his victory over 
Goliath, but does not seem to have entered 
heartily into this arrangement (18 : 2, 17, 
19). She was at length, however, married 
to Adriel of Abel-Meholah, a town in the 
Jordan valley, about 10 miles south of 
Bethshean, with whom the house of Saul 
maintained alliance. She had five sons, 
who were all put to death by the Gibeon- 
ites on the hill of Gibeah (2 Sam. 21 : 8). 

Merai^ali — resistance — a chief priest, a 
contemporary of the high priest Joiakim 
(Neh. 12 : 12). 

Merai'oth — reheUions. (1.) Father of 
Amariah, a high priest of the line of 
Eleazar (1 Chr. 6 : 6, 7, 52). 

(2. ) Neh. 12 : 15, a priest who went to 
Jerusalem with Zerubbabel. He is called 
Meremoth in Neh. 12 : 3. 

Mera''ri— sac? ; hitter — the youngest son 
of Levi, born before the descent of Jacob 
into Egypt, and one of the seventy who 
accompanied him thither (Gen. 46:11; Ex. 
6:16). He became the head of one of the 



MERARITES 



458 



MERIBAH 



great divisions of the Levites (Ex. 6 : 19). 
(See Merarites.) 

Mera^rites, the descendants of Merari 
(Num. 26 : 57). They with the Gershonites 
and the Kohathites had charge of the 
tabernacle, which they had to carry from 
place to place (Num. 3 : 20, 33-37 ; 4 : 29-38). 
In the distribution of the oxen and wag- 
gons offered by the princes (Num. 7), Moses 
gave twice as many to the Merarites (four 
waggons and eight oxen) as he gave to the 
Gershonites, because the latter had to carry 
only the lighter furniture of the tabernacle, 
such as the curtains, hangings, etc., while 
the former had to carry the heavier por- 
tion, as the boards, bars, sockets, pillars, 
etc., and consequently needed a greater 
supply of oxen and waggons. This is a 
coincidence illustrative of the truth of the 
narrative. Their place in marching and in 
the camp was on the north of the taber- 
nacle. The Merarites afterwards took part 
with the other Levitical families in the 
various functions of their office (1 Chr. 23 : 
6, 21-23; 2 Chr. 29 : 12, 13). Twelve cities 
with their suburbs were assigned to them 
(Josh. 21 : 7, 34-40). 

Mer atha''iin — double rebellion — prob- 
ably a symbolical name given to Babylon 
(Jer. 50:21), denoting rebellion exceeding 
that of other nations. 

Mer'^chant. The Hebrew word so ren- 
dered is from a root meaning *'to travel 
about," "to migrate," and hence "a travel- 
ler." In the East, in ancient times, mer- 
chants travelled about with their merchan- 
dise from place to place (Gen. 37 : 25 ; Job 6 : 
18), and carried on their trade mainly by 
bartering (Gen. 37:28; 39:1). After the 
Hebrews became settled in Palestine they 
began to engage in commercial pursuits, 
M^hich gradually expanded (49 : 13 ; Deut. 33 : 
18 ; Judg. 5 : 17), till in the time of Solomon 
they are found in the chief marts of the 
world (1 Kings 9:26; 10:11, 26, 28; 22: 
48; 2 Chr. 1:16; 9:10, 21). After Solo- 
mon's time their trade with foreign na- 
tions began to decline. After the Exile 
it again expanded into wider foreign rela- 
tions, because now the Jews were scattered 
in many lands. 

Mercu'rius, the Hermes [i.e., "the 



speaker ") of the Greeks (Acts 14 : 12), a 
heathen God represented as the constant 
attendant of Jupiter, and the god of elo- 
quence. The inhabitants of Lystra took 
Paul for this god because he was the " chief 
speaker. " 

Mersey, compassion for the miserable. 
Its object is misery. By the atoning sacri- 
fice of Christ a way is open for the exercise 
of mercy towards the sons of men, in har- 
mony with the demands of truth and 
righteousness (Gen. 19 : 19 ; Ex. 20 : 6 ; 
34 : 6, 7 ; Ps. 85 : 10 ; 86 : 15, 16). In Christ 
mercy and truth meet together. Mercy is 
also a Christian grace (Matt. 5:7; 18 : 33- 
35). 

Mer'cy-seat (Heb. Jcapporeth, a "cover- 
ing;" LXX. and N.T., hilasterion; Vulg., 
propitiatorium), the covering or lid of the 
ark of the covenant [q.v. ). It was of acacia 
wood, overlaid with gold, or perhaps rather 
a plate of solid gold, 2^ cubits long and 
11 broad (Ex. 25 : 17 ; 30 : 6 ; 31 : 7). It is 
compared to the tjjrone of grace (Heb. 9 : 
5 ; Bom. 3 : 25). The holy of holies is called 
the "place of the mercy-seat" (1 Chr. 28: 
11: Lev. 16:2). 

It has been conjectured that the censer 
{thumiaterion, meaning "anything having 
regard to or employed in the burning of 
incense ") mentioned in Heb, 9 : 4 was the 
"mercy-seat," at which the incense was 
burned by the high priest on the great day 
of atonement, and upon or toward which 
the blood of the goat was sprinkled (Lev. 
16:11-16; comp. Num. 7:89 and Ex. 25: 
22). 

MC'red — rebellion — one of the sons of 
Ezra, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 4 : 17). 

M e r ''e moth — exaltations, heights — a 
priest who returned from Babylon with 
Zerubbabel (Neh. 12 : 3), to whom were 
sent the sacred vessels (Ezra 8 : 33) belong- 
ing to the temple. He took part in re- 
building the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3 : 4). 

Mer'^ibah — quarrel or strife. (1.) One 
of the names given by Moses to the foun- 
tain in the desert of Sin, near Bephidim, 
which issued from the rock in Horeb, 
which he smote by the divine command, 
* ' because of the chiding of the children of 
Israel " (Ex. 17 : 1-7). It was also called 



MERIB-BAAL 



459 



MESHA 



Massah {q.v.). It was probably in Wady 
Feiran, near Mount Serbal. 

(2.) Another fountain having a similar 
origin in the desert of Zin, near to Kadesh 
(Num. 27 : 14). The two places are men- 
tioned together in Deut. 33 : 8. Only once 
is it called simply by this name (Ps. 81 : 7). 
In smiting the rock at this place Moses 
showed the same impatience as the people 
(Num. 20:10-12). This took place near 
the close of the wanderings in the desert 
(Num. 20 : 1-24 ; Deut. 32 : 51). 

Me'rib-ba^al — contender with Baal — 
(1 Chr. 8 : 34 ; 9 : 40), elsewhere called Mephib- 
osheth (2 Sam. 4 : 4), the son of Jonathan. 

Mero'dach — death; slaughter— the name 
of a Babylonian god, probably the planet 
Mars ( Jer. 50 : 2), or it may be another 
name of Bel, the guardian divinity of Baby- 
lon. This name frequently occurs as a sur- 
name to the kings of Assyria and Babylon. 

Mero^dach-bal^adan — Merodach has 
given a son — (Isa. 39:1), "the hereditary 
chief of the Chaldeans, a small tribe at that 
time settled in the marshes at the mouth 
of the Euphrates, but in consequence of his 
conquest of Babylon afterwards, they be- 
came the dominant caste in Babylonia it- 
self." One bearing this name sent ambas- 
sadors to Hezekiah (b.c. 721). He is also 
called Berodach-baladan (2 Kings 20 : 12 ; 
2 Chr. 20 : 31). 

Me^rom — height — a lake in Northern 
Palestine through which the Jordan flows. 
It was the scene of the third and last great 
victory gained by Joshua over the Canaan- 
ites (Josh. 11 : 5-7). It is not again men- 
tioned in Scripture. Its modern name is 
Bakrat el-HUleh. " The Ard el-Htlleh, the 
centre of which the lake occupies, is a 
nearly level plain of 16 miles in length 
from north to south, and its breadth from 
east to west is from 7 to 8 miles. On the 
west it is walled in by the steep and lofty 
range of the hills of Kedesh-Naphtali ; on 
the east it is bounded by the lower and 
more gradually ascending slopes of Bashan; 
on the north it is shut in by a line of hills 
hummocky and irregular in shape and of 
no great height, and stretching across from 
the mountains of Naphtali to the roots of 
Mount Hermon, which towers up at the 



north-eastern angle of the plain to a height 
of 10,000 feet. At its southern extremity the 
plain is similarly traversed by elevated and 
broken ground, through which, by deep and 
narrow clefts, the Jordan, after passing 
through Lake HMeh, makes its rapid de- 
scent to the Sea of Galilee." 

The lake is triangular in form, about 4^ 
miles in length by 3| at its greatest breadth. 
Its surface is 270 feet below that of the 
Mediterranean. It is surrounded by a 
morass, which is thickly covered with canes 
and papyrus reeds, which are impenetrable. 
Macgregor with his canoe, the Bob Boy, 
was the first that ever, in modern times, 
sailed on its waters, 

]VIeron''othite, a name given to Jehdeiah, 
the herdsman of the royal asses in the time 
of David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27 : 30), prob- 
ably as one being a native of some unknown 
town called Meronoth. 

Mc'roz, a plain in the north of Palestine, 
the inhabitants of which were severely 
condemned because they came not to help 
Barak against Sisera ( Judg. 5 : 23 ; comp. 
21:8-10; 1 Sam. 11 : 7). It has been identi- 
fied with Marassus, on a knoll to the north 
of Wady JaMd, but nothing certainly is 
known of it. Like Chorazin, it is only 
mentioned in Scripture in connection with 
the curse pronounced upon it. 

"SHe'sYiSir— middle district— VyAgaXe, Messa. 
(1.) A plain in that part of the boundaries 
of Arabia inhabited by the descendants of 
Joktan (Gen. 10 : 30). 

(2.) Heb. meysh^a, "deliverance," the 
eldest son of Caleb (1 Chr. 2 : 42), and 
brother of Jerahmeel. 

(3. ) Heb. id, a king of Moab, the son of 
Chemosh-Gad, a man of great wealth in 
flocks and herds (2 Kings 3 : 4). After the 
death of Ahab at Ramoth-Gilead. Mesha 
shook off the yoke of Israel ; biit on the 
ascension of Jehoram to the throne of 
Israel, that king sought the help of Jeho- 
shaphat in an attempt to reduce the Moab- 
ites again to their former condition. The 
united armies of the two kings came un- 
expectedly on the army of the Moabites, 
and gained over them an easy victory. 
The whole land was devastated hy the 
conquering armies, and Mesha sought 

30 



MESHACH 



460 



MESSIAH 



refuge in his last stronghold, Kir-harasheth 
iq.v.). Reduced to despair, he ascended 
the wall of the city, and there, in the sight 
of the allied armies, offered his first-born 
son a sacrifice to Chemosh, the fire-god of 
the Moabites. This fearful spectacle filled 
the beholders with horror, and they retired 
from before the besieged city, and recrossed 
the Jordan laden with spoil (2 Kings 3 : 
25-27). 

The exploits of Mesha are recorded in 
the Phoenician inscription on a block of 
black basalt found at Dibon, in Moab, 
usually called the "Moabite stone" (q.v.). 

Me^shach, the title given to Mishael, 
one of the three Hebrew youths who were 
under training at the Babylonian court for 
the rank of Magi (Dan. 1:7; 2 : 49 ; 3 : 12- 
30). This was probably the name of some 
Chaldean god. 

Me'shech — drawing out — the sixth son 
of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2), the founder of a 
tribe (IChr. 1:5; Ezek. 27:13; 38:2, 3). 
They were in all probability the Moschi, 
a people inhabiting the Moschian Moun- 
tains, between the Black and the Caspian 
Seas. In Ps, 120 : 5 the name occurs as 
simply a synonym for foreigners or barba- 
rians. "During the ascendency of the 
Babylonians and Persians in Western Asia, 
the Moschi were subdued; but it seems 
probable that a large number of them 
crossed the Caucasus range and spread 
over the northern steppes, mingling with 
the Scythians. There they became known 
as Muscovs, and gave that name to the 
Russian nation and its ancient capital by 
which they are still generally known 
throughout the East." 

Meshelemi''ah — friendship of Jehovah — 
a Levite of the family of the Korhites, 
called also Shelemiah (1 Chr. 9 : 21 ; 26 : 1, 
2, 9, 14). He was a temple gate-keeper in 
the time of David. 

Meshil'lemoth — requitals. (1.) The fa- 
ther of Berechiah (2 Chr. 28 : 12). 

(2. ) A priest, the son of Immer (Neh. 11 : 
13). 

Meshul^lam — hefriended. (1.) One of 
the chief Gadites in Bashan in the time of 
Jotham (1 Chr. 5 : 13). 

(2.) Grandfather of Shaphan, "the 



scribe," in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22 : 
3). 

(3.) A priest, father of Hilkiah (1 Chr. 
9 : 11 ; Neh. 11 : 11), in the reign of Ammon ; 
called Shallum in 1 Chr. 6 : 12. 

(4.) A Levite of the. family of Kohath 
(2 Chr. 34 : 12), in the reign of Josiah. 

(5.) IChr. 8:17. 

(6.) IChr. 3:19. 

(7.) Neh. 12:13. 

(8.) A chief priest (Neh. 12 : 16). 

(9.) One of the leading Levites in the 
time of Ezra (8 : 16). 

(10.) A priest (1 Chr. 9:12). 

(11.) One of the principal Israelites who 
supported Ezra when expounding the law 
to the people (Neh. 8 : 4). 

Meshul^lemeth — friend — the wife of 
Manasseh, and the mother of Amon (2 
Kings 21 : 19), kings of Judah. 

Mesopota^mia — the country between the 
tioo rivers (Heb. Aram-naharaim ; i.e., 
" Syria of the two rivers ")— the name given 
by the Greeks and Romans to the region 
between the Euphrates and the Tigris 
(Gen. 24:10; Deut. 23:4; Judg. 3:8, 10). 
In the Old Testament it is mentioned also 
under the name " Padan - aram ; " i.e., 
the plain of Aram, or Syria (Gen. 25 : 20). 
The northern portion of this fertile plateau 
was the original home of the ancestors of 
the Hebrews (Gen. 11 ; Acts 7 : 2). From 
this region Isaac obtained his wife Re- 
becca (Gen. 24 : 10, 15), and here also Jacob 
sojourned (28 : 2-7) and obtained his wives, 
and here most of his sons were born 
(35:26; 46:15). The petty, independent 
tribes of this region, each under its own 
prince, were warlike, and used chariots in 
battle. They maintained their independ- 
ence till after the time of David, when 
they fell under the dominion of Assyria, 
and were absorbed into the empire (2 Kings 
19 : 13). 

Mess, a portion of food given to a guest 
(Gen. 43:34; 2 Sam. 11:8). 

Mes^senger (Heb. laaVdlc, Gr. angelos), 
an angel, a messenger who runs on foot, 
the bearer of despatches (Job 1 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 
11 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 22) ; swift of foot (2 Kings 
9 : 18). 

Messi^ah (Heb. mdshm/j), in all the 



METHEG-AMMAH 



461 



MICAH 



thirty-nine instances of its occurring in 
the Old Testament, is rendered by the 
LXX. "Christos." It means anointed. 
Thus priests (Ex. 28:41; 40:15; Num. 
3 : 3), prophets (1 Kings 19 : 16), and kings 
(1 Sam. 9:16; 16:3; 2 Sam. 12:7) were 
anointed with oil, and so consecrated to 
their respective offices. The great Messiah 
is anointed "above his fellows " (Ps. 45 : 7) ; 
i.e., he embraces in himself all the three 
offices. The Greek form "Messias" is only 
twice used in the New Testament — in John 
1 : 41 and 4 : 25 (R. V., "Messiah "), and in 
the Old Testament the word Messiah, as 
the rendering of the Hebrew, occurs only 
twice (Dan 9 :25, 26; R.V., "the anointed 
one "). 

The first great promise (Gen. 3 : 15) con- 
tains in it the germ of all the prophecies 
recorded in the Old Testament regarding 
the coming of the Messiah and the great 
work he was to accomplish on earth. The 
prophecies became more definite and fuller 
as the ages rolled on ; the light shone 
more and more unto the perfect day. Dif- 
ferent periods of prophetic revelation have 
been pointed out — (1) the j)atriarchal ; (2) 
the Mosaic; (3) the period of David; (4) 
the period of prophetism — i.e., of those pro- 
phets whose works form a part of the Old 
Testament canon. The expectations of 
the Jews were thus kept alive from gener- 
ation to generation, till the " fulness of the 
times," when Messiah came, "made of 
a woman, made under the law, to redeem 
them that were under the law." In him 
all these ancient prophecies have their ful- 
filment. Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah, 
the great Deliverer who was to come. 
(Comp. Matt. 26:54; Mark 9:12; Luke 
18:31; 22:37; John 5:39; Acts2;16:31; 
26:22, 23.) 

Me^theg-axn^mah — bridle of the mother 
— a figurative name for a chief city, as in 
2 Sam. 8 : 1, "David took Metheg-aramah 
out of the hand of the Philistines " (R.V., 
" took the bridle of the mother-city ") ; i.e. , 
subdued their capital or strongest city, 
viz., Gath(lChr. 18:1). 

Methu^sael — champion of El ; man of 
God — a descendant of Cain (Gen. 4 : 18), 
so called, perhaps, to denote that even 



among the descendants of Cain God had 
not left himself without a witness. 

Methu^selah — man of the dart — the son 
of Enoch, and grandfather of Noah. He 
was the oldest man of whom we have any 
record, dying at the age of nine hundred 
and sixty-nine years, in the year of the 
Elood (Gen. 5 : 21-27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 3). 

Mez^ahab — ivater of gold — the father of 
Matred (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50), and 
grandfather of Mehetabel, wife of Hadar, 
the last king of Edom. 

Mi^amin = Mijamin — from the right 
hand. (1. ) The head of one of the divisions 
of the priests (1 Chr. 24 : 9). 

(2.) A chief priest who returned from 
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:5), 
called Mijamin (10 : 7) and Miniamin (12 : 
17). 

Mib^har — choice — a Hagarene, one of 
David's warriors (1 Chr. 11 : 38) ; called also 
Bani the Gadite (2 Sam. 23 : 36). 

"SHib'saxa— fragrance. (1.) One of Ish- 
mael's twelve sons, and head of an Arab 
tribe (Gen. 25 : 13). 

(2.) A son of Simeon (1 Chr. 4 : 25). 

Mib''zar ^fo?'^ress— one of the Edomitish 
"dukes" descended from Esau (Gen. 36 : 
42 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 53). 

Mi'^cah, a shortened form of Micaiah — 
^oho is like Jehovah ? (1. ) A man of Mount 
Ephraim, whose history so far is intro- 
duced in Judg. 17, apparently for the pur- 
pose of leading to an account of the settle- 
ment of the tribe of Dan in Northern 
Palestine, and for the purpose also of il- 
lustrating the lawlessness of the times in 
which he lived (Judg. 18 ; 19 : 1-29 ; 21 : 25). 

(2.) The son of Merib-baal (Mephibo- 
sheth)— 1 Chr. 8 : 34, 35. 

(3.) The first in rank of the priests of 
the family of Kohathites (1 Chr. 23 : 20). 

(4. ) A descendant of Joel the Reubenite 
(1 Chr. 5 : 5). 

(5.) "The Morasthite," so called to dis- 
tinguish him from Micaiah, the son of Im- 
lah (1 Kings 22 : 8). He was a prophet of 
Judah, a contemporary of Isaiah (Micah 
1 : 1), a native of Moresheth of Gath (1 : 14, 
15). Very little is known of the circum- 
stances of his life (comp. Jer. 26 : 18-24). 

Mi''cah, Book of, the sixth in order of 



MICAIAH 



462 



MICHAL 



the so-called minor prophets. The super- 
scription to this book states that the pro- 
phet exercised his office in the reigns of 
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. If we 
reckon from the beginning of Jotham's 
reign to the end of Hezekiah 's (b.c. 759- 
698), then he ministered for about fifty-nine 
years ; but if we reckon from the death of 
Jotham to the accession of Hezekiah 
(B.C. 743-726), his ministry lasted only six- 
teen years. It has been noticed as re- 
markable that this book commences with 
the last words of another prophet, "Mi- 
caiah the son of Imlah " (1 Kings 22 : 28) : 
"Hearken, O people, every one of you." 

The book consists of three sections, each 
commencing with a rebuke, ' ' Hear ye, " etc. , 
and closing with a promise — (1) ch. 1 ; 2 ; 
(2) ch. 3-5, especially addressed to the 
princes and heads of the people ; (3) ch. 6- 
7, in which Jehovah is represented as 
holding a controversy with his people : the 
whole concluding with a song of triumph 
at the great deliverance which the Lord 
will achieve for his people. The closing 
verse is quoted in the song of Zacharias 
(Luke 1 : 72, 73). The prediction regard- 
ing the place "where Christ should be 
bom," one of the most remarkable Mes- 
sianic prophecies (Micah 5 : 2), is quoted in 
Matt. 2 : 6. 

There are the following references to this 
book in the New Testament : — 

5 : 2, comp. Matt. 2:6; John 7 : 42. 

7 : 6, comp. Matt. 10 : 21, 35, 36. 

7 : 20, comp. Luke 1 : 72, 73. 

Micai''ah — zoho is like Jehovah ? — the son 
of Imlah, a faithful prophet of Samaria (1 
Kings 22 : 8-28). Three years after the great 
battle with Ben-hadad (20:29-34), Ahab 
proposed to Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 
that they should go up against Ramoth- 
Gilead to do battle again with Ben-hadad. 
Jehoshaphat agreed, but suggested that 
inquiry should be first made "at the word 
of Jehovah. " Ahab's prophets approved of 
the expedition ; but Jehoshaphat, still dis- 
satisfied, asked if there was no other prophet 
besides the four hundred that had appeared, 
and was informed of this Micaiah. He was 
sent for from prison, where he had been 
confined, probably on account of some pre- 



diction disagreeable to Ahab ; and he con- 
demned the expedition, and prophesied 
that it would end, as it did, in disaster. We 
hear nothing further of this prophet. Some 
have supposed that he was the unnamed 
prophet referred to in 1 Kings 20 : 35-42. 

Mi^cha. (1.) 2 Sam. 9 : 12 = Micah (2). 

(2.) The son of Zabdi, a Levite of the 
family of Asaph (Neh. 11 : 17, 22). 

Mi^chael — who is like God? (1.) The 
title given to one of the chief angels (Dan. 
10 : 13, 21 ; 12 : 1). He had special charge 
of Israel as a nation. He disputed with 
Satan (Jude 9) about the body of Moses. 
He is also represented as warring against 
"that old serpent, called the Devil, and 
Satan, which deceiveth the whole world " 
(Rev. 12 : 7-9). 

(2.) The father of Sethur, the spy selected 
to represent Asher (Num. 13 : 13). 

(3.) 1 Chr. 7:3, a chief of the tribe of 
Issachar. 

(4.) 1 Chr. 8 : 16, a Benjamite. 

(5. ) A chief Gadite in Bashan (1 Chr. 5 : 13). 

(6.) A Manassite, "a captain of thou- 
sands " who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 
12 : 20). 

(7.) A Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. 6 : 40). 

(8.) The father of Omri (1 Chr. 27 : 18). 

(9.) One of the sons of king Jehoshaphat 
(2 Chr. 21 : 2, 4). He was murdered by his 
brother Jehoram. 

Michai^ah. (1.) The queen-mother of 
King Abijah (2 Chr. 13 : 2). (See Maacah 
[4]). 

(2. ) One of those sent out by Jehoshaphat 
to instruct the people in the law (2 Chr. 17 : 7 ). 

(3.) 2 Kings 22: 12. 

(4. ) The son of Gemariah. He reported 
to the king's officers Jeremiah's prediction, 
which he had heard Baruch read ( Jer. 36 : 
11, 13) from his father Gemariah 's chamber 
in the temple. 

(5.) A Levite (Neh. 12:35). 

(6.) A priest (Neh. 12:41). 

Mi^chal — rivulet, or ivho as God? — the 
younger of Saul's two daughters by his wife 
Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49, 50). "Attracted 
by the graces of his person and the gallantry 
of his conduct, she fell in love with David 
and became his wife " (18 : 20-28). She 
showed her affection for him by promoting 



MICHMASH 



463 



MIDIANITE 



his escape to Naioth when Saul sought his 
life (1 Sam. 19 : 12-17. Comp. Ps. 59. See 
Teraphim). After this she did not see David 
for many years. Meanwhile she Avas given 
in marriage to another man — Phalti or Phal- 
tiel of Gallim (1 Sam. 25 : 44)— but David 
afterwards formally reclaimed her as his 
lawful wife (2 Sam. 3 : 12-16). The relation 
between her and David soon after this was 
altered. They became alienated from each 
other. This happened on that memorable 
day when the ark was brought up in great 
triumph from its temporary resting-place 
to the Holy City. In David's conduct on 
that occasion she saw nothing but a need- 
less humiliation of the royal dignity (1 Chr. 
15 : 27). She remained childless, and thus 
the races of David and Saul were not mixed. 
In 2 Sam. 21 : 8 her name again occurs, but 
the name Merab should probably be here 
substituted forMichal (comxD. 1 Sam. 18 : 19). 

Mich^mash — something hidden — a town 
of Benjamin (Ezra 2 : 27), east of Bethel 
and south of Migron, on the road to Jeru- 
salem (Isa. 10 : 28). It lay on the line of 
march of an invading army from the north, 
on the north side of the steep and pre- 
cipitous Wady es-Suweinit ("valley of the 
little thorn -tree" or "the acacia"), and 
now bears the name of MUkhmds. This 
wady is called "the passage of Michmash " 
(1 Sam. 13 : 23). Immediately facing Miikh- 
mas, on the opposite side of the ravine, is 
the modern representative of Geba, and 
behind this again are Ramah and Gibeah. 

This was the scene of a great battle fought 
between the army of Saul and the Philis- 
tines, who were utterly routed and pursued 
for some 16 miles towards Philistia as far 
as the valley of Aijalon. "The freedom 
of Benjamin secured at Michmash led 
through long years of conflict to the free- 
dom of all its kindred tribes. " The power 
of Benjamin and its king now steadily in- 
creased. A new spirit and a new hope 
were now at work in Israel. (See Saul.) 

Mich'methah — hiding-place — a town in 
the northern border of Ephraim and Man- 
asseh, and not far west of Jordan (Josh. 16 : 6 ; 
17 : 7). 

Mich^ri — prize of Jehovah — a Benjamite, 
the father of Uzzi (1 Chr. 9 : 8). 



Mich'^tam — writing ; i.e., a poem or song 
— found in the titles of Ps. 16 ; 56-60. 
Some translate the word "golden" — i.e., 
precious. It is rendered in the LXX. by a 
word meaning ' ' tablet inscription " or a 
' ' stelograph. " The root of the word means 
to stamp or grave, and hence it is regarded 
as denoting a composition so precious as to 
be worthy to be engraven on a durable 
tablet for preservation ; or, as others render, 
"a iDsalm precious as stamped gold,''' from 
the word kethem, "fine or stamped gold." 

Mid''din — measures — one of the six cities 
"in the wilderness," on the west of the 
Dead Sea, mentioned along Avith En-gedi 
(Josh. 15 : 61). 

Mid^ian — strife — the fourth son of Abra- 
ham by Keturah, the father of the Midian- 
ites (Gen. 25 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 32). 

Mid^ianite, an Arabian tribe descended 
from Midian. They inhabited principally 
the desert north of the peninsula of Arabia. 
The peninsula of Sinai was the pasture- 
ground for their flocks. They w^ere virtu- 
ally the rulers of Arabia, being the dominant 
tribe. Like all Arabians, they were a nomad 
people. They early engaged in commercial 
pursuits. It was to one of their caravans 
that Joseph was sold (Gen. 37 : 25, 27). The 
next notice of them is in connection with 
Moses' flight from Egypt (Ex. 2: 15-21). Here 
in Midian Moses became the servant and 
afterwards the son-in-law of Reuel or Jethro, 
the priest. After the Exodus, the Midian- 
ites were friendly to the Israelites so long 
as they traversed only their outlying 
l)asture-ground on the west of the Arabah ; 
but when, having passed the southern end 
of Edom, they entered into the land of 
Midian proper, they joined "with Balak, the 
king of Moab, in a conspiracy against them 
(Num. 22 : 4-7). Balaam, who had been 
sent for to curse Israel, having utterly 
failed to do so, was dismissed by the king 
of Moab ; nevertheless he still tarried 
among the Midianites, and induced them 
to enter into correspondence with the 
Israelites, so as to bring them into associa- 
tion with them in the licentious orgies 
connected with the worship of Baal-Peor. 
This crafty counsel prevailed. The Israel- 
ites took part in the heathen festival, and 



MIDWIFE 



464 



MILK 



so brought upon themselves a curse indeed. 
Their apostasy brought upon them a severe 
punishment. A plague broke out amongst 
them, and more than twenty-four thousand 
of the people perished (Num. 25 : 9). But the 
Midianites were not to be left unpunished. 
A terrible vengeance was denounced against 
them. A thousand warriors from each tribe, 
under the leadership of Phinehas, went forth 
against them. The Midiani tes were utterly 
routed. Their cities were consumed by 
fire, five of their kings were put to death, 
and the whole nation was destroyed (Josh. 
13 : 22-35). Balaam also perished by the 
sword, receiving the "wages of his un- 
righteousness " (Num. 31 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 15). 
The whole of the country on the east of 
Jordan, now conquered by the Israelites 
(see SiHON ; Og), was divided between the 
two tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half 
tribe of Manasseh. 

Some two hundred and fifty years after 
this the Midianites had regained their an- 
cient power, and in confederation with the 
Amalekites and the " children of the east " 
they made war against their old enemies 
the Israelites, whom for seven years they 
oppressed and held in subjection. They 
were at length assailed by Gideon in that 
ever -memorable battle in the great plain of 
Esdraelon, and utterly destroyed ( Judg. 6 : 
1-ch. 7). Frequent allusions are afterwards 
made to this great victory (Ps. 83 : 10, 12 ; 
Isa. 9:4; 10 : 6). They now wholly pass 
away from the page of history both sacred 
and profane. 

Mid^wife. The two midwives mentioned 
in Ex. 1 : 15 were probably the superintend- 
ents of the whole class. 

Mig''dal-E^dar — toiver of the flock — a 
place 2 miles south of Jerusalem, near the 
Bethlehem road (Gen. 35 : 21). (See Edae. ) 

Mig^dal-el — tower of God — a fortified city 
of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 38), supposed by 
some to be identical with Magdala {q.v.). 

Mig^dal-gad — toioer of fortune — a town 
in the plains of Judah, probably the modern 
el-Mejdel, a little to the north-east of 
Ascalon (Josh. 15 : 37). 

Mig^dol — totoer. (1.) A strongly-fortified 
place 12 miles from Pelusium, in the north 
of Egypt (Jer. 44 : 1 ; 46 : 14). This word 



is rendered "tower" in Ezek. 29:10, but 
the margin correctly retains the name Mig- 
dol — "from Migdol to Syene ; " i.e., from 
Migdol in the north to Syene in the south 
— in other words, the whole of Egypt. 

(2. ) A place mentioned in the passage of 
the Red Sea (Ex. 14 : 2 ; Num. 33 : 7, 8). It 
is jjrobably to be identified with Btr Suweis, 
about 2 miles from Suez. 

Mig'^ron — precipice or landslip— v^, place 
between Aiath and Michmash (Isa. 10 : 28). 
The town of the same name mentioned in 
1 Sam. 14 : 2 was to the south of this. 

Mik^'loth — staves. (1.) An officer under 
Dodai, in the time of David and Solomon 
(1 Chr. 27 : 4). 

(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 32 ; 9 : 37, 38). 

Milala''! — eloquent — a Levitical musician 
(Neh. 12 : 36) who took part in the dedica- 
tion of the wall of Jerusalem. 

Mil''dew(the rendering of a Hebrew word 
meaning "to be yellow," yellowness), the 
result of cutting east winds blighting and 
thus rendering the grain unproductive 
(Deut. 28:22; 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chr. 

6 : 28). 

Mile (from Lat. mille, "a thousand;" 
Matt. 5 : 41), a Roman measure of 1,000 
paces of 5 feet each. Thus the Roman 
mile has 1618 yards, being 142 yards shorter 
than the English mile. 

Mile'tus (Miletum, 2 Tim. 4 : 20), a sea- 
port town and the ancient capital of Ionia, 
about 36 miles south of Ephesus. On his 
voyage from Greece to Syria, Paul touched 
at this port, and delivered that noble and 
pathetic address to the elders ("presby- 
ters, " ver. 28) of Ephesus recorded in Acts 
20 : 15-35. The site of Miletus is now some 
10 miles from the coast. (See Ephesians, 
Epistle to.) 

Milk. (1. ) Hebrew MIdbh, ' ' new milk "— 
milk in its fresh state (Judg. 4 : 19). It is 
frequently mentioned in connection with 
honey (Ex. 3:8; 13:5; Josh. 5:6; Isa. 

7 : 15, 22 ; Jer. 11 : 5). Sheep (Deut. 32 : 14) 
and goats (Prov. 27 : 27) and camels (Gen. 
32 : 15), as well as cows, are made to give 
their milk for the use of man. Milk is used 
figuratively as a sign of abundance (Gen. 
49 : 12 ; Ezek. 25 : 4 ; Joel 3 : 18). It is also 
a symbol of the rudiments of doctrine (1 



MILL 



465 



MILLENNIUM 



Cor. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12, 13), and of the un- 
adulterated word of God (1 Pet. 2 : 2). 

(2. ) Heb. hem^dh, always rendered ' ' but- 
ter " in the Authorized Version. It means 
' ' butter, " but also more frequently ' ' cream, ' ' 
or perhaps, as some think, "curdled milk," 
such as that which Abraham set before the 
angels (Gen. 18 : 8), and which Jael gave to 
Sisera (Judg. 5 : 25). In this state milk 
was used by travellers (2 Sam, 17 : 29). If 



kept long enough, it acquired a slightly in- 
toxicating or soporific power. 

This Hebrew word is also sometimes used 
for milk in general (Deut. 32 : 14 ; Job 
20 : 17). 

Mill, for grinding corn, mentioned as 
used in the time of Abraham (Gen. 18 : 6). 
That used by the Hebrews consisted of two 
circular stones, each 2 feet in diameter and 
half a foot thick, the lower of which was 




WOMEN GRINDING AT THE MILL. 



called the " nether millstone " (Job 41 : 24) 
and the upper the "rider." The upper 
stone was turned round by a stick fixed in 
it as a handle. There were then no public 
mills, and thus each family required to be 
provided with a hand-mill. The corn was 
ground daily, generally by the women of the 
house (Isa. 47 : 1, 2 ; Matt. 24 : 41). It was 
with the upper stone of a hand-mill that "a 
certain woman " at Thebez broke Abime- 
lech's skull (Judg. 9 : 53, "a piece of a mill- 



stone ; " literally, "a millstone rider " — i.e., 
the "runner," the stone which revolves. 
Comp. 2 Sam. 11 : 21). Millstones could 
not be pledged (Deut. 24 : 6), as they were 
necessary in every family. 

Millen'niuin, a thousand years ; the name 
given to the era mentioned in Rev. 20 : 1-7. 
Some maintain that Christ will personally 
appear on earth for the purpose of estab- 
lishing his kingdom at the beginning of this 
millennium. . Those holding this view are 



MILLET 



466 



MINISTER 



usually called "millenarians," On the other 
hand, it is maintained, more in accordance 
with the teaching of Scripture, we think, 
that Christ's second advent will not be pre- 
millennial, and that the right conception 
of the prospects and destiny of his kingdom 
is that which is taught, e.g., in the parables 
of the leaven and the mustard -seed. The 
triumph of the gospel, it is held, must be 
looked for by the wider and more efficient 
operation of the very forces that are now 
at work in extending the gospel ; and that 
Christ will only come again at the close of 
this dispensation to judge the world at the 
"last day. " The millennium will thus pre- 
cede his coming. 

Mil'let (Heb. ddhan; only in Ezek. 4 : 9), 
a small grain, the produce of the Panicum 
miliaceum of botanists. It is universally 




MILLET (panicum MILIACEUm). 

cultivated in the East as one of the smaller 
corn-grasses. This seed is the cenchros of 
the Greeks. It is called in India warree, 
and by the Arabs dukhdn, and is extensively 
used for food, being often mixed with other 
grain. In this country it is only used for 
feeding birds. 
Millo (Heb. always with the article, "the" 



Millo). (1.) Probably the Canaanite name 
of some fortification, consisting of walls 
filled in with earth and stones, which pro- 
tected Jerusalem on the north as its outer- 
most defence. It is always rendered Akra 
— i. c. , " the citadel " — in the LXX. It was 
already existing when David conquered 
Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5 : 9). He extended it 
to the right and left, thus completing the 
defence of the city. It was rebuilt by 
Solomon (1 Kings 9 : 15, 24 ; 11 : 27) and 
repaired by Hezekiah (2 Chr. 32 : 5). 

(2. ) In Judg. 9:6, 20 it is the name of a 
rampart in Shechem, probably the "tower 
of Shechem " (9 : 46, 49). 

Min^cing (Heb. tdphopk, Isa. 3 : 16), tak- 
ing affectedly short and quick steps. Luther 
renders the word by "wag" or "waggle," 
thus representing "the affected gait of 
coquettish females." 

Mine. The process of mining is described 
in Job 28 : 1-11. Moses speaks of the 
mineral wealth of Palestine (Deut. 8 : 9). 
Job 28 : 4 is rightly thus rendered in the 
Revised Version, "He breaketh open a 
shaft away from where men sojourn ; they 
are forgotten of the foot [that passeth by] ; 
they hang afar from men, they swing to 
and fro." These words illustrate ancient 
mining operations. 

Min^ister, one who serves, as dis- 
tinguished from the master. (1.) Heb. 
meshereth, applied to an attendant on one 
of superior rank, as to Joshua, the servant 
of Moses (Ex. 33 : 11), and to the servant 
of Elisha (2 Kings 4 : 43). This name is 
also given to attendants at court (2 Chr. 
22 : 8), and to the priests and Levites ( Jer. 
33 : 21 ; Ezek. 44 : 11). 

(2. ) Heb. peldh (Ezra 7 : 24), a "minister " 
of religion. Here used of that class of 
sanctuary servants called "Solomon's ser- 
vants " in Ezra 2 : 55-58 and Neh. 7 : 57-60. 

(3. ) Greek leitourgos, a subordinate public 
administrator, and in this sense applied to 
magistrates (Rom. 13 : 6). It is applied 
also to our Lord (Heb. 8:2), and to Paul 
in relation to Christ (Rom. 15 : 16). 

(4.) Greek hyperetes (literally, "under- 
rower "), a personal attendant on a superior, 
thus of the person who waited on the 
officiating priest in the synagogue (Luke 



MINNI 



46^ 



MIRACLE 



4:20). It is applied also to John Mark, 
the attendant on Paul and Barnabas (Acts 
13 : 5). 

(5. ) Greek diaconos, usually a subordinate 
officer or assistant employed in relation to 
the ministry of the gospel, as to Paul and 
Apollos (1 Cor. 3 : 5), Tychicus (Eph. 6 : 21), 
Epaphras (Col. 1:7), Timothy (1 Thess. 
3 : 2), and also to Christ (Rom. 15 : 8). 

Min^ni, only in Jer. 51 : 27, as the name 
of a province in Armenia, which was at 
this time under the Median kings. Ar- 
menia is regarded by some as = Har-minni 
— i.e., the mountainous country of Minni. 
(See Armenia.) 

Min'nith — distribution — an Ammonitish 
town ( Judg. 11 : 33) from which wheat was 
exported to Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 17). It was 
probably somewhere in the Mishor or table- 
land on the east of Jordan. There is a 
gentle valley running for about 4 miles 
east of Dhiban called Kurm Dhibdn, "the 
vineyards of Dibon." Tristram supposes 
that this may be the "vineyards" men- 
tioned in Judg. [I.e.). 

Min'strel (Matt. 9:23), a flute - player. 
Such music was a usual accompaniment of 
funerals. In 2 Kings 3:15 it denotes a 
player on a stringed instrument. 

Mint (Gr. heduosmon — i.e., "having a 
sweet smell "), one of the garden herbs of 
which the Pharisees paid tithes (Matt. 
23:23; Luke 11:42). It belongs to the 
labiate family of plants. The species 
most common in Syria is the Mentha 
sylvestris, the wild mint, which grows much 
larger than the garden mint {M. sativa). 
It was much used in domestic economy as 
a condiment, and also as a medicine. The 
paying of tithes of mint was in accordance 
with the Mosaic law (Deut. 14:22), but 
the error of the Pharisees lay in their being 
more careful about this little matter of the 
mint than about weightier matters. 

Mir^acle, an event in the external world 
brought about by the immediate agency or 
the simple volition of God, operating with- 
out the use of means capable of being dis- 
cerned by the senses, and designed to 
authenticate the divine commission of a 
religious teacher and the truth of his 
message (John 2 : 18 ; Matt. 12 : 38). It is 




MINT (MENTHA SYLVESTRIs). 

an occurrence at once above nature and 
above man. It shows the intervention of 
a power that is not limited by the laws 
either of matter or of mind, a power inter- 
rupting the fixed laws which govern their 
movements, a supernatural power. 

" The suspension or violation of the laws 
of nature involved in miracles is nothing 
more than is constantly taking place 
around us. One force counteracts another : 
vital force keeps the chemical laws of 
matter in abeyance ; and muscular force 
can control the action of physical force. 
When a man raises a weight from the 
ground, the law of gravity is neither sus- 
pended nor violated, but counteracted by 
a stronger force. The same is true as to 
the walking of Christ on the water and the 
swimming of iron at the command of the 
prophet. The simple and grand truth that 
the universe is not under the exclusive con- 
trol of physical forces, but that everywhere 
and always there is above, separate from 
and superior to all else, an infinite personal 
will, not superseding, but directing and con- 
trolling all physical causes, acting with or 
without them." God ordinarily effects his 
purpose through the agency of second 



MIRACLE 



468 



MISHAEL 



causes ; but he has the power also of effect- 
ing his purpose immediately and without 
the intervention of second causes — i.e., of 
invading the fixed order, and thus of work- 
ing miracles. Thus we affirm the possibility 
of miracles — the possibility of a higher hand 
intervening to control or reverse nature's 
ordinary movements. 

In the New Testament these four Greek 
words are principally used to designate 
miracles: — (1.) Semeion, a "sign" — i.e., an 
evidence of a divine commission ; an attesta- 
tion of a divine message (Matt. 12 : 38, 39 ; 
16 : 1, 4 ; Mark 8 : 11 ; Luke 11 : 16 ; 23 : 8 ; 
John 2 : 11, 18, 23 ; Acts 6 : 8, etc.) ; a token 
of the presence and working of God ; the 
seal of a higher power. 

(2. ) Terata, "wonders ; " wonder- causing 
events ; portents ; producing astonishment 
in the beholder (Acts 2 : 19). 

(3.) Dunameis, "mighty works;" works 
of superhuman power (Acts 2 : 22 ; Rom. 
15 : 19 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 9) ; of a new and higher 
power. 

(4.) Erga, "works;" the works of Him 
who is "wonderful in working " (John 5 : 
20, 36). 

Miracles are seals of a divine mission. 
The sacred writers appealed to them as 
proofs that they were messengers of God. 
Our Lord also appealed to miracles as a 
conclusive proof of his divine mission 
(John 5 : 20, 36 ; 10 : 25, 38). Thus, being 
out of the common course of nature and 
beyond the power of man, they are fitted 
to convey the impression of the presence 
and power of God. Where miracles are 
there certainly God is. The man, there- 
fore, who works a miracle affords thereby 
clear proof that he comes with the authority 
of God ; they are his credentials that he is 
God's messenger. The teacher points to 
these credentials, and they are a proof that 
he speaks with the authority of God. He 
boldly says, "God bears me witness, both 
with signs and wonders, and with divers 
miracles. " 

The credibility of miracles is established 
by the evidence of the senses on the part of 
those who are witnesses of them, and to all 
others by the testimony of such witnesses. 
The witnesses were competent, and their 



testimony is trustworthy. Unbelievers, fol- 
lowing Hume, deny that any testimony can 
prove a miracle, because they say miracles 
are impossible. We have shown that 
miracles are possible, and surely they can 
be borne witness to. Surely they are 
credible when we have abundant and trust- 
worthy evidence of their occurrence. They 
are credible just as any facts of history Avell 
authenticated are credible. Miracles, it is 
said, are contrary to experience. Of course 
they are contrary to our experience, but 
that does not prove that they were contrary 
to the experience of those who witnessed 
them. We believe a thousand facts, both 
of history and of science, that are contrary 
to our experience, but we believe them on 
the ground of competent testimony. An 
atheist or a pantheist must, as a matter of 
course, deny the possibility of miracles ; 
but to one who believes in a personal God, 
who in his wisdom may see fit to interfere 
with the ordinary processes of nature, mir- 
acles are not impossible, nor are they in- 
credible. 

Mir^iam^ — rebellion. (1.) The sister of 
Moses and Aaron (Ex. 2 : 4-10 ; 1 Chr. 6:3). 
Her name is prominent in the history of 
the Exodus . She is called ' ' the prophetess ' ' 
(Ex. 15 : 20). She took the lead in the song 
of triumph after the passage of the Red 
Sea. She died at Kadesh during the 
second encampment at that place, toward 
the close of the wanderings in the wilder- 
ness, and was buried there (Num. 20 : 1). 
(See Aakon ; Moses. ) 

(2. ) 1 Chr. 4 : 17, one of the descendants 
of Judah. 

Misdeem' (Deut. 32:27, R.V.). The 
Authorized Version reads — "should be- 
have themselves strangely;" i.e., not re- 
cognize the truth, misunderstand or mis- 
take the cause of Israel's ruin, which was 
due to the fact that God had forsaken them 
on account of their apostasy. 

Mis'gab — height — a town of Moab, or 
simply, the height == the citadel, some fort- 
ress so called ; or perhaps a general name 
for the highlands of Moab, as some think 
( Jer. 48 : 1). In Isa. 25 : 12, the word is 
rendered "high fort." 

Mish'ael — w/io is like God?- (1.) A 



MISHAL 



469 



MIZPAH 



Levite; the eldest of the three sons of 
Uzziel (Ex. 6 : 22). 

(2.) One of the three Hebrew youths 
who were trained with Daniel in Babylon 
(Dan. 1 : 11, 19), and promoted to the rank 
of Magi. He and his companions were 
afterwards cast into the burning fiery fur- 
nace for refusing to worship the idol the 
king had set up, from which they were 
miraculously delivered (3 : 13-30). His Chal- 
dean name was Meshach {q.v.). 

Mi^shal, a city of the tribe of Asher 
(Josh. 21 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 74). It is probably the 
modern Misalli, on the shore near Carmel. 

Mi''shain — their cleansing or their behold- 
ing — a Benjamite, one of the sons of Elpaal 
(1 Chr. 8 : 12). 

Mi^sheal (Josh. 19 : 26), a town of Asher, 
probably the same as Mishal. 

Mish^ma — hearing. (1.) One of the 
sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 14), and founder 
of an Arab tribe. 

(2.) A Simeonite (1 Chr. 4 : 25, 26). 

Mishman^nah — fatness — one of the 
Gadite heroes who gathered to David at 
Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 10). 

Mis^rephoth-ma^im — burning of waters 
— supposed to be salt-pans, or lime-kilns, or 
glass-factories, a place to which Joshua 
pursued a party of Canaanites after the 
defeat of Jabin (Josh. 11 : 8). It is iden- 
tified with the ruin Musheirifeh, at the 
promontory of en-Nakhvlrah, some 11 miles 
north of Acre. 

Mite, contraction of minute, from the 
Latin rainutum, the translation of the 
Greek word lepton, the very smallest 
bronze or copper coin (Luke 12 : 59 ; 21 : 2). 
Two mites made one quadrans — i.e., the 
fourth part of a Roman as, which was in 
value nearly a halfpenny. (See Farthing. ) 

Mith^cah — stceetness — one of the stations 
of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 
33 : 28, 29). ' 

Mith^redath — given by Mithra, or dedi- 
cated to Mithra, i.e., the sun — the Hebrew 
form of the Greek name Mithridates. (1.) 
The "treasurer" of King Cyrus (Ezra 1:8). 

(2. ) Ezra 4 : 7, a Persian officer in Samaria. 

Mitre (Heb. mitsnepheth), something 
rolled round the head ; the turban or head- 
dress of the high priest (Ex. 28 : 4, 37, 39 ; 



29 : 6, etc. ). In the Authorized Version of 
Ezek. 21 : 26, this Hebrew word is rendered 
"diadem," but in the Revised Version, 
"mitre." It was a twisted band of fine 
linen, 8 yards in length, coiled into the 
form of a cap, and worn on official occa- 
sions (Lev. 8:9; 16:4; Zech. 3:5). On 
the front of it was a golden plate with the 
inscription, " Holiness to the Lord. " The 
mitsnepheth differed from the mitre or 
head-dress [migbd^dh) of the common priest. 
(See Bonnet.) 

Mityle^ne, the chief city of the island of 
Lesbos, on its east coast, in the ^gean Sea. 
Paul, during his third missionary journey, 
touched at this place on his way from Cor- 
inth to Judea (Acts 20 : 14), and here tarried 
for a night. It lies between Assos and 
Chios. It is now under the Turkish rule, 
and bears the name of Metelin. 

Mixed murtitude (Ex. 12 : 38), a class 
who accompanied the Israelites as they 
journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, the 
first stage of the Exodus. These were prob- 
ably miscellaneous hangers-on to the He- 
brews, whether Egyptians of the lower 
orders, or the remains of the Hyksos (see 
Egypt ; Moses), as some think. The same 
thing happened on the return of the Jews 
from Babylon (Neh. 13:3) — a "mixed mul- 
titude " accompanied them so far. 

Mi^zar — smallness — a summit on the 
eastern ridge of Lebanon, near which 
David lay after escaping from Absalom 
(Ps. 42 : 6). It may, perhaps, be the 
present Jebel Ajlun, thus named — "the 
little " — in contrast with the greater eleva- 
tion of Lebanon and Hermon. 

Miz^pah or Miz'peh — watch-tower; the 
look-out. (1.) A place in Gilead, so named 
by Laban, who overtook Jacob at this spot 
(Gen. 31 : 49) on his return to Palestine 
from Padan-aram. Here Jacob and Laban 
set up their memorial cairn of stones. It is 
the same as Ramath-mizpeh (Josh. 13 : 26). 

(2.) A town in Gilead, where Jephthah 
resided, and where he assumed the com- 
mand of the Israelites in a time of national 
danger. Here he made his rash vow ; and 
here his daughter submitted to her myste- 
rious fate (Judg. 10:17; 11:11, 34). It 
may be the same as Ramoth-Gilead (Josh. 



MIZPAH 



470 



MIZPAR 



20 : 8), but it is more likely that it is iden- 
tical with the foregoing, the Mizpeh of 
Gen. 31 : 23, 25, 48, 49. 

(3.) Another place in Gilead, at the foot 
of Mount Hermon, inhabited by Hivites 
(Josh. 11 : 3, 8). The name in Hebrew here 
has the article before it — "the Mizpeh," 
"the watch-tower." The modern village 
of Metullah, meaning also "the look-out," 
probably occupies the site so called. 

(4.) A town of Moab to which David 
removed his parents for safety during his 
persecution by Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 3). This 
was probably the citadel known as Kir- 



Moab, now Kerak. While David resided 
here he was -visited by the prophet Gad, 
here mentioned for the first time, who was 
probably sent by Samuel to bid him leave 
the land of Moab and betake himself to 
the land of Judah. He accordingly re- 
moved to the forest of Hareth {q.v.), on the 
edge of the mountain chain of Hebron. 

(5.) A city of Benjamin — "the watch- 
tower " — where the people were accustomed 
to meet in great national emergencies 
(Josh. 18 : 26 ; Judg. 20 : 1, 3 ; 21 : 1, 5 ; 1 
Sam. 7 : 5-16). It has been supposed to be 
the same as Nob (1 Sam. 21 : 1 ; 22 : 9-19). 




NEBY SAMWIL. 



It was some 4 miles north-west of Jerusa- 
lem, and was situated on the loftiest hill 
in the neighbourhood, some 600 feet above 
the plain of Gibeon. This village has the 
modern name of Neby Samwil — i.e., the 
j)rophet Samuel — from a tradition that 
Samuel's tomb is here. (See Nob. ) 

Samuel inaugurated the reformation that 
characterized his time by convening a great 
assembly of all Israel at Mizpeh, now the 
politico - religious centre of the nation. 
There, in deep humiliation on account of 
their sins, they renewed their vows and 
entered again into covenant with the God 



of their fathers. It was a period of great 
religious awakening and of revived national 
life. The Philistines heard of this assembly, 
and came up against Israel. The Hebrews 
charged the Philistine host with great fury, 
and they were totally routed. Samuel 
commemorated this signal victory by erect- 
ing a memorial - stone, which he called 
"Ebenezer"(Q'.v.), saying, "Hitherto hath 
the Lord helped us " (1 Sam. 10 : 1-13). 

Miz''par — number — one of the Jews 
who accompanied Zerubbabel from Baby- 
lon (Ezra 2:2); called also Mispereth 
(Neh. 7 : 7). 



MIZRAIM 



471 



MOABITE 



^ Miz^raim, the dual form of matzor, 
meaning a ' ' mound " or " fortress, "the name 
of a people descended from Ham (Gen. 10 : 6, 
13 ; 1 Chr. 1:8, 11). It was the name 
generally given by the Hebrews to the land 
of Egypt (^.t*.), and may denote the two 
Egypts, the Upper and the Lower. The 
modern Arabic name for Egypt is Muzr. 

Miz''zah — despair — one of the four sons 
of Reuel, the son of Esau (Gen. 36 : 13, 17). 

"HLxiSi' son— ^'eminding, or rememhrancer 
— a Christian of Jerusalem with whom 
Paul lodged (Acts 21 : 16). He was appa- 
rently a native of Cyprus, like Barnabas 
(11 : 19, 20), and was well known to the 
Christians of Caesarea (4 : 36). He was an 
"old disciple " (E.V., "early disciple ")— 
i.e., he had become a Christian in the 
beginning of the formation of the Church 
in Jerusalem. 

Mo''ab — the seed of the father, or, accord- 
ing to others, the desirable land — the eldest 
son of Lot (Gen. 19 : 37), of incestuous birth. 

(2. ) Used to denote the people of Moab 
(Num. 22 : 3-14 ; Judg. 3 : 30 ; 2 Sam. 8:2; 
Jer. 48 : 11, 13). 

(3.) The land of Moab (Jer. 48 : 24), caUed 
also the "country of Moab" (Ruth 1:2, 
6 ; 2:6), on the east of Jordan and the 
Dead Sea, and south of the Arnon (Num. 
21 : 13, 26). In a wider sense it included 
the whole region that had been occupied 
by the Amorites. It bears the modern 
name of Kerak. 

In the Plains of Moab, opposite Jericho 
(Num. 22:1; 26:63; Josh. 13:32), the 
children of Israel had their last encamp- 
ment before they entered the land of 
Canaan. It was at that time in the pos- 
session of the Amorites (Num. 21 : 22). 
' ' Moses went up from the plains of Moab 
unto the mountain of Nebo, to the top of 
Pisgah," and "died there in the land of 
Moab, according to the word of the Lord " 
(Deut. 34 : 5, 6). " Surely if we had nothing 
else to interest us in the land of Moab, the 
fact that it was from the top of Pisgah, its 
noblest height, this mightiest of the prophets 
looked out with eye undimmed upon the 
Promised Land ; that it was here on Nebo, 
its loftiest mountain, that he died his soli- 
tary death ; that it was here, in the valley 



over against Beth-peor, he found his mys- 
terious sepulchre, we have enough to en- 
shrine the memory in our hearts. " 

Moa'bite, the designation of a tribe 
descended from Moab, the son of Lot 
(Gen. 19 : 37). From Zoar, the cradle of 
this tribe, on the south-eastern border of the 
Dead Sea, they gradually spread over the 
region on the east of Jordan. Shortly before 
the Exodus, the warlike Amorites crossed 
the Jordan under Sihon their king and 
drove the Moabites (Num. 21 : 26-30) out 
of the region between the Arnon and the 
Jabbok, and occupied it, making Heshbon 
their capital. They were then confined to 
the territory to the south of the Arnon, 
along the southern half of the high table- 
land on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, 
extending to the Wady Zered on the south. 

On their journey the Israelites did not 
pass through Moab, but through the ' ' wil- 
derness " to the east (Deut. 2:8; Judg. 
11 : 18), at length reaching the country to the 
north of the Arnon. Here they remained 
for some time till they had conquered 
Bashan (see SiHON ; Og). The Moabites 
were alarmed, and their king, Balak, sought 
aid from the Midianites (Num. 22 : 2-4). 
It was while they were here that the visit 
of Balaam {q.v.) to Balak took place. (See 
Moses. ) 

After the Conquest, the Moabites main- 
tained hostile relations with the Israelites, 
and frequently harassed them in war 
(Judg. 3 : 12-30 ; 1 Sam. 11). The story of 
Ruth, however, shows the existence of 
friendly relations between Moab and Beth- 
lehem. By his descent from Ruth, David 
may be said to have had Moabite blood in 
his veins. Yet there was war between 
David and the Moabites (2 Sam. 8:2; 23 : 
20 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 2), from whom he took great 
spoil (2 Sam. 8 : 2, 11, 12 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 22 ; 
18 : 11). 

During the one hundred and fifty years 
which followed the defeat of the Moabites, 
after the death of Ahab (see Mesha), 
they regained, apparently, much of their 
former prosperity. At this time Isaiah 
(15:1) delivered his "burden of Moab," 
predicting the coming of judgment on that 
land (comp. 2 Kings 17:3; 18:9; 1 Chr. 



MOABITE 



472 



MOLE 



5 : 25, 26). Between the time of Isaiah 
and the commencement of the Babylonian 
captivity we have very seldom any refer- 
ence to Moab { Jer. 25 : 21 ; 27 : 3 ; 40 : 11 ; 
Zeph. 2 : 8-10). 

After the Return, it was Sanballat, a 
Moabite, who took chief part in seeking to 
prevent the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. 
2 : 19 ; 4 : 1 ; 6 : 1). 

Moa^bite Stone, a basalt stone, bearing 
an inscription by King Mesha, which was 
discovered at Dibon by Klein, a German 
missionary at Jerusalem, in 1868. It was 




JABITE STONE. 

3J feet high and 2 in breadth and in 
thickness, rounded at the top. Through 
tribal jealousies it was broken in pieces by 
the Arabs, by lighting a fire round it and 
throwing cold water on it when it was hot, 
but not before an impression (a "splash," 
or "squeeze") of the inscription had been 
obtained by M. Ganneau. Other impres- 
sions, and also most of the fragments of 
the stone, which are now in the Louvre at 
Paris, were afterwards secured. It con- 
sisted of thirty-four lines, written in He- 
brew-Phoenician characters. It was set up 



by Mesha as a record and memorial of his 
victories. It records (1) Mesha's wars with 
Omri, (2) his public buildings, and (3) his 
wars against Horonaim. This inscription 
in a remarkable degree supplements and 
corroborates the history, of King Mesha 
recorded in 2 Kings 3 : 4-27. 

With the exception of a very few varia- 
tions, the Moabite language in which the 
inscription is written is identical with the 
Hebrew. The form of the letters here used 
supplies very important and interesting 
information regarding the history of the 
formation of the alphabet, as well as, in- 
cidentally, regarding the arts of civilized 
life of those times in the land of Moab. 

This ancient monument, recording the 
heroic struggles of King Mesha with Omri 
and Ahab, was erected about B.C. 900. 
Here ' ' we have the identical slab on which 
the workmen of the old world carved the 
history of their own times, and from which 
the eye of their contemporaries read thou- 
sands of years ago the record of events of 
which they themselves had been the wit- 
nesses." It is the oldest inscription written 
in alphabetic characters, and hence is, apart 
from its value in the domain of Hebrew 
antiquities, of great linguistic importance. 

Mol^adah — hirth — a city in the south of 
Judah which fell to Simeon (Josh. 15 : 21- 
26 ; 19 : 2). It has been identified with the 
modern el-Milh, 10 miles east of Beersheba. 

Mole — Heb. tinshdmeth (Lev. 11 : 30)^ 
probably signifies some species of lizard 
(rendered in R.V., "chameleon"). In 
Lev. 11 : 18 ; Deut. 14 : 16, it is rendered, 
in Aiithorized Version, "swan" (R.V., 
"horned owl"). 

The Heb. Mled (Lev. 11:29), rendered 
"weasel, " was probably the mole-rat. The 
true mole [Talpa Europcea) is not found in 
Palestine. The mole-rat {Spalax typhlus) 
"is twice the size of our mole, with no 
external eyes, and with only faint traces 
within of the rudimentary organ ; no appa- 
rent ears, but, like the mole, with great 
internal organs of hearing ; a strong, bare 
snout, and with large gnawing teeth ; its 
colour a pale slate ; its feet short, and pro- 
vided with strong nails ; its tail only rudi- 
mentary. " 



MOLOCH 



473 



MONEY-CHANGER 



In Isa. 2 : 20, this word is the rendering 
of two words haphar peroth, which are 
rendered by Gesenius "into the digging of 
rats " — i.e., rats' holes. But these two He- 
brew words ought probably to be combined 
into one {lahporperoth) and translated "to 
the moles " — i. e. , the rat-moles. This animal 
' ' lives in underground communities, making 
large subterranean chambers for its young 
and for storehouses, with many runs con- 
nected with them, and is decidedly partial 
to the loose debris among ruins and stone- 
heaps, where it can form its chambers with 
least troTible." 

Mo 'loch — king — the name of the national 
god of the Ammonites, to whom children 
were sacrificed by fire. He was the con- 
suming and destroying and also at the 
same time the purifying fire. In Amos 
5:26, "your Moloch" of the 
Authorized Version is "your 
king" in the Revised Version 
(comp. Acts 7 : 43). Solomon 
(1 Kings 11 : 7) erected a high 
place for this idol on the Mount 
of Olives, and from that time 
till the days of Josiah his wor- 
ship continued (2 Kings 23 : 10, 
13). In the days of Jehoahaz 
it was partially restored, but 
after the Capti\dty wholly dis- 
appeared. He is also called 
Molech (Lev. 18:21; 20:2-5, etc.), Mil- 
com (1 Kings 11 : 5, 33, etc. ), and Malcham 
(Zeph. 1:5). This god became Chemosh 
among the Moabites. 

Mon''ey. Of uncoined money the first 
notice we have is in the history of Abra- 
ham (Gen. 13 : 2 ; 20 : IG ; 24 : 35). Next, 
this word is used in connection with the 
purchase of the cave of Machpelah (23 : 16), 
and again in connection with Jacob's pur- 
chase of a field at Shalem (Gen. 33 : 18, 19) 
for "an hundred pieces of money "=an hun- 
dred Hebrew kesitahs (q.v.) — i.e., probably 
pieces of money, as is supposed, bearing 
the figure of a lamb. 

The history of Joseph affords evidence 
of the constant use of money — silver of a 
fixed weight. This appears also in all the 
subsequent history of the Jewish people, 
in all their internal as well as foreign 



transactions. There were in common use 
in trade silver pieces of a definite weight — 
shekels, half-shekels, and quarter-shekels. 
But these were not properly coins, which 
are pieces of metal authoritatively issued, 
and bearing a stamp. 

Of the use of coined money we have no 
early notice among the Hebrews. The 
first mentioned is of Persian coinage — 
the daric (Ezra 2 : 69 ; Neh. 7 : 70) and the 
'adarkon (Ezra 8:27). The daric (q.v.) 
was a gold piece current in Palestine in 
the time of Cyrus. As long as the Jews, 
after the Exile, lived under Persian rule, 
they used Persian coins. These gave place 
to Greek coins when Palestine came under 
the dominion of the Greeks (B.C. 331), the 
coins consisting of gold, silver, and copper 
pieces. The usual gold pieces were staters 




ATHEXIAX TETRADRACHM. 

[q.v.), and the silver coins tetradrachms and 
drachms. 

In the year B.C. 140, Antiochus VII. 
gave permission to Simon the Maccabee to 
coin Jewish money. Shekels {q.v.) were 
then coined bearing the figure of the al- 
mond rod and the pot of manna. 

Mon'ey-chan'ger (Matt. 21 : 12 ; Mark 
11 : 15 ; John 2 : 15). Every Israelite from 
twenty years and upwards had to pay (Ex. 
30 : 13-15) into the sacred treasury half a 
shekel every year as an offering to Jehovah, 
and that in the exact Hebrew haK-shekel 
piece. There was a class of men, who fre- 
quented the temple courts, who exchanged 
at a certain premium foreign moneys for 
these half-shekels to the Jews who came 
up to Jerusalem from all parts of the world. 
(See Passovek.) When our Lord drove 
the traffickers out of the temple, these 



MONTH 



474 



MONTH 



money-changers fared worst. Their tables 
were overturned and they themselves were 
expelled. 

Month. Among the Egyptians the 
month of thirty days each was in use long 
before the time of the Exodus, and formed 
the basis of their calculations. Erom the 
time of the institution of the Mosaic law 
the month among the Jews was lunar. 
The cycle of religious feasts depended on 
the moon. The commencement of a month 
was determined by the observation of the 
new moon. The number of months in the 
year was usually twelve (1 Kings 4 : 7 ; 1 



Chr. 27 : 1-15) ; but every third year an 
additional month (ve-Adar) was inserted, 
so as to make the months coincide with 
the seasons. 

"The Hebrews and Phoenicians had no 
word for month save 'moon,' and only 
saved their calendar from becoming vague 
like that of the Moslems by the interpola- 
tion of an additional month. There is no 
evidence at all that they ever used a true 
solar year such as the Egyptians possessed. 
The latter had twelve months of thirty 
days and five epagomenac or odd days." — 
Palestine Quarterly, January 1889. 



TABLE OF HEBEEW MONTHS AND 


SACRED FESTIVALS. 


Months. 


Beginning 

with new 

moon. 


Sa- 
cred 


Civil 


Seasons. 


Festivals. 


NiSAN, or Abib (30 days), 
Ex. 12 : 2, 18 ; Esther 3 : 7. 


March. 
April. 


1 


7 


^ 


r < 

a> 

CO 


14. Paschal lamb killed. 

15. Passover. 

16. First-fruits of barley harvest 
21. Passover ended. 


ZiF (29 days), 
1 Kings 6 : 1. 


April. 
May. 


2 


8 


14. The second Passover (Num. 
9 : 10, 11). 


SiVAN (30 days), 
Esther 8 : 9. 


May. 
Jime. 


3 


9 


if 

1 S 

w 

o 


6. Pentecost. First-fruits of 
wheat harvest. 


Tammuz (29 days), 
Ezek. 8 : 14. 


June. 
July. 


4 


10 




Ab (30 days). 


July. 
August. 


5 


11 




Elul (29 days), 
Neh. 6 : 15. 


August. 
September. 


6 


12 


J 


o 

3 

w 
a. 




Ethanim, Tiski (30 days), 
1 Kings 8 : 2. 


September. 
October, 


7 


1 


1. Feast of Trumpets. 
10. Day of Atonement. 
15. Feast of Tabernacles. First- 
fruits of wine and oil. 


Marchesvan, Bul (29 days), 
1 Kings 6 : 38. 


October. 
November. 


8 


2 


3 
^ 9 




Chisleu (30 days), 
Zech. 7 : 1. 


November. 
December. 


9 


3 


25. Feast of the Dedication of 
the Temple. 


Tebeth (29 days), 
Esther 2 : 16. 


December. 
January. 


10 


4 




Sebat, Sevet (30 days), 
Zech. 1 : 7. 


January. 
February. 


11 


5 




Adar (29 days), 

Esther 3 : 7. 

Ve-Adar was added to this 

month when necessary. 




12 


6 


J 


K 

» CO 

^ a, 
P 

CO 

O 


14, 15. Feast of Purim. 



MOON 



475 



MOREH 



Moon — Heb. yariah, from its paleness 
(Ezra 6 : 15), and lebdndh, the ' ' white " (Cant. 
6 : 10 ; Isa. 24 : 23) — was appointed by the 
Creator to be with the sun " for signs, and 
for seasons, and for days, and years" (Gen. 
1 : 14-16). A lunation was among the Jews 
the period of a month, and several of their 
festivals were on the day of the new moon. 
It is frequently referred to along with the 
sun (Josh. 10 : 12 ; Ps. 72 : 5, 7, 17 ; Eccl. 
12:2; 24:23, etc.), and also by itself (Ps. 
8 : 3 ; 89 : 37 ; 121 : 6). 

The great brilliance of the moon in East- 
ern countries led to its being early an object 
of idolatrous worship (Deut. 4 : 19 ; 17 : 3 ; 
Job 31 : 26), ^a form of idolatry against 
which the Jews were warned (Deut. 4 : 19 ; 
17 : 3). They, however, fell into this idol- 
atry, and offered incense (2 Kings 23 : 5 ; 
Jer. 8:2), and also cakes of honey, to the 
moon (Jer. 7 : 18 ; 44 : 17-19, 25). 

Mortal law, the all-perfect, unchange- 
able, perpetual law under which man was 
created as a moral and accountable being. 
This law, notwithstanding the Fall, re- 
mains as the revealed expression of the 
divine will, and as binding on the con- 
sciences of all men as a rule of life. It 
has its ground in the all -perfect moral 
nature of God. The principle on which 
all duty is founded finds its root in the 
unchangeable nature of God, of which his 
will is the outward expression. This law 
is absolutely immutable and permanent. 

In its essential principles this law was 
at first revealed in the very constitution 
of our nature, and so much of it yet re- 
mains written on the heart and conscience 
as to make the heathen, who have not the 
Bible to guide them, inexcusable before 
God (Rom. 1 : 19, 20 ; 2 : 14, 15). 

But God has been pleased to give a sum- 
mary of this law in the ten commandments 
{q.v.)—'Ex. 20 : 1-17— the first four of which 
contain our duty to God, and the other 
six our duty to man. The Scripture, how- 
ever, taken as a whole, is our rule, our 
only rule, of faith and practice, and, as a 
revelation of God's will, is binding on the 
consciences of all Christian men. 

Christ's great atoning work as our surety 
has fulfilled the law in its relation of a 



covenant of works, but as a rule of conduct 
and a standard of character that law re- 
mains unchangeable, unrelaxable, person- 
ally binding on all. (See Law.) 

]\Ior''decai, the son of Jair, of the tribe 
of Benjamin. It has been alleged that he 
was carried into captivity with Jeconiah, 
and hence that he must have been at least 
one hundred and twenty-nine years old in 
the twelfth year of Ahasuerus (Xerxes). 
But the words of Esther (2 : 19) do not ne- 
cessarily lead to this conclusion. It was 
probably Kish of whom it is said (ver. 6) 
that he " had been carried away with the 
captivity. " 

He resided at Susa, the metropolis of 
Persia. He adopted his cousin Hadassah 
(Esther), an orphan child, whom he ten- 
derly brought up as his own daughter. 
When she was brought into the king's 
harem and made queen in the room of the 
deposed queen Vashti, he was promoted to 
some office in the court of Ahasuerus, and 
was one of those who "sat in the king's 
gate " (Esther 2 : 41). While holding this 
office he discovered a plot of the eunuchs 
to put the king to death, which, by his 
vigilance, was defeated. His services to 
the king in this matter were duly recorded 
in the royal chronicles. 

Haman {q.v.) the Agagite had been 
raised to the highest position at court. 
Mordecai refused to bow down before him ; 
and Haman, being stung to the quick by 
the conduct of Mordecai, resolved to ac- 
complish his death in a wholesale destruc- 
tion of the Jewish exiles throughout the 
Persian empire (Esther 3 : 8-15). Tidings of 
this cruel scheme soon reached the ears of 
Mordecai, who communicated with queen 
Esther regarding it, and by her wise and 
bold intervention the scheme was frus- 
trated. The Jews were delivered from 
destruction, Mordecai was raised to a high 
rank, and Haman was executed on the 
gallows he had by anticipation erected for 
Mordecai (6 : 2-11). In memory of the 
signal deliverance thus wrought for them, 
the Jews to this day celebrate the feast 
(9:26-32)of Purim(g.'y.). 

Mo^reh — an archer, teacher; fruitful. 
(1.) A Canaanite probably who inhabited 

31 



MOREH 



476 



MOSES 



the district south of Shechem, between 
Mount Ebal and Gerizim, and gave his 
name to the "plain" there (Gen. 12:6). 
Here at this "plain," or rather (R.V.) 
"oak," of Moreh, Abraham built his first 
altar in the land of Palestine ; and here the 
Lord appeared unto him. He afterwards 
left this plain and moved southward, and 
pitched his tent between Bethel on the 
west and Hai on the east (12 : 7, 8). 

Mo'reh, the Hill of, probably identical 
with "little Hermon," the modern Jehel 
ed-Duhy, or perhaps one of the lower spurs 
of this mountain. It is a gray ridge par- 
allel to Gilboa on the north ; and between 
the two lay the battle-field, the plain of 
Jezreel [q.v.), where Gideon overthrew the 
Midianites ( Judg. 7 : 1-12). 

Mc'resheth-gath— possession of the wine- 
press—the birthplace of the prophet Micah 
(1:14), who is called the "Morasthite" 
(Jer. 26 : 18). This place was probably a 
suburb of Gath. 

Mori^ah — the chosen of Jehovah. Some 
contend that Mount Gerizim is meant, but 
most probably we are to regard this as one 
of the hills of Jerusalem. Here Solomon's 
temple was built, on the spot that had been 
the thrashing-floor of Oman the Jebusite (2 
Sam. 24 : 24, 25 ; 2 Chr, 3 : 1). It is usually 
included in Zion, to the north-east of which 
it lay, and from which it was sej^arated by 
the Tyropoean valley. This was "the land 
of Moriah " to which Abraham went to offer 
up his son Isaac (Gen. 22 : 2). It has been 
supposed that the ^.highest point of the 
temple hill, which is now covered by the 
Mohammedan Kuhhet es Sakhrah, or "Dome 
of the Rock," is the actual site of Araunah's 
thrashing-floor. Here also, one thousand 
years after Abraham, David built an altar 
and offered sacrifices to God. (See Jer- 
usalem ; Numbering the people. ) 

Mor'tar (Heb. homer), cement of lime 
and sand (Gen. 11 : 3 ; Ex. 1 : 14) ; also 
potter's clay (Isa. 41 : 25 ; Nah. 3 : 14). 

Also Heb. ^dphdr, usually rendered 
"dust," clay or mud used for cement in 
building (Lev. 14 : 42, 45). 

Mor'tar, for pulverizing (Prov. 27 : 22) 
grain or other substances by means of a 
pestle instead of by a mill. Mortars were 



used in the wilderness for pounding the 
manna (Num. 11 : 8). It is commonly used 
in Palestine at the present day to pound 
wheat, from which the Arabs make a 
favourite dish called Mbhy. 

Mose'ra — a bond — one of the stations of 
the Israelites in the wilderness (Deut. 10 : 
6), at the foot of Mount Hor. (Comp. Niim. 
33 : 37, 38). It has been identified with 
el-Tayiheh, a small fountain at the bottom 
of the pass leading to the ascent of Mount 
Hor. 

Mose''rotli — honds—one of the stations 
in the wilderness (Num. 33 : 30, 31), prob- 
ably the same as Mosera. 

Mosses. On the invitation of Pharaoh 
(Gen. 45 : 17-25), Jacob and his sons went 
down into Egypt with their several house- 
holds. This immigration took place prob- 
ably about three hundred and fifty years 
before the birth of Moses. Some centuries 
before Joseph, Egypt had been conquered 
by a pastoral Semitic race from Asia, the 
Hyksos, who brought into cruel subjection 
the native Egyptians, who were an African 
race. Jacob and his retinue were accus- 
tomed to a shepherd's life, and on their 
arrival in Egypt were received with favour 
by the king, who assigned them the "best 
of the land " — the land of Goshen — to dwell 
in. The Hyksos or " Shepherd " king who 
thus showed favour to Joseph and his family 
was in all probability the Pharaoh Apepi 
(or Apophis). 

Thus favoured, the Israelites began to 
"multiply exceedingly" (Gen. 47:27), and 
extended to the west and south. At length 
the supremacy of the Hyksos came to an 
end. The descendants of Jacob were al- 
lowed to retain their possession of Goshen 
undisturbed, but after the death of Joseph 
their position was not so favourable. The 
Egyptians began to despise them, and the 
period of their "affliction" (15:13) com- 
menced. They were sorely oppressed. 
They continued, however, to increase in 
numbers, and "the land was filled with 
them " (Ex. 1 : 7). The native Egj'-ptians 
regarded them -with suspicion, so that they 
felt all the hardship of a struggle for ex- 
istence. 

In process of time "a king [probably 



MOSES 



477 



MOSES 



Seti I.] arose who knew not Joseph" (Ex. 
1:8). (See Phakaoh.) The circumstances 
of the country were such that this king 
thought it necessary to weaken his Israelite 
subjects by oppressing them, and by degrees 
reducing their number. They were accord- 
ingly made public slaves, and were em- 
ployed in connection with his numerous 
buildings, especially in the erection of 
store-cities, temples, and palaces. The 
children of Israel were made to serve with 
rigour. Their lives were made bitter with 
hard bondage, and "all their service, where- 
in they were made to serve, was with rigour " 
(Ex. 1 ; 13, 14). But this cruel oppression 
had not the result expected of reducing 
their number. On the contrary, "the more 
tlie Egyptians afflicted them, the more they 
multiplied and grew " (Ex. 1 : 12). 

The king next tried, through a compact 
secretly made with the guild of midwives, 
to bring about the destruction of all the 
Hebrew male children that might be born. 
But the king's wish was not rigorously en- 
forced ; the male children were spared by 
the midwives, so that "the people multi- 
plied " more than ever. Thus baffled, the 
king issued a public proclamation calling 
on the people to put to death all the He- 
brew male children by casting them into the 
river (Ex, 1:22). But neither by this edict 
Avas the king's purpose effected. 

One of the Hebrew households into which 
this cruel edict of the king brought great 
alarm was that of Amram, of the family of 
the Kohathites (Ex. 6 : 16-20), who, with 
his wife Jochebed and two children, Mir- 
iam, a girl of perhaps fifteen years of age, 
and Aaron, a boy of three years, resided in 
or near Memphis, the capital city of that 
time. In this quiet home a male child was 
born (B.C. 1571). His mother concealed him 
in the house for three months from the 
knowledge of the civic authorities. But 
when the task of concealment became diffi- 
cult, Jochebed contrived to bring her child 
under the notice of the daughter of the 
king by constructing for him an ark of 
bulrushes, which she laid among the flags 
which grew on the edge of the river at the 
spot where the princess was wont to come 
down and bathe. Her plan was successful. 



The king's daughter " saw the child ; and 
behold the child wept." The princess (see 
Phaeaoh's Daughtek [2]) sent Miriam, 
who was standing by, to fetch a nurse. 
She went and brought the mother of the 
child, to whom the princess said, "Take 
this child away, and nurse it for me, and 
I will give thee thy wages." Thus Joche- 
bed's child, whom the princess called 
"Moses" — i.e., "Saved from the water" 
(Ex. 2 : 10) — was ultimately restored to her. 

As soon as the natural time for weaning 
the child had come, he was transferred 
from the humble abode of his father to 
the royal palace, where he was brought 
Tip as the adopted son of the princess, his 
mother probably accompanying him and 
caring still for him. He grew up amid all 
the grandeur and excitement of the Egyp- 
tian court, maintaining, however, probably 
a constant fellowship with his mother, 
which was of the highest importance 
as to his religious belief and his interest 
in his "brethren," His education would 
doubtless be carefully attended to, and he 
would enjoy all the advantages of training 
both as to his body and his mind. He at 
length became "learned in all the wisdom 
of the Egyptians" (Acts 7:22). Egypt 
had then two chief seats of learning, or 
universities, at one of which, probably that 
of Heliopolis, his education was completed. 
Moses, being now about twenty years of 
age, spent over twenty more before he 
came into prominence in Bible history. 
These twenty years were probably spent 
in military service. There is a tradition 
recorded by Josephus that he took a lead 
in the war which was then waged between 
Egypt and Ethiopia, in which he gained 
renown as a skilful general, and became 
"mighty in deeds " (Acts 7 : 22). 

After the termination of the war in 
Ethiopia, Moses returned to the Egyptian 
court, where he might reasonably have 
expected to be loaded with honours and 
enriched with wealth. But "beneath the 
smooth current of his life hitherto — a life 
of alternate luxury at the court and com- 
parative hardness in the camp and in the 
discharge of his military diities — there had 
lurked from childhood to vouth, and from 



MOSES 



478 



MOSES 



youth to manhood, a secret discontent, per- 
haps a secret ambition, Moses, amid all 
his Egyptian surroundings, had never for- 
gotten, had never wished to forget, that 
he was a Hebrew." He now resolved to 
make himself acquainted with the condi- 
tion of his countrymen, and "went out 
unto his brethren, and looked upon their 
burdens " (Ex. 2 : 11). This tour of inspec- 
tion revealed to him the cruel oppression 
and bondage under which they everywhere 
groaned, and could not fail to press on him 
the serious consideration of his duty re- 
garding them. The time had arrived for 
his making common cause with them, that 
he might thereby help to break their yoke 
of bondage. He made his choice accord- 
ingly (Heb. 11:25-27), assured that God 
would bless his resolution for the welfare of 
his people. He now left the palace of the 
king and took up his abode, probably in his 
father's house, as one of the Hebrew people 
who had for forty years been suffering cruel 
wrong at the hands of the Egyptians. 

He could not remain indifferent to the 
state of things around him, and going out 
one day among the people, his indignation 
was roused against an Egyptian who was 
maltreating a Hebrew. He rashly lifted 
up his hand and slew the Egyptian, and 
hid his body in the sand. Next day he 
went out again and found two Hebrews 
striving together. He speedily found that 
the deed of the previous day was known. 
It reached the ears of Pharaoh (the "great 
Rameses," Rameses II.), who "sought to 
slay Moses " (Ex. 2 : 15). Moved by fear, 
Moses fled from Egypt, and betook himself 
to the land of Midian, the southern part of 
the peninsula of Sinai, probably by much 
the same route as that by which, forty 
years afterwards, he led the Israelites to 
Sinai. He was providentially led to find 
a new home with the family of Reuel, 
where he remained for forty years (Acts 
7 : 30), under training unconsciously for his 
great life's work. 

Suddenly the angel of the Lord appeared 
to him in the burning bush (Ex. 3), and 
commissioned him to go down to Egypt 
and "bring forth the children of Israel" 
out of bondage. He was at first unwilling 



to go, but at length he was obedient to the 
heavenly vision, and left the land of Midian 
(4 : 18-26). On the way he was met by 
Aaron {q.v.) and the elders of Israel (27-31). 
He and Aaron had a hard task before 
them ; but the Lord was with them (ch, 7- 
12), and the ransomed host went forth in 
triumph, (See Exodus,) After an event- 
ful journey to and fro in the wilderness, 
we see them at length encamped in the 
plains of Moab, ready to cross over the 
Jordan into the Promised Land, There 
Moses addresses the assembled elders 
(Deut, 1:1-4:40; 5:1-26:19; 27:11-30: 
20), and gives the people his last coun- 
sels, and then rehearses the great song 
(Deut. 32), clothing in fitting words the 
deep emotions of his heart at such a time, 
and in review of such a marvellous history 
as that in which he had acted so conspic- 
uous a part. Then, after blessing the tribes 
(33), he ascends to "the mountain of Nebo 
{q.v.), to the top of Pisgah, that is over 
against Jericho" (34:1), and from thence 
he surveys the land, "Jehovah shewed 
him all the land of Gilead, unto Dan, and 
all Naphtali, and the land of Ephraim, and 
Manasseh, and all the land of Judah, unto 
the utmost sea, and the south, and the plain 
of the valley of Jericho, the city of palm 
trees, unto Zoar " (Deut, 34 : 2-3), the mag- 
nificent inheritance of the tribes of whom 
he had been so long the leader ; and there 
he died, being one hundred and twenty 
years old, according to the word of the 
Lord, and was buried by the Lord " in a 
valley in the land of Moab, over against 
Beth-peor " (34 : 6). The people mourned 
for him during thirty days. 

Thus died " Moses the man of God " (Deut, 
33 : 1 ; Josh. 14 : 6). He was distinguished 
for his meekness and patience and firm- 
ness, and "he endured as seeing him who 
is invisible." "There arose not a prophet 
since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the 
Lord knew face to face, in all the signs and 
the wonders, which the Lord sent him to 
do in the land of Egypt to Pharaoh, and 
to all his servants, and to all his land, and 
in all that mighty hand, and in all the 
great terror which Moses shewed in the 
sight of all Israel " .(Deut. 34 : 10-12), 



MOTE 



479 



MOURN 



The name of Moses occurs frequently in 
the Psalms and Prophets as the chief of the 
jjrophets. 

In the New Testament he is referred to 
as the representative of the law and as a 
type of Christ (John 1 : 17 ; 2 Cor. 3 : 13-18 ; 
Heb. 3 : 5, 6). Moses is the only character 
in the Old Testament to whom Christ 
likens himseK (John 5 : 46 ; comp. Deut. 
18:15, 18, 19; Acts 7:37). In Heb. 3: 
1-19 this likeness to Moses is set forth in 
various particulars. 

In Jude 9 mention is made of a conten- 
tion between Michael and the devil about 
the body of Moses. This dispute is sup- 
posed to have had reference to the conceal- 
ment of the body of Moses so as to prevent 
idolatry. 

Mote (Gr. karphos, something dry, hence 
a particle of wood or chaff, etc. ). A slight 
moral defect is likened to a mote (Matt. 
7:3-5; Luke 6: 41, 42). 

Moth. Heb. ''ash, from a root mean- 
ing:" to fall away," as moth-eaten garments 
fall to pieces (Job 4 : 19 ; 13 : 28 ; Isa. 50 : 9 ; 
51 : 6, 8 ; Hos. 5 : 12). 

Gr. ses, thus rendered in Matt. 6 : 19, 
20 ; Luke 12 : 33. Allusion is thus made 
to the destruction of clothing by the larvae 
of the clothes - moth. This is the only 
lepidopterous insect referred to in Scrip- 
ture. 

Moul^dy. Of the Gibeonites it is said 
that "all the bread of their provision was 
dry and mouldy" (Josh. 9 : 5, 12). The He- 
brew -word here rendered "mouldy" [nikud- 
dim) is rendered "cracknels" in 1 Kings 
14 : 3, and denotes a kind of crisp cake. 
The meaning is that the bread of the Gib- 
eonites had become dry and hard — hard as 
biscuits — and thus was an evidence of the 
length of the journey they had travelled. 

Mount. Palestine is a hilly country 
(Deut. 3 : 25 ; 11 : 11 ; Ezek. 34 : 13). West 
of Jordan the mountains stretch from Leb- 
anon far down into Galilee, terminating in 
Carmel. The isolated peak of Tabor rises 
from the elevated plain of Esdraelon, which, 
in the south, is shut in by hills spreading 
over the greater part of Samaria. The 
mountains of Western and Middle Pales- 
tine do not extend to the sea, but gently 



slope into plains, and toward the Jordan 
fall down into the Ghor. 

East of the Jordan the Anti-Lebanon, 
stretching south, terminates in the hilly 
district called Jehel Heish, which reaches 
down to the Sea of Gennesareth. South 
of the river Hieromax there is again a suc- 
cession of hills, which are traversed by 
wadies running toward the Jordan. These 
gradually descend to a level at the river 
Arnon, which was the boundary of the 
ancient trans -Jordanic territory toward the 
south. 

The composition of the Palestinian hills 
is limestone, with occasional strata of chalk, 
and hence the numerous caves, some of large 
extent, found there. 

Mount of the Amalekites, a place near 
Pirathon [q.v.), in the tribe of Ephraim 
( Judg. 12 : 15). 

Mount of the Amorites, the range of 
hills which rises abruptly in the wilderness 
of et-Tih ("the wandering"), mentioned 
Deut. 1:19, 20 — "that great and terrible 
wilderness. " 

Mount of the congregation, only in 
Isa. 14 : 13, a mythic mountain of the 
Babylonians, regarded by them as the seat 
of the gods. It was situated in the far 
north, and in Babylonian inscriptions is 
described as a mountain called Im-Khar- 
asak, " the mighty mountain of Bel, whose 
head reaches heaven, whose root is the 
holy deep." In their geography they are 
said to have identified it vnth. mount El- 
wend, near Ecbatana. 

Mount of the valley (Josh. 13 : 19), a 
district in the east of Jordan, in the terri- 
tory of Reuben. The "valley" here was 
probably the Ghor or valley of the Jordan, 
and hence the "mount" would be the 
hilly region in the north end of the Dead 
Sea. (See Zaeeth-shahae.) 

Mount of corruption (2 Kings 23 : 13 ; 
Vulg., "mount of offence "), the name given 
to a part of the Mount of Olives, so called 
because idol temples were there erected in 
the time of Solomon — tem^ples to the Zido- 
nian Ashtoreth and to the "abominations '' 
of Moab and Ammon. 

Mount of beatitudes. See Seemon. 
Mourn. Frequent references are found 



MOUSE 



480 



MULBERRY 



in Scripture to — (1.) Mourning for the dead. 
Abraham mourned for Sarah (Gen. 23 : 2) ; 
Jacob for Joseph (37 : 34, 35) ; the Egyp- 
tians for Jacob (50 : 3-10) ; Israel for Aaron 
(Num. 20 : 29), for Moses (Deut. 34 : 8), and 
for Samuel (1 Sam. 25 : 1) ; David for Abner 
(2 Sam. 3 : 31, 35) ; Mary and Martha for 
Lazarus (John 11); devout men for Ste- 
phen (Acts 8 : 2), etc. 

(2. ) For calamities— 3 oh (1 : 20, 21 ; 2 : 8) ; 
Israel (Ex. 33 : 4) ; the Ninevites (Jonah 3 : 
5); Israel, when defeated by Benjamin 
( Judg. 20 : 26), etc. 

(3. ) Penitential mourning — by the Israel- 
ites on the day of atonement (Lev. 23 : 27; 
Acts 27 : 9) ; under Samuel's ministry (1 
Sam. 7:6); predicted in Zechariah (Zech. 
12 : 10, 11) ; in many of the psalms (51, 
etc.). 

Mourning was expressed — (1) by weeping 
(Gen. 35 : 8, marg.; Luke 7 : 38, etc.) ; (2) by 
loud lamentation (Ruth 1 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 19 : 
2 Sam. 3 : 31) ; (3) by the disfigurement of 
the person, as rending the clothes (Gen. 
37:29, 34; Matt. 26:65), wearing sack- 
cloth (Gen. 37:34; Ps. 35:13), sprinkling 
dust or ashes on the person (2 Sam. 13 : 19 ; 
Jer. 6 : 26 ; Job 2 : 12), shaving the head 
and plucking out the hair of the head or 
beard (Lev. 10 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 24 ; Job 1 : 
20), neglect of the person or the removal 
of ornaments (Deut. 21:12, 13; Ex. 33:4; 
2 Sam. 14:2; Matt. 6:16, 17), fasting (2 
Sam. 1:12), covering the upper lip (Lev. 
13:45; 2 Sam. 15:20), cutting the flesh 
(Jer. 16 : 6, 7), and sitting in silence (Judg. 
20 : 26 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 16 ; 13 : 31 ; Job 1 : 20). 

In the later times we find a class of 
mourners who could be hired to give by 
their loud lamentation the external 
tokens of sorrow (2 Chr. 35 : 25 ; Jer. 9 : 
17 ; Matt. 9 : 23). 

The period of mourning for the dead 
varied. For Jacob it was seventy days 
(Gen. 50:3); for Aaron (Num. 20:29) 
and Moses (Deut. 34 : 8) thirty days ; 
and for Saul only seven days (1 Sam. 
31:13). In 2 Sam. 3:31-35, we have a 
description of the great mourning for 
the death of Abner. 

Mouse (Heb. 'akhbdr, "swift digger"), 
properly the dormouse, the field-mouse (1 



Sam. 6:4). In Lev. 11:29, Isa. 66:17 
this word is used generically, and includes 
the jerboa {Miis jaculus), rat, hamster 
{Cricetiis), which, though declared to be 
unclean animals, were eaten by the Arabs, 
and are still eaten by the Bedouins. It 
is said that no fewer than twenty-three 
species of this group ( "akhhdr = Arab, fercih) 
of animals inhabit Palestine. God "laid 
waste" the people of Ashdod by the ter- 
rible visitation of field-mice, which are like 
locusts in their destructive effects (1 Sam. 
6 : 4,11,18). Herodotus, the Greek historian, 
accounts for the destruction of the army of 
Sennacherib (2 Kings 19 : 35) by saying that 
in the night thousands of mice invaded the 
camp and gnawed through the bow-strings, 
quivers, and shields, and thus left the As- 
syrians helpless. (See Sennacherib. ) 

Mow'ing (Heb. gez), rendered in Ps. 72 : 
6 "mown grass." The expression "king's 
mowings " (Amos 7 : 1) refers to some royal 
right of early pasturage, the first crop of 
grass for the cavalry (comp. 1 Kings 18 : 5). 

Mo^za — a going forth. (1.) One of the 
sons of Caleb (1 Chr. 2:46). 

(2.) The son of Zimri, of the posterity 
of Saul (1 Chr. 8 : 36, 37 ; 9 : 42, 43). 

Mo'^zah — an issuing of ivater — a city of 
Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 26). 

Mufflers (Isa. 3 : 19)^veils — light and 
tremulous. Margin, " spangled ornaments. " 

Mulberry — Heb. Mkdh,^'to weep ; " ren- 
dered "Baca" (R.V., "weeping") in Ps. 
84 : 6. The plural form of the Hebrew 
bekdim is rendered " mulberry trees " in 2 
Sam. 5 : 23, 24 and 1 Chr. 14 : 14, 15. The 
tree here alluded to was probably the 
aspen or trembling poplar. "We know 
with certainty that the black poplar, the 
aspen, and the Lombardy poplar grew in 
Palestine. The aspen, whose long leaf- 
stalks cause the leaves to tremble with 
every breath of wind, unites with the wil- 
low and the oak to overshadow the water- 
courses of the Lebanon, and with the 
oleander and the acacia to adorn the ra- 
vines of Southern Palestine " (Kitto). By 
' ' the sound of a going in the tops of the 
mulberry trees " we are to understand a 
rustling among the trees like the marching 
of an army. This was the signal that the 



MULE 



481 



MUSIC 



Lord himself would lead forth David's 
army to victory. (See Sycamine.) 




(it i^ 

THE ASPEX, OR TREMBLING POPLAR. 

Mule (Heb. pered), so called from the 
quick step of the animal or its power of 
carrying loads. It is not probable that 
the Hebrews bred mules, as this was 
strictly forbidden in the law (Lev. 19 : 19), 
although their use was not forbidden. We 
find them in. common use even by kings 
and nobles (2 Sam. 18:9; 1 Kings 1:33; 
2 Kings 5:17; Ps. 32:9). They are not 
mentioned, however, till the time of David, 
for the word rendered "mules" (R.V. 
correctly, "hot springs") in Gen. 36:24 
{yemim) properly denotes the warm springs 
of Callirhoe, on the eastern shore of the Dead 
Sea. In David's reign they became very 
common (2 Sam. 13 : 29; 1 Kings 10 : 25). 

Mules are not mentioned in the New 
Testament. Perhaps they had by that 
time ceased to be used in Palestine. 

Mur'der. Wilful murder was distin- 
guished from accidental homicide, and was 
invariably visited with capital punishment 
(Num. 35 : 16, 18, 21, 31 ; Lev. 24 : 17). This 
law in its principle is founded on the fact 
of man's having been made in the likeness 



of God (Gen. 9:5, 6; John 8:44; IJohn 
3 : 12, 15). The Mosaic law prohibited any 
compensation for murder or the reprieve of 
the murderer (Ex. 21 : 12, 14; Deut. 19 : 11, 
13 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 25 ; 20 : 10). Two witnesses 
were required in any capital case (Num. 
35 : 19-30; Deut. 17 : 6-12). If the murderer 
could not be discovered, the city nearest 
the scene of the murder was required to 
make exjjiation for the crime committed 
(Deut. 21 : 1-9). These offences also were 
to be punished with death — (1) striking a 
parent ; (2) cursing a parent ; (3) kidnapping 
(Ex. 21 : 15-17 ; Deut. 27 : 16). 

Mur'muring, of the Hebrews in the wil- 
derness, called forth the displeasure of God, 
which was only averted by the earnest 
prayer of Moses (Num. 11 : 33, 34 ; 12; 14 : 
27, 30, 31; 16:3; 21:4-6; Ps. 106:25). 
Forbidden by Paul (1 Cor. 10 : 10). 

Mur^rain — Heb. deber, "destruction," a 
"great mortality'' — the fifth plague that 
fell upon the Egyptians (Ex. 9 : 3). It was 
some distemper that resulted in the sudden 
and widespread death of the cattle. It 
was confined to the cattle of the Egyptians 
that Avere in the field (9 : 6). 

Mu'^shi — receding — the second of the two 
sons of Merari (Ex. 6:19; Num. 3:20). 
His sons were called Mushites (Num. 3 : 
33; 26:58). 

Mu''sic. Jiibal was the inventor of musi- 
cal instruments (Gen. 4 : 21). The Hebrews 
were much given to the cultivation of music. 
Their whole history and literature aflford 
abundant e\TLdence of this. 

After the Deluge, the first mention of 
music is in the account of Laban's inter- 
view with Jacob (Gen. 31 : 27). After their 
triumphal passage of the Red Sea, Moses 
and the children of Israel sang their song 
of deliverance (Ex. 15). 

But the period of Samuel, David, and 
Solomon was the golden age of Hebrew 
music, as it was of Hebrew poetry. Music 
was now for the first time systematically 
cultivated. It was an essential part of 
training in the schools of the prophets (1 
Sam. 10 : 5 ; 19 : 19-24 ; 2 Kings 3 : 15 ; 1 
Chr. 25 : 6). There now arose also a 
class of professional singers (2 Sam. 19 : 35 ; 
Eccl. 2 : 8). The temple, however, was the 



MUSIC 



482 



MUSTARD 



great school of music. In the conducting 
of its services large bands of trained singers 
and players on instruments were constantly 
employed (2 Sam. 6:5; 1 Chr. 15; 16; 23: 
5; 25:1-6). 

In private life also music seems to have 
held an important place among the He- 
brevirs (Eccl. 2:8; Amos 6:4-6; Isa. 5 : 11, 
12; 24:8, 9; Ps. 137; Jer. 48:33; Luke 
15 : 25). 

Mu^sic, Instrumental. Among instru- 
ments of music used by the Hebrevs^s a 
principal place is given to stringed instru- 
ments. These vp^ere — (1.) The kinndr, the 
"harp." (2.) The nebel, "a skin bottle," 
rendered "psaltery." (3.) The sabbekd, or 
' ' sackbut, " a lute or lyre. (4. ) The gittith, 
occurring in the title of Ps. 8 ; 81 ; 84. (5. ) 




A2TCIENT MUSICAL INSTBTTMENTS. 

Minnim (Ps. 150:4), rendered "stringed 
instruments ; " in Ps. 45 : 8, in the form 
minni, probably the apocopated [i.e., short- 
ened) plural, rendered, Authorized Version, 
"whereby," and in the Revised Version 
"stringed instruments." (6.) Machalath, 
in the titles of Ps. 53 and 88 ; supposed to 
be a kind of lute or guitar. 

Of wind instruments mention is made of 
— (1.) The 'Hgdb (Gen. 4:21; Job 21:12; 
30 : 31), probably the so-called Pan's pipes 
or syrinx. (2.) The qeren or " horn " (Josh. 
6 : 5 ; 1 Chr. 25 : 5). (3.) The shophdr, ren- 
dered "trumpet" (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8). The 
word means "bright," and may have been 
so called from the clear, shrill sound it 
emitted. It was often used (Ex. 19:13; 
Num. 10:10; Judg. 7:16, 18; 1 Sam. 
13 : 3). (4. ) The Jiatsotserdh, or straight 



trumpet (Ps. 98 : 6 ; Num. 10 : 1-10). This 
name is supposed by some to be an onoma- 
topoetic word, intended to imitate the 
pulse-like sound of the trumpet, like the 
Latin taratantara. Some have identified 
it with the modern trovibone. (5.) The 
halU, i.e., "bored through," a flute or pipe 
(1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 
Jer. 48 : 36) which is still used in Palestine. 
(6.) The sumponydh, rendered "dulcimer'' 
(Dan. 3 : 5), probably a sort of bagpipe. 
(7.) The maskrokith'a (Dan. 3 : 5), rendered 
"flute," but its precise nature is unknown. 
Of instruments of percussion mention is 
made of — (1.) The to'ph, an instrument of 
the drum kind, rendered "timbrel" (Ex. 
15 : 20; Job 21 : 12 ; Ps. 68 : 25) ; also " tab- 
ret" (Gen. 31:27; Isa. 24:8; 1 Sam. 10: 
5). (2. ) The paamdn, the " bells " on 
the robe of the high priest (Ex. 28 : 
33 ; 39 : 25). (3.) The tseltseltm, "cym- 
bals " (2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150 : 5), which 
are struck together and produce a 
loud, clanging sound. Metsilloth, 
"bells" on horses and camels for 
ornament, and metsiltayim, "cym- 
bals " (1 Chr. 13 : 8 ; Ezra 3 : 10, etc.). 
These words are all derived from the 
same root, tsalal, meaning ' ' to tinkle. " 
(4.) The menaanHm, used only in 
2 Sam. 6:5, rendered "comets" 
(R.V., "castanets") ; in the Vulgate, 
"sistra," an instrument of agitation. 
(5.) The shalishim, mentioned only in 
1 Sam. 18:6, rendered "instruments of 
music" (marg. of R.V.," triangles or three- 
stringed instruments "). 

The words in Eccl. 2:8, "musical in- 
struments, and that of all sorts," Author- 
ized Version, are in the Revised Version 
"concubines very many." 

Musi^cian, Chief (Heb. menatstseah), 
the precentor of the Levitical choir or or- 
chestra in the temple, mentioned in the 
titles of fifty-five psalms, and in Hab. 3 : 19, 
Revised Version. The first who held this 
office was Jeduthun (1 Chr. 16 : 41), and 
the office appears to have been hereditary. 
Heman and Asaph were his two colleagues 
(2 Chr. 35 : 15). 

Mus^tard, a plant of the genus sinapis, a 
pod-bearing, shrub-like plant, growing wild, 



MUTH-LABBEN 



483 



MYRBH 



and also cultivated in gardens. The little 
round seeds were an emblem of any small 
insignificant object. It is not mentioned 
in the Old Testament ; and in each of the 
three instances of its occurrence in the 
New Testament (Matt. 13 : 31, 32 ; Mark 
4 : 31, 32 ; Luke 13 : 18, 19) it is spoken of 
only with reference to the smaUness of its 
seed. The common mustard of Palestine 
is the Sinapis nigra. This garden herb 
sometimes grows to a considerable height, 
so as to be spoken of as "a tree," as com- 
pared \\\t\i garden herbs. 

Muth-lab^ben, occurring only in the 
title of Psalm 9. Some interpret the words 
as meaning "on the death of Labben," 
some unknown person. Others render the 
word, "on the death of the son;" i.e., 
of Absalom (2 Sam. 18 :^3). Others again 
have taken the word as the name of a 
musical instrument, or as the name of an 
air to which the psalm was sung. 

niuz^zle. Grain in the East is usually 
thrashed by the sheaves being spread out 
on a floor, over which oxen and cattle are 
driven to and fro, till the grain is trod- 
den out. Moses ordained that the ox 
was not to be muzzled while thrashing. 
It was to be allowed to eat both the 
grain and the straw (Deut. 25 : 4). (See 
Agkicultuke.) 

My'ra, one of the chief towns of Lycia, 
in Asia Minor, about 2^ miles from the 
coast (Acts 27 : 5). Here Paul removed 
from the Adramyttian ship in which he 
had sailed fi'om Csesarea, and entered into 
the Alexandrian ship, which was after- 
wards wrecked at Melita (27 : 39-44). 

Myrrh — Heb. mor. (1. ) Eirst mentioned 
as a principal ingredient in the holy anoint- 
ing oil (Ex. 30 : 23). It formed part of the 
gifts brought by the wise men from the 
east, who came to worship the infant 
Jesus (Matt. 2 : 11). It was used in em- 
balming (John 19 : 39), also as a perfume 
(Esther 2 : 12 ; Ps. 45 : 8 ; Prov. 7 : 17). It 
was a custom of the Jews to give those who 
were condemned to death by crucifixion 
"wine mingled with myrrh " to produce in- 
sensibility. This drugged wine was prob- 
ably partaken of by the two malefactors, 
but when the Roman soldiers pressed it 



upon Jesus "he received it not" (Mark 
15:23). (See Gall.) 

This was the gum or viscid white liquid 
which flows from a tree resembling the 
acacia, found in Africa and Arabia, the 
Balsamodendron myrrha of botanists. The 




BALSAMODENDKON MYRRHA. 

" bundle of myrrh " in Cant. 1 : 13 is rather 
a "bag " of mjnrrh or a scent-bag. 
(2.) Another word lot is also translated 




LOT OR LADAXUM. 



"myrrh" (Gen. 37:25; 43:11; R.V., 
marg., "or ladanum"). What was meant 



MYRTLE 



484 



NAAMAN 



by this word is uncertain. It has been 
thought to be the chestnut, mastich, stacte, 
balsam, turpentine, pistachio nut, or the 
lotus. It is probably correctly rendered 
by the Latin word ladanum, the Arabic 
ladan, an aromatic juice of a shrub called 
the Cistus or rock rose, which has the same 
qualities, though in a slight degree, of 
opium, whence a decoction of opium is 
called laudanum. This plant was indi- 
genous to Syria and Arabia. 

Myrtle (Isa. 41:19; Neh. 8:15; Zech. 
1 : 8), Hebrew kadds, known in the East 




MYRTLE. 



by the name as, the 3Iprtus communis of 
the botanist. "Although no myrtles are 
now found on the mount [of Olives], ex- 



cepting in the gardens, yet they still exist 
in many of the glens about Jerusalem, 
where we have often seen its dark shining 
leaves and white flowers. There are many 
near Bethlehem and about Hebron, espe- 
cially near Dewir Dan, the ancient Debir. 
It also sheds its fragrance on the sides of 
Carmel and of Tabor, and fringes the clefts 
of the Leontes in its course through Galilee. 
We meet with it all through Central Pal - 
estine " (Tristram). 

Mys^ia, a province in the north-west of 
Asia Minor. On his first voyage to Europe 
(Acts 16 : 7, 8) Paul passed through this 
province and embarked at its chief port 
Troas. 

Mys^tery, the calling of the Gentiles into 
the Christian Church, so designated (Eph. 
1:9, 10; 3: 8-11;* Col. 1:25-27); a truth 
undiscoverable except by revelation, long 
hid, now made manifest. The resurrection 
of the dead (1 Cor. 15 : 51), and other doc- 
trines which need to be explained but 
which cannot be fully understood by finite 
intelligence (Matt. 13:11; Rom. 11:25; 
1 Cor. 13:2); the union between Christ 
and his people symbolized by the marriage 
union (Eph. 5:31, 32; comp. 6:19); the 
seven stars and the seven candlesticks (Rev. 
1 : 20) ; and the woman clothed in scarlet 
(17 : 7), are also in this sense mysteries. 
The anti-Christian power working in his 
day is called by the apostle (2 Thess. 2 : 7) 
the "mystery of iniquity." 



N 



Na'axu — pleasantness — one of the three 
sons of Caleb, the son of Jephimneh (1 Chr. 
4:15). 

Na'amah — the beautiful. (1.) The 
daughter of Lamech and Zillah (Gen. 4 : 
22). 

(2. ) The daughter of the king of Ammon, 
one of the wives of Solomon, the only one 
who appears to have borne him a son, viz., 
Rehoboam (1 Kings 14 : 21, 31). 

(3. ) A city in the plain of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 41), supposed by some to be identified 



with Na^dncli, some 5 miles south-east of 
Makkedah. 

Na^aman — pleasantness — a Syrian, the 
commander of the armies of Benhadad 11. 
in the time of Joram, king of Israel. He 
was afflicted with leprosy ; and Avhen the 
little Hebrew slave-girl that waited on his 
wife told her of a prophet in Samaria who 
could cure her master, he obtained a letter 
from Benhadad and proceeded with it to 
Joram. The king of Israel suspected in 
this some evil design against him, and rent 



NAAMATHITE 



485 



NABOTH 



his clothes. Elisha the prophet hearing of 
this, sent for Naaman, and the strange 
interview which took place is recorded in 
2 Kings 5. The narrative contains all 
that is known of the Syrian commander. 
He was cured of his leprosy by dipping 
himself seven times in the Jordan, accord- 
ing to the word of Elisha. His cure is 
alluded to by our Lord (Luke 4 : 27). 

Na^amathite, the designation of Zophar, 
one of Job's three friends (Job 2 : 11 ; 11 : 1), 
so called from some place in Arabia, called 
Naamah probably. 

Na^arah — a girl — the second of Ashur's 
two wives, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 4 : 
5, 6). 

Na^arai — youthful — a military chief in 
David's army (1 Chr. 11 : 37), called also 
Paarai (2 Sam. 23 : 35). 

Na^'aran — boyish, juvenile — a town in 
Ephraim between Bethel and Jericho (1 
Chr. 7 : 28). 

Na^arath — girl — a town on the bound- 
ary between Ephraim and Benjamin (Josh, 
16 : 7), not far probably from Jericho, to 
the north (1 Chr. 7 : 28). 

'Ssi'\iVL\— foolish — a descendant of Caleb 
who dwelt at Maon (1 Sam. 25), the modern 
Main, 7 miles south-east of Hebron. He 
was "very great, and he had 3,000 sheep 
and 1,000 goats but the man was churl- 
ish and evil in his doings." During his 
wanderings David came into that district, 
and hearing that Nabal was about to shear 
his sheep, he sent ten of his young men to 
ask ' ' whatsoever cometh unto thy hand for 
thy servants." Nabal insultingly resented 
the demand, saying, "Who is David, and 
who is the son of Jesse?" (1 Sam. 25 : 10, 11). 
One of the shepherds that stood by and saw 
the reception David's messengers had met 
with, informed Abigail, Nabal's wife, who 
at once realized the danger that threatened 
her household. She forthwith proceeded 
to the camp of David, bringing with her 
ample stores of provisions (25 : 18). She so 
courteously and persuasively pled her cause 
that David's anger was appeased, and he 
said to her, "Blessed be the Lord God of 
Israel which sent thee this day to meet 
me." 

On her return she found her husband 



incapable from drunkenness of under- 
standing the state of matters, and not till 
the following day did she explain to him 
what had happened. He was stunned by 
a sense of the danger to which his conduct 
had exposed him. "His heart within him 
died, and he became a stone," and about 
ten days after ' ' the Lord smote Nabal that 
he died " (1 Sam. 25 : 37, 38). 

Not long after David married Abigail 
[q.v.). 

NsL^hoth— fruits — "the Jezreelite," was 
the owner of a portion of ground on the 
eastern slope of the hill of Jezreel (2 Kings 
9:25, 26). This small "plat of ground" 
seems to have been all he possessed. It 
was a vineyard, and lay "hard by the palace 
of Ahab " (1 Kings 21 : 1, 2), who greatly 
coveted it. Naboth, however, refused on 
any terms to part with it to the king. He 
had inherited it from his fathers, and no 
Israelite could lawfully sell his property 
(Lev. 25 : 23). Jezebel, Ahab's wife, was 
grievously offended at Naboth's refusal to 
part with his vineyard. By a crafty and 
cruel plot she compassed his death. His 
sons also shared his fate (2 Kings 9 : 26 ; 
1 Kings 21 : 19). She then came to Ahab 
and said, "Arise, take possession of the 
vineyard ; for Naboth is not alive, but 
dead." Ahab arose and went forth into 
the garden which had so treacherously and 
cruelly been acquired, seemingly enjoying 
his new possession, when, lo, Elijah sud- 
denly appeared before him and pronounced 
against him a fearful doom (1 Kings 21 : 17- 
24). Jehu and Bidcar were with Ahab at 
this time, and so deeply were the words of 
Elijah imprinted on Jehu's memory that 
many years afterwards he refers to them 
(2 Kings 9 : 26), and he was the chief in- 
strument in inflicting this sentence on 
Ahab and Jezebel and all their house (9 : 
30-37). The house of Ahab was extin- 
guished by him. Not one of all his great 
men and his kinsfolk and his priests did 
Jehu spare (10 : 11). 

Ahab humbled himself at Elijah's words 
(1 Kings 21 : 28, 29), and therefore the pro- 
phecy was fulfilled not in his fate but in 
that of his son Joram (2 Kings 9 : 25). 

The history of Naboth, comi^ared with 



NACHON 



486 



NAHOR 



that of Ahab and Jezebel, furnishes a re- 
markable illustration of the law of a re- 
tributive providence — a law which runs 
through all history (comp. Ps. 109 : 17, 18). 

Na^chon — prepared — the owner of a 
thrashing-floor near which Uzzah was slain 
(2 Sam. 6:6); called also Chidon (1 Chr. 
13 : 9). 

Na^dab — liberal, generous. (1.) The 
eldest of Aaron's four sons (Ex. 6 : 23 ; 
Num. 3:2). He with his brothers and 
their father were consecrated as priests of 
Jehovah (Ex. 28 : 1). He afterwards per- 
ished with Abihu for the sin of offering 
strange fire on the altar of burnt-offering 
(Lev. 10 : 1, 2 ; Num. 3 : 4 ; 26 : 60). 

(2.) The son and successor of Jeroboam, 
the king of Israel (1 Kings 14 : 20). While 
engaged with all Israel in laying siege to 
Gibbethon, a town of southern Dan (Josh. 
19 : 44), a conspiracy broke out in his army, 
and he was slain by Baasha (1 Kings 15 : 
25-28), after a reign of two years (B.C. 955- 
953). The assassination of Nadab was 
followed by that of his whole house, and 
thus this great Ephraimite family became 
extinct (2 Chr. 34 : 5). 

(3.) One of the sons of Shammai in the 
tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 2 : 28, 30). 

Nag''ge — illuminating — one of the an- 
cestors of Christ in the maternal line (Luke 
3 : 25). 

Naha^liel — possession, or valley of God 
— one of the encampments of the Israelites 
in the wilderness (Num. 21 : 19), on the 
confines of Moab. This is identified with 
the ravine of the Zerka M'ain, the ancient 
Callirhoe, the hot springs on the east of 
the Jordan, not far from the Dead Sea. 

Na''hallal — pasture — a city in Zebulun 
on the border of Issachar (Josh. 19 : 15), 
the same as Nahalol ( Judg. 1 : 30). It was 
given to the Levites. It has been by some 
identified with MaMl in the plain of Es- 
draelon, 4 miles from Nazareth. 

Na''harai — snorer — a Berothite, one of 
David's heroes, and armour-bearer of Joab 
(1 Chr. 11 : 39). 

Nsi^liSiSh.— serpent. (1.) King of the Am- 
monites in the time of Saul. The inhabit- 
ants of Jabesh-Gilead having been exposed to 
great danger from Nahash, sent messengers 



to Gibeah to inform Saul of their extremity. 
He promptly responded to the call, and 
gathering together an army he marched 
against Nahash. "And it came to pass 
that they which remained were scattered, 
so that two of them [the Ammonites] were 
not left together " (1 Sam. 11 : 1-11). 

(2.) Another king of the Ammonites of 
the same name is mentioned, who "showed 
kindness to David during his wanderings " 
(2 Sam. 10 : 2). On his death David sent 
an embassy of S5rmpathy to Hanun, his son 
and successor, at Rabbah Ammon, his capi- 
tal. The grievous insult which was put 
upon these ambassadors led to a war against 
the Ammonites, who, with their allies the 
Syrians, were completely routed in a battle 
fought at "the entering in of the gate," 
probably of Medeba (2 Sam. 10:6-14). 
Again Hadarezer rallied the Syrian host, 
which was totally destroyed by the Israelite 
army under Joab in a decisive battle fought 
at Helam (2 Sam. 10 : 17), near to Hamath 
(1 Chr. 18 : 3). " So the Syrians feared to 
help the children of Ammon any more " (2 
Sam. 10 : 19). 

(3. ) The father of Amasa, who was com- 
mander-in-chief of Absalom's army (2 Sam. 
17 : 25). Jesse's wife had apparently been 
first married to this man, to whom she bore 
Abigail and Zeruiah, who were thus David's 
sisters, but only on the mother's side (1 
Chr. 2 : 16). 

Na^hath— rest. (1.) One of the four 
sons of Reuel, the son of Esau (Gen. 36 ; 
13, 17). 

(2.) A Kohathite Levite (1 Chr. 6 : 26). 

(3.) A Levite, one of the overseers of 
the sacred offerings of the temple (2 Chr. 
31 : 13). 

Nah^bi — hidden — one of the twelve spies 
sent out to explore the land of Canaan 
(Num. 13 : 14). 

Na'hor — snorting. (1.) The father of 
Terah, who was the father of Abraham 
(Gen. 11 : 22-25 ; Luke 3 : 34). 

(2.) A son of Terah, and elder brother of 
Abraham (Gen. 11 : 26, 27 ; Josh. 24 : 2, R. V. ). 
He married Milcah, the daughter of his 
brother Haran, and remained in the land 
of his nativity on the east of the river Eu- 
phrates at Haran (Gen. 11 : 27-32). A cor- 



NAHSHON 



487 



NAIN 



respondence was maintained between the 
family of Abraham in Canaan and the rela- 
tives in the old ancestral home at Haran till 
the time of Jacob. When Jacob fled from 
Haran all intercourse between the two 
branches of the family came to an end 
(Gen. 31 : 46). His grand-daughter Rebekah 
became Isaac's wife (24 : 67). 

Nah'shon — sorcerer — the son of Amina- 
dab, and prince of the children of Judah 
at the time of the first numbering of the 
tribes in the wilderness (Ex. 6 : 23). His 
sister Elisheba was the wife of Aaron. He 
died in the wilderness (Num. 26 : 64, 65). 
His^lame occurs in the Greek form Naasson 
in the genealogy of Christ (Matt. 1:4; Luke 
3 : 32). 

Na^huxn — consolation — the seventh of 
the so-called minor prophets, an Elkoshite. 
All we know of him is recorded in the 
book of his prophecies. He was probably a 
native of Galilee, and after the deportation 
of the ten tribes took up his residence in 
Jerusalem. Others think that Elkosh was 
the name of a place on the east bank of 
the Tigris, and that Nahum dwelt there. 

Na''huin, Book of. Nahum prophesied, 
according to some, in the beginning of the 
reign of Ahaz (B.C. 743). Others, however, 
think that his prophecies are to be referred 
to the latter half of the reign of Hezekiah 
(about B.C. 709). This is the more prob- 
able opinion, internal evidences leading to 
that conclusion. Probably the book was 
written in Jerusalem (soon after B.C. 709), 
where he witnessed the invasion of Senna- 
cherib and the destruction of his host (2 
Kings 19 : 35). 

The subject of this prophecy is the ap- 
proaching complete and final destruction 
of Nineveh, the capital of the great and 
at that time flourishing Assyrian empire. 
Assur-bani-pal was at the height of his glory. 
Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was 
then the centre of the civilization and com- 
merce of the world — a " bloody city all full 
of lies and robbery " (Nah. 3 : 1), for it had 
robbed and plundered all the neighbouring 
nations. It was strongly fortified on every 
side, bidding defiance to every enemy ; yet it 
was to be utterly destroyed as a punishment 
for the great wickedness of its inhabitants. 



Jonah had already uttered his message of 
warning, and Nahum was followed by Zeph- 
aniah, who also predicted (Zeph. 2 : 4-15) the 
destruction of the city — predictions which 
were remarkably fulfilled (B.C. 625) when 
Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire, 
and the Assyrian empire came to an end, 
an event which changed the face of Asia. 
(See Nineveh.) 

Nail, for fastening. (1.) Hebrew ydthed, 
"piercing," a peg or nail of any material 
(Ezek. 15 : 3), more especially a tent-peg 
(Ex. 27:19; 35:18; 38:20), with one of 
which Jael {q.v.) pierced the temples of 
Sisera ( Judg. 4 : 21, 22). This word is also 
used metaphorically (Zech. 10 : 4) for a 
prince or counsellor, just as "the battle- 
bow " represents a warrior. 

(2. ) Masmir, a ' ' point, " the usual word 
for a nail. The words of the wise are com- 
pared to "nails fastened by the masters of 
assemblies " (Eccl. 12 : 11, A.V.). The Re- 
vised Version reads, "as nails well fastened 
are the words of the masters," etc. Others 
(as Plumptre) read, "as nails fastened are 
the masters of assemblies " (comp. Isa. 22 : 
23 ; Ezra 9 : 8). 

David prepared nails for the temple (1 
Chr. 22:3; 2 Chr. 3:9). The nails by 
which our Lord was fixed to the cross are 
mentioned (John 20 : 25 ; Col. 2 : 14). 

Nail, of the finger (Heb. tsippdren, 
"scraping"). To "pare the nails" is in 
Deut. 21:12 (marg., "make," or "dress," 
or "suffer to grow") one of the signs 
of purification, separation from former 
heathenism (comp. Lev. 14 : 8 ; Num. 8 : 
7). In Jer. 17 : 1 this word is rendered 
"point." 

Na'in (from Heb. nain, "green pas- 
tures," " lovely "), the name of a town near 
the gate of which Jesus raised to life a 
widow's son (Luke 7 : 11-17). It is identi- 
fied with the village called Rein, standing 
on the north-western slope of Jebel ed-Dilhy 
( = the "hill Moreh " = " Little Hermon "), 
about 4 miles from Tabor and 25 south- 
west of Capernaum. At the foot of the 
slope on which it stands is the great plain 
of Esdraelon. 

This was the first miracle of raising the 
dead our Lord had wrought, and it excited 



NAIOTH 



488 



NAPHTALI 




NEIN (nAIN). 



great awe and astonishment among the 
people. 

"SSL'iotli-^dvjellings — the name given to 
the prophetical college established by 
Samuel near Ramah. It consisted of a 
cluster of separate dwellings, and hence its 
name. David took refuge here when he 
fled from Saul (1 Sam. 19 : 18, 19, 22, 23), 
and here he passed a few weeks in peace 
(comp. Ps. 11). It was probably the 
common residence of the "sons of the 
l^rophets." 

Narked. This word denotes (1) absolute 
nakedness (Gen. 2 : 25 ; Jobl : 21 ; Eccl. 5 : 15 ; 
Micah 1:8; Amos 2 : 16) ; (2) being poorly 
clad (Isa, 58 : 7 ; James 2 : 15). It denotes 
also (3) the state of one who has laid aside 
his loose outer garment (Lat. nudus), and 
appears clothed only in a long tunic or under 
robe worn next the skin (1 Sam. 19 : 24 ; 
Isa. 47 : 3 ; comp. John 21 : 7). It is used 
figuratively, meaning "being discovered " or 
"made manifest " (Job 26 : 6 ; Mark 14 : 52 ; 
Heb. 4 : 13). In Ex. 32 : 25 the expression 
"the people were naked"(A.V.) is more 
correctly rendered in the Revised Version 
' ' the people were broken loose " — i. e. , had 



fallen into a state of lawlessness and insub- 
ordination. In 2 Chr. 28 : 19 the words 
"he made Judah naked" (A.V.), but Re- 
vised Version "he had dealt wantonly in 
Judah," mean "he had permitted Judah 
to break loose from all the restraints of 
religion. " 

Na^omi — the lovable ; my delight — the wife 
of Elimelech, and mother of Mahlon and 
Chilion, and mother-in-law of Ruth (1 : 2, 20, 
21 ; 2 : 1). Elimelech and his wdfe left the dis- 
trict of Bethlehem- Judah, and found a new 
home in the uplands of Moab. In course 
of time he died, as also his two sons Mahlon 
and Chilion, who had married Avonien of 
Moab, and three widows were left mourn- 
ing the loss of their husbands. Naomi 
longs to return now to her own land, to 
Bethlehem. One of her widowed daughters- 
in-law, Ruth, accompanies her, and is at 
length married to Boaz [q.v.]. 

Na^phish — refresher — one of the sons of 
Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 31). He 
was the father of an Arab tribe. 

Naph^tali — my wrestlinr/ — the fifth son 
of Jacob. His mother was Bilhah, Rachel's 
handmaid (Gen. 30 : 8). When Jacob went 



NAPHTALI 



489 



NATHAN 



down into Egypt, Naphtali had four sons 
(Gen. 46 : 24). Little is known of him as 
an individual. 

Naph^tali, Tribe of. On this tribe 
Jacob pronounced the patriarchal blessing, 
"Naphtali is a hind let loose: he giveth 
goodly words" (Gen. 49:21). It was in- 
tended thus to set forth under poetic 
imagery the future character and history 
of the tribe. 

At the time of the Exodus this tribe 
numbered 53,400 adult males (Num. 1 : 43), 
but at the close of the wanderings they 
numbered only 45,400 (26:48-50). Along 
\vith Dan and Asher they formed "the 
camp of Dan," under a common standard 
(2 : 25-31), occupying a place during the 
march on the north side of the taber- 
nacle. 

The possession assigned to this tribe is 
set forth in Josh. 19 : 32-39. It lay in the 
north-eastern corner of the land, bounded 
on the east by the Jordan and the lakes of 
Merom and Galilee, and on the north it 
extended far into Coele-Syria, the valley 
between the two Lebanon ranges. It com- 
prehended a greater variety of rich and 
beautiful scenery and of soil and climate 
than fell to the lot of any other tribe. The 
territory of Naphtali extended to about 
800 square miles, being the double of that 
of Issachar. The region around Kedesh, 
one of its towns, was originally called Galil, 
a name afterwards given to the whole 
northern division of Canaan. A large 
number of foreigners settled here among 
the mountains, and hence it was called 
"Galilee of the Gentiles " (?.^•.)— Matt. 4 : 
15, 16. The southern portion of Naphtali 
has been called the " Garden of Palestine." 
It was of unrivalled fertility. It was the 
principal scene of our Lord's public min- 
istry. Here most of his parables were 
spoken and his miracles wrought. 

This tribe was the first to suffer from the 
invasion of Benhadad, king of Syria, in 
the reigns of Baasha, king of Israel, and 
Asa, king of Judah (1 Kings 15 : 20; 2 Chr. 
16 : 4). In the reign of Pekah, king of 
Israel, the Assyrians under Tiglath-pileser 
swept over the whole north of Israel, and 
carried the people into captivity (2 Kings 



15 : 29). Thus the kingdom of Israel came 
to an end (B.C. 722). 

Naphtali is now almost wholly a desert, 
the towns of Tiberias, on the shore of the 
Lake of Galilee, and Safed being the only 
places in it of any importance. 

Naph^tali, Mount, the mountainous 
district of Naphtali (Josh. 20 : 7). 

Naph''tuhim, a Hamitic tribe descended 
from Mizraim (Gen. 10 : 13). Others iden- 
tify this word with Napata, the name of 
the city and territory on the southern fron- 
tier of Mizraim, the modern Meroe, at the 
great bend of the Nile at Soudan. This 
city was the royal residence, it is said, of 
Queen Candace (Acts 8 : 27). Here there 
are extensive and splendid ruins. 

Nap^kin (Gr. soudarion, John 11 : 44 ; 
20:7; Lat. sudarium, a "sweat-cloth"), a 
cloth for wiping the sweat from the face. 
But the word is used of a wrapper to fold 
money in (Luke 19 : 20), and as an article 
of dress, a "handkerchief" worn on the 
head (Acts 19 : 12). 

Narcis'^sus — daffodil — a Roman whom 
Paul salutes (Pom. 16 : 11). He is supposed 
to have been the private secretary of the 
emperor Claudius. This is, however, quite 
uncertain. 

Na^than — given. (1. ) A prophet in the 
reigns of David and Solomon (2 Chr. 9 : 
29). He is first spoken of in connection 
with the arrangements David made for the 
building of the temple (2 Sam. 7 : 2, 3, 17), 
and next appears as the reprover of David 
on account of his sin Avith Bathsheba (12 : 
1-14). He was charged with the education 
of Solomon (12 : 25), at whose inauguration 
to the throne he took a prominent part (1 
Kings 1 : 8, 10, 11, 22-45). His two sons, 
Zabad (1 Chr. 2 : 36) and Azariah (1 Kings 
4 : 5) occupied places of honour at the king's 
court. He last appears in assisting David 
in reorganizing the public worship (2 Chr. 
29 : 25). He seems to have written a life of 
David, and also a life of Solomon (1 Chr. 
29 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 29). 

(2.) A son of David, by Bathsheba (2 
Sam. 5 : 14), whose name appears in the 
genealogy of Mary, the mother of our Lord 
(Luke 3 : 31). 

(3.) Ezra 8: 16. 



NATHANAEL 



490 



NAZARETH 



Nathan ^ael — given or gift of God — one of 
our Lord's disciples, ' ' of Cana in Galilee " 
(John 21 : 2). He was "an Israelite indeed, 
in whom was no guile " (1 : 47, 48). His name 
occurs only in the Gospel of John, who in 
his list of the disciples never mentions 
Bartholomew, with whom he has conse- 
quently been identified. He was one of 
those to whom the Lord showed himself 
alive after his resurrection, at the Sea of 
Tiberias. 

Nativ'ity of Christ. The birth of our 
Lord took place at the time and place pre- 
dicted by the prophets (Gen. 49 : 10 ; Isa. 
7 : 14 ; Jer. 31 : 15 ; Micah 5:2; Hag. 2 : 
6-9 ; Dan. 9 : 24, 25). Joseph and Mary were 
providentially led to go up to Bethlehem 
at this period, and there Christ was born 
(Matt. 2:1, 6 ; Luke 2 : 1, 7). The exact 
year or month or day of his birth cannot, 
however, now be exactly ascertained. We 
know, however, that it took place in the 
"fulness of the time "(Gal. 4:4) — i.e., at 
the fittest time in the world's history. 
Chronologists are now generally agreed 
that the year 4 before the Christian era 
was the year of Christ's nativity, and con- 
sequently that he was about four years old 
in the year 1 a.d. 

Naught'y figs (Jer. 24 : 2). "The bad 
figs may have been such either from having 
decayed, and thus been reduced to a rotten 
condition, or as being the fruit of the syca- 
more, which contains a bitter juice " (Tris- 
tram, Nat. Hist.). The inferiority of the 
fruit is here referred to as an emblem of 
the rejected Zedekiah and his people. 

Naz^arene. This epithet (Gr. Nazaraios) 
is applied to Christ only once (Matt. 2 : 23). 
In all other cases the word is rendered "of 
Nazareth" (Mark 1:24; 10:47; 14:67, 
etc.). When this Greek designation was 
at first applied to our Lord, it was meant 
simply to denote the place of his residence. 
In course of time the word became a term 
of reproach. Thus the word "Nazarene " 
carries with it an allusion to those proph- 
ecies which speak of Christ as "despised 
of men " (Isa. 53 : 3). Some, however, think 
that in this name there is an allusion to 
the Hebrew netser, which signifies a branch 
or sprout. It is so applied to the Messiah 



(Isa. 11:1) — i.e., he whom the prophets 
called the Netser, the "Branch." 

The followers of Christ were called " the 
sect of Nazarenes " (Acts 24 : 5). All over 
Palestine and Syria this name is still given 
to Christians. (See Nazaketh.) 

Naz''areth — separated — generally sup- 
posed to be the Greek form of the Hebrew 
netser, a "shoot" or "sprout." Some, 
however, think that the name of the city 
must be connected with the name of the 
hill behind it, from which one of the finest 
prospects in Palestine is obtained, and ac- 
cordingly they derive it from the Hebrew 
notserdh' — i.e., one guarding or watching, 
thus designating the hill which overlooks 
and thus guards an extensive region. 

This city is not mentioned in the Old 
Testament. It was the home of Joseph 
and Mary (Luke 2 : 39), and here the angel 
announced to the Virgin the birth of the 
Messiah (1:26-28). Here Jesus grew up 
from his infancy to manhood (4 : 16) ; and 
here he began his public ministry in the 
synagogue (Matt. 13 : 54), at which the 
people were so offended that they sought 
to cast him down from the precipice whereon 
their city was built (Luke 4:29). Twice 
they expelled him from their borders (4 : 
16-29 ; Matt. 13 : 54-58) ; and he finally re- 
tired from the city, where he did not 
many mighty works because of their un- 
belief (Matt. 13 : 58), and took up his resi- 
dence in Capernaum. 

Nazareth is situated among the southern 
ridges of Lebanon, on the steep slope of a 
hill, about 14 miles from the Sea of Galilee 
and about 6 west from Mount Tabor. It 
is identified with the modern village en- 
Ndzirah, of about six thousand inhabitants. 
It lies "as in a hollow cup" lower down 
upon the hill than the ancient city. The 
main road for traffic between Egypt and 
the interior of Asia passed by Nazareth 
near the foot of Tabor, and thence north- 
ward to Damascus. 

It is supposed from the words of Na- 
thanael in John 1 : 47 that the city of Naz- 
areth was held in great disrepute, either 
because, it is said, the people of Galilee 
were a rude and less cultivated class, and 
were largely influenced by the Gentiles 



NAZARITE 



492 



NEAPOLIS 



who mingled with them, or because of 
their lower type of moral and religious 
character. But there seems to be no suffi- 
cient reason for these suppositions. The 
Jews believed that, according to Micah 
5 : 2, the birth of the Messiah would take 
place at Bethlehem, and nowhere else. 
Nathanael had the same opinion as his 
countrymen, and believed that the gTeat 
"good" which they were all expecting 
could not come from Nazareth. This is 
probably what Nathanael meant. More- 
over there does not seem to be any evidence 
that the inhabitants of Galilee were in any 
respect inferior, or that a Galilean was 
held in contempt, in the time of our Lord. 
(See Dr. Merrill's Galilee in the Time of 
Christ. ) 

The population of this city in the time 
of Christ probably amounted to fifteen or 
twenty thousand souls. 

Naz'arite (Heb. form Nazirite), the 
name of such Israelites as took on them 
the vow prescribed in Num. 6 : 2-21. The 
word denotes generally one who is separated 
from others, and consecrated to God. Al- 
though there is no mention of any Nazarite 
before Samson, yet it is evident that they 
existed before the time of Moses. The vow 
of a Nazarite involved these three things — 

(1) abstinence from wine and strong drink, 

(2) refraining from cutting the hair off the 
head during the whole period of the con- 
tinuance of the vow, and (3) the avoidance 
of contact with the dead. 

When the period of the continuance of 
the vow came to an end, the Nazarite had 
to present himself at the door of the sanc- 
tuary with (1) a he-lamb of the first year 
for a burnt-offering, (2) a ewe-lamb of the 
first year for a sin-offering, and (3) a ram 
for a peace-offering. After these sacrifices 
were offered by the priest, the Nazarite cut 
off his hair at the door and threw it into 
the fire under the peace-offering. 

For some reason, probably in the midst 
of his work at Corinth, Paul took on him- 
self the Nazarite vow. This could only be 
terminated by his going up to Jerusalem 
to offer up the hair which till then was to 
be left uncut. But it seems to have been 
allowable for persons at a distance to cut 



the hair, which was to be broiight up to 
Jerusalem, where the ceremony was com- 
pleted. This Paul did at Cenchrea just 
before setting out on his voyage into Syria 
(Acts 18 : 18). 

On another occasion (Acts 21 : 23-26), at 
the feast of Pentecost, Paul took on him- 
self again the Nazarite vow. "The cere- 
monies involved took a longer time than 
Paul had at his disposal, but the law per- 
mitted a man to share the vow if he could 
find companions who had gone through the 
prescribed ceremonies, and who permitted 
him to join their company. This permis- 
sion was commonly granted if the new- 
comer paid all the fees required from the 
whole company (fee to the Levite for cut- 
ting the hair and fees for sacrifices), and 
finished the vow along with the others. 
Pour Jewish Christians were performing 
the vow, and would admit Paul to their 
company, provided he paid their expenses. 
Paul consented, paid the charges, and 
when the last seven days of the vow began 
he went with them to live in the temple, 
giving the usual notice to the priests that 
he had joined in regular fashion, was a 
sharer with the four men, and that his vow 
would end with theirs. Nazarites retired 
to the temple during the last period of 
seven days, because they could be secure 
there against any accidental defilement" 
(Lindsay's Acts). 

As to the duration of a Nazarite's vow, 
every one was left at liberty to fix his o"\\ti 
time. There is mention made in Scripture 
of only three who were Nazarites for life — 
Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist 
( Judg. 13 : 4, 5 ; 1 Sam. 1 : 11 ; Luke 1 : 15). 
In its ordinary form, however, the Naz- 
arite's vow lasted only thirty, and at most 
one hundred days. (See Reohabites.) 

This institution was a symbol of a life 
devoted to God, and separated from all sin 
— a holy life. 

Ne'ah — shaking, or settlement, or descent 
— a town on the east side of Zebulun, not 
far from Pimmon (Josh. 19 : 13). 

Neap^olis — new city — a town in Thrace 
at -which Paul first landed in Europe (Acts 
16 : 11). It was the sea-port of the inland 
town of Philippi, which was distant about 



NEBAIOTH 



493 



NEBUCHADNEZZAR 



10 miles. From this port Paul embarked 
on his last journey to Jerusalem (Acts 
20 : 6). It is identified with the modern 
Tnrko-Grecian Kavalla. 

NebskVoth— height. (1.) Ishmael's eldest 
son (Gen. 2.5 : 13), and the prince of an 
Israelitish tribe (16). He had a sister, 
Mahalath, who was one of Esau's -wives 
(Gen. 28 : 9 ; 36 : 3). 

(2.) The name of the Ishmaelite tribe 
descended from the above (Gen. 2.5 : 18 ; 
21:12). The "rams of Nebaioth" (Isa. 
60 : 7) are the gifts which these wandering 
tribes of the desert would consecrate to 
God. 

Nebal^lat — iciekedness in secret — (Neh. 
11 : 34), probably the village of Beit Nehdla, 
about 4 miles north of Lydda. 

Ne'bat — sight; aspect — the father of 
Jeroboam, the king of Israel (1 Kings 11 : 
26, etc.). 

Ne'bo — proclaimer ; prophet. (1.) A 
Chaldean god, w^hose worship was intro- 
duced into Assyria by Pul (Isa. 46 : 1 ; Jer. 
48 : 1). To this idol Avas dedicated the great 
temple whose ruins are still seen at Birs 
Nimrfld. A statue of Nebo found at Calah, 
where it was set up by Pul, king of Assyria, 
is now in the British Museum. 

(2.) A mountain in the land of Moab 
from which Moses looked for the first and 
the last time on the Promised Land (Deut. 
32 : 49 ; 34 : 1). It has been identified with 
Jebel Nehdh, on the eastern shore of the Dead 
Sea, near its northern end, and about 5 miles 
south-west of Heshbon. It was the summit 
of the ridge of Pisgah {q.v.), which was a 
part of the range of the "mountains of 
Abarim." It is about 2,643 feet in height, 
but from its position it commands a view 
of Western Palestine. Close below it are 
the plains of Moab, where Baalam and 
afterwards Moses saw the tents of Israel 
spread along. 

(3. ) A town on the east of Jordan which 
was taken possession of and rebuilt by 
the tribe of Reuben (Num. 32 : 3, 38 ; 1 Chr. 
5 : 8). It was about 8 miles south of 
Heshbon. 

(4.) The " children of Nebo " (Ezra 2 : 29 ; 
Neh. 7 : 33) were of those who returned 
from Babylon. It was a towTi in Benjamin, 



probably the modern Beit-NHhah, about 7 
miles north-west of Hebron. 






=— =- — 








==^ 


ir^ , 




r1"b. 


'. "Jl 


i)._2 


rr .|H - 


~^^'l 


J :. ' 


■* 


C^ 



NEBO. 

(From stattie hi British Museimi.) 

Nebuchadnez^zar, in the Babylonian 
orthography Nahu-kuduri-utsur, which 
means " Nebo is the protector against mis- 
fortune." In an inscription he styles him- 
self "Nebo's favourite." He was the son 
and successor of Nabopolassar, who de- 
livered Babylon from its dependence on 
Assyria and laid Nineveh in ruins. He 
was the greatest and most powerful of all 
the Babjdonian kings. He married the 
daughter of Cyaxares, and thus the Median 
and Babylonian dynasties were united. 
The black cameo with the head of Nebu- 
chadnezzar now in the museum of Berlin 
bears on it an arrow-headed inscription, 



NEBUCHADNEZZAR 



494 



NEBUCHADNEZZAR 



which has been thus translated: — "In 
honour of Merodach, his lord, Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of Babylon, in his life-time 
had this made. " 




CAMEO OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 

Necho II., the king of Egypt, pro- 
claimed war against Assyria, and while 
marching his army through Syria encoun- 
tered the Jewish army under Josiah (q.v.) 
at Megiddo. There the king of Judah was 
slain. The Egyptian army marched for- 
ward, and gained a victory over the As- 
syrians at Carchemish. This secured to 
Egypt the possession of the Syrian prov- 
inces of Assyria, including Palestine. The 
remaining provinces of the Assyrian empire 
Avere divided between Babylonia and 
Media. But Nabopolassar was ambitious 
of reconquering from Necho the western 
provinces of Syria, and for this purpose 
sent his son with a powerful army west- 
ward (Dan. 1 : 1). The Egyptians met him 
at Carchemish, where a furious battle was 
fought, resulting in the complete rout of 
the Egyptians, who were driven back ( Jer. 
46 : 2-12), and Syria and Phoenicia brought 
under the sway of Babylon (b.c. 606). 
"From that time the king of Egypt came 
not again any more out of his land" (2 
Kings 24 : 7). Nebuchadnezzar also sub- 
dued the whole of Palestine, and took Jeru- 
salem, carrying away captive a great multi- 
tude of the Jews, among whom were Daniel 
and his companions (Dan. 1 : 1, 2 ; Jer. 4 : 1). 

Three years after this Jehoiakim, who 
had reigned in Jerusalem as a Babylonian 
vassal, rebelled against the oppressor, trust- 
ing to help from Egypt (2 Kings 24 : 1). 
This led Nebuchadnezzar to march an army 



again to the conquest of Jerusalem, which 
at once yielded to him (b.c. 598). A third 
time he came against it, and deposed 
Jehoiakin, whom he carried into Babylon, 
with a large portion of the population of 
the city, and the sacred vessels of the 
temple, placing Zedekiah on the throne of 
Judah in his stead. He also, heedless of 
the warnings of the prophet, entered into 
an alliance with Egypt, and rebelled 
against Babylon. This brought about the 
final siege of the city, which was at length 
taken and utterly destroyed (B.C. 586). 
Zedekiah was taken captive, and had his 
eyes put out by order of the king of Baby- 
lon, who made him a prisoner for the re- 
mainder of his life. 

A clay tablet, now in the British Museum, 
bears the following inscription, the only 
one as yet found which refers to his wars : 
— "In the thirty-seventh year of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king of the country of Babylon, 
he went to Egypt (Misr) to make war. 
Amasis, king of Egypt, collected (his army), 
and marched and spread abroad." Thus 
were fulfilled the words of the prophet 
(Jer. 46:13-26; Ezek. 29:2-20). Having 
completed the subjugation of Phcenicia, 
and inflicted chastisement on Egypt, Nebu- 
chadnezzar now set himself to rebuild and 
adorn the city of Babylon (Dan. 4 : 30), and 
to add to the greatness and prosperity of 
his kingdom by constructing canals and 
aqueducts and reservoirs, surpassing in 
grandeur and magnificence everything of 
the kind mentioned in history (Dan. 2 : 37). 
He is represented as a "king of kings," 
ruling over a vast kingdom of many prov- 
inces, with a long list of officers and rulers 
iinder him, " princes, governors, captains," 
etc. (3 : 2, 3, 27). He may indeed be said 
to have created the mighty empire over 
which he ruled. 

" Modern research has shown that Nebu- 
chadnezzar was the greatest monarch that 
Babylon, or perhaps the East generally, 
ever produced. He must have possessed 
an enormous command of human labour — 
nine-tenths of Babylon itself, and nineteen- 
twentieths of all the other ruins that in 
almost countless profusion cover the land, 
are composed of bricks stamped with his 



NEBUCHADREZZAR 



495 



NECK 



name. He appears to have built or restored 
almost every city and temple in the whole 
country. His inscriptions give an elaborate 
account of the immense works which he 
constructed in and about Babylon itself, 
abundantly illustrating the boast, ' Is not 
this great Babylon which I have built ? ' " 
— Rawlinson, Hist. Illustrations. 

After the incident of the "burning fiery 
furnace " (Dan. 7) into which the three 
Hebrew confessors were cast, Nebuchad- 
nezzar was afflicted with some peculiar 
mental aberration as a punishment for his 
pride and vanity, probably the form of 
madness known as lycanthropy (i.e., "the 
change of a man into a wolf "). A remark- 
able confirmation of the Scripture narrative 
is afforded by the recent discovery of a 
bronze door- step, which bears an inscrip- 
tion to the effect that it was presented by 
Nebuchadnezzar to the great temple at 
Borsippa as a votive offering on account of 
his recovery from a terrible illness. (See 
Daniel.) 

He survived his recovery for some years, 
and died B.C. 562, in the eighty-third or 
eighty-fourth year of his age, after a reign 
of forty-three years, and was succeeded by 
his son Evil-merodach, who, after a reign 
of two years, was succeeded by Neriglissar 
(559-555), who was succeeded by Nabo- 
nadius (555-538), at the close of whose reign 
(less than a quarter of a century after the 
death of Nebuchadnezzar) Babylon fell 
under Cyrus at the head of the combined 
armies of Media and Persia. 

"I have examined," says Sir H. Rawlin- 
son, "the bricks belonging perhaps to a 
hundred different towns and cities in the 
neighbourhood of Baghdad, and I never 
found any other legend than that of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, son of Nabopolassar, king of 
Babylon.'" Nine-tenths of all the bricks 
amid the ruins of Babylon are stamped 
with his name. 

Nebuchadrez'zar = Nebuchadnezzar 
(Jer. 21 : 2, 7 ; 22 : 25 ; 24 : 1, etc.), a nearer 
approach to the correct spelling of the 
word. 

Nebushasnt>an — adorer of Nebo, or Nebo 
saves me — the "Rabsaris," or chief cham- 
berlain, of the court of Babylon. He was 



one of those whom the king sent to release 
Jeremiah from prison in Jerusalem (Jer. 
39 : 13). 

Nebuzara^dan, "the captain of the 
guard," in rank next to the king, who 
ajDpears prominent in directing affairs at 
the capture of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25 : 8-21 ; 
Jer. 39 : 11 ; 40 : 2-5). He showed kindness 
toward Jeremiah, as commanded by Nebu- 
chadnezzar (40 : 1). Eive years after this 
he again came to Jerusalem and carried 
captive seven hundred and forty-five more 
Jews. 

Necho II., an Egyi^tian king, the son 
and successor of Psammetichus (B.C. 610- 
594), the contemporary of Josiah, king of 
Judah. For some reason he proclaimed 
war against the king of Assyria. He led 
forth a powerful army and marched north- 
ward, but was met by the king of Judah 
at Megiddo, who refused him a passage 
through his territory. Here a fierce battle 
was fought and Josiah was slain (2 Chr. 
35 : 20-24). Possibly, as some suppose, 
Necho may have brought his army by sea 
to some port to the north of Dor (comp. 
Josh. 11 : 2 ; 12 : 23), a Phoenician town at 
no great distance from Megiddo. After 
this battle Necho marched on to Car- 
chemish {q.v.), where he met and conquered 
the Assyrian army, and thus all the Syrian 
provinces, including Palestine, came under 
his dominion. 

On his return march he deposed Je- 
hoahaz, who had succeeded his father 
Josiah, and made Eliakim, Josiah's eldest 
son, whose name he changed into Jehoia- 
kim, king. Jehoahaz he carried down into 
Egypt, where he died (2 Kings 23 : 31 ; 2 
Chr. 36 : 1-4). Four years after this con- 
quest Necho again marched to the Eu- 
phrates ; but here he was met and his 
army routed by the Chaldeans (b.c. 606) 
under Nebuchadnezzar, who drove the 
Egyptians back, and took from them all 
the territory they had conquered, from the 
Euphrates unto the "river of Egypt" 
(Jer. 46 : 2 ; 2 Kings 24 : 7, 8). Soon after 
this Necho died, and was succeeded by his 
son, Psammetichus II. (See Nebuchad- 

NEZZAE.) 

Neck, used sometimes figuratively. To 



NECROMANCER 



496 



NEHEMIAH 



"lay down the neck" (Rom. 16:4) is to 
hazard one's life. Threatenings of coming 
judgments are represented by the prophets 
by their laying bands upon the people's 
necks (Deut. 28 : 48 ; Isa. 10 : 27 ; Jer. 27 : 
2). Conquerors put their feet on the necks 
of their enemies as a sign of their sub- 
jection (Josh. 10 : 24 ; 2 Sam. 22 : 41). 

Nec'romancer (Deut. 18:11)— i.e., "one 
who interrogates the dead," as the word 
literally means, with the view of discover- 
ing the secrets of futurity (comp. 1 Sam. 
28 : 7). (See Divination. ) 

Nedabi'ah — moved of Jehovah — one of 
the sons of Jeconiah (1 Chr. 3 : 18). 

Needle, used only in the proverb, "to 
pass through a needle's eye" (Matt. 19 :24 ; 
Mark 10 : 25 ; Luke 18 : 25). Some interpret 
the expression as referring to the side gate, 
close to the jorincipal gate, usvially called 
the " eye of a needle " in the East ; but it 
is rather to be taken literally. 

The Hebrew females were skilled in the 
use of the needle (Ex. 28:39; 26:36; Judg. 
5 : 30). 

Neg^inah, in the title of Ps. 61, denotes 
the music of stringed instruments (1 Sam. 
16:16; Isa. 38:20). It is the singular 
form of Neginoth. 

Neg''inoth— i.e., songs with instrumental 
accompaniment, found in the titles of Ps. 
4 ; 6 ; 54 ; 55 ; 67 ; 76 ; rendered " stringed 
instruments," Hab. 3 : 19, A.V. It denotes 
all kinds of stringed instruments, as the 
"harp," "psaltery," "viol," etc. The 
"chief musician on Neginoth" is the leader 
of that part of the temple choir which 
played on stringed instruments. 

Nehel^'amite, the name given to a false 
prophet Shemaiah, who went with the cap- 
tives to Babylon (Jer. 29 : 24, 31, 32). The 
origin of the name is unknown. It is ren- 
dered in the marg. " dreamer." 

Nehemi^ah — comforted by Jehovah. (1.) 
Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7. 

(2.) Neh. 3:16. 

(3.) The son of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1), 
and probably of the tribe of Judah. His 
family must have belonged to Jerusalem 
(Neh. 2 : 3). He was one of the "Jews of 
the dispersion, " and in his youth was ap- 
pointed to the important office of royal 



cup-bearer at the palace of Shushan. The 
king, Artaxerxes Longimanus, seems to 
have been on terms of friendly familiarity 
with his attendant. Through his brother 
JEanani, and perhaps from other sources 
(Neh. 1:2; 2:3), he heard of the mourn- 
ful and desolate condition of the Holy 
City, and was filled with sadness of heart. 
For many days he fasted and mourned 
and prayed for the place of his fathers' 
sepulchres. At length the king observed 
his sadness of countenance and asked 
the reason of it. Nehemiah explained it 
all to the king, and obtained his permis- 
sion to go up to Jerusalem and there to 
act as tirshatha, or governor of Judea, 
He went up in the spring of B.C. 446 (eleven 
years after Ezra), with a strong escort 
supplied by the king, and with letters to 
all the pashas of the provinces through 
which he had to pass, as also to Asaph, 
keeper of the royal forests, directing him to 
assist Nehemiah. On his arrival he set 
himself to survey the city, and to form a 
plan for its restoration ; a plan which he 
carried out with great skill and energy, so 
that the whole was completed in aboiit six 
months. He remained in Judea for thir- 
teen years as governor, carrying out many 
reforms, notwithstanding much opposition 
that he encountered (Neh. 13 : 11). He built 
up the state on the old lines, " suiDplement- 
ing and completing the work of Ezra, " and 
making all arrangements for the safety 
and good government of the city. At the 
close of this important period of his public 
life, he returned to Persia to the service 
of his royal master at Shushan or Ecba- 
tana. Very soon after this the old corrupt 
state of things returned, showing the worth- 
lessness to a large extent of the professions 
that had been made at the feast of the 
dedication of the walls of the city (Neh. 
12. See Ezka). Malachi now appeared 
among the people with words of stern re- 
proof and solemn warning ; and Nehemiah 
again returned from Persia (after an ab- 
sence of some two years), and was 
grieved to see the widespread moral de- 
generacy that had taken place during his 
absence. He set himself with \'igour to 
rectify the flagrant abuses that had sprung 



NEHEMIAH 



497 



NEIEL 



up, and restored the orderly administration 
of public worship and the outward observ- 
ance of the law of Moses. Of his subse- 
quent history we know nothing. Probably 
he remained at his post as governor till his 
death (about B.C. 413) in a good old age. 
The place of his death and burial is, how- 
ever, unknown. "He resembled Ezra in 
his fiery zeal, in his active spirit of enter- 
prise, and in the piety of his life : but he 
was of a bhxffer and a fiercer mood ; he had 
less patience with transgressors ; he was a 
man of action rather than a man of thought, 
and more inclined to use force than jDer- 
suasion. His practical sagacity and high 
courage were very markedly shown in the 
arrangement with which he carried through 
the rebuilding of the wall and balked the 
cunning plans of the 'adversaries.' The 
piety of his heart, his deejDly religious 
spirit and constant sense of communion 
^vith and absolute dependence upon God, 
are strikingly exhibited, first in the long 
prayer recorded in ch. 1 : .5-11, and secondly 
and most remarkably in what have been 
called his ' inter jectional prayers' — those 
short but moving addresses to Almighty 
God which occur so frequently in his 
writings — the instinctive outpouring of a 
heart deeply moved, but ever resting itself 
upon God, and looking to God alone for 
aid in trouble, for the frustration of evil de- 
signs, and for final reward and acceptance " 
(Rawlinson). Nehemiah was the last of 
the governors sent from the Persian court. 
Judea after this was annexed to the sa- 
trapy of Coele-Syria, and was governed by 
the high priest under the jurisdiction of 
the governor of Syria, and the internal 
government of the country became more 
and more a hierarchy. 

Nehemi^ah, Book of. The author of 
this book was no doubt Nehemiah himself. 
There are portions of the book written in 
the first person (ch. 1-7 ; 12 : 27-47, and 13). 
But there are also portions of it in which 
Xehemiah is spoken of in the third person 
(ch. 8 ; 9 ; 10). It is supposed that these 
portions may have been written by Ezra ; 
of this, however, there is no distinct evi- 
dence. These portions had their place 
assigned them in the book, there can be no 



doubt, by Nehemiah. He was the resi^on- 
sible author of the whole book, with the 
exception of ch. 12 : 11, 22, 23. 

The date at which the book was written 
was j)robably about B.C. 431-430, when 
Nehemiah had returned the second time 
to Jerusalem after his visit to Persia. 

The book, which may historically be 
regarded as a continuation of the book of 
Ezra, consists of four parts. (1. ) An account 
of the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, 
and of the register Nehemiah had found of 
those who had returned from Babylon 
(ch. 1-7). (2.) An account of the state of 
religion among the Jews during this time 
(8-10). (3.) Increase of the inhabitants of 
Jerusalem ; the census of the adult male 
population, and names of the chiefs, to- 
gether with lists of priests and Levites 
(11-12 : 1-26). (4.) Dedication of the wall 
of Jerusalem, the arrangement of the 
temple officers, and the reforms carried out 
by Nehemiah (12 : 27-ch. 13). 

This book closes the history of the Old 
Testament. Malachi the prophet was con- 
temi^orary with Nehemiah. 

Ne'hiloth, only in the title of Ps. 5. It 
is probably derived from a root meaning 
"to bore," "perforate," and hence denotes 
perforated wind instruments of all kinds. 
The psalm may be thus regarded as ad- 
dressed to the conductor of the temple 
choir which played on flutes and such-like 
instruments. 

Neliush''ta — copper — the daughter of 
Elnathan of Jerusalem, and the wife of 
Jehoiakin (2 Kings 24 : 8), king of Judah. 

Nehush'^tan — of copper ; a brazen thing 
— a name of contempt given to the ser- 
pent Moses had made in the wilderness 
(Num. 21 : 8), and which Hezekiah destroyed 
because the children of Israel began to re- 
gard it as an idol and "burn incense to 
it." The lapse of nearly one thousand 
years had invested the "brazen serpent" 
with a mysterious sanctity ; and in order to 
deliver the people from their infatuation, 
and impress them with the idea of its worth- 
lessness, Hezekiah called it, in contempt, 
"Nehushtan," a brazen thing — a mere piece 
of brass (2 Kings 18 : 4). 

Nei''el — dwelling-place of God — a town in 



NEKEB 



•498 



NERO 



the territory of Asher, near its southern 
border (Josh. 19 : 27). It has been identified 
with the ruin Y'antn, near the outlet of the 
Wady esh Sha-ghtir, less than 2 miles north 
of Kabtil, and 16 miles east of Csesarea. 

Ne'keb — cavern — a town on the bound- 
ary of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 33). It has, with 
probability, been identified with Seiyddeh, 
nearly 2 miles east of Bessum, a ruin half 
way between Tiberias and Mount Tabor. 

Nem'uel — day of God. (1.) One of 
Simeon's five sons (1 Chr. 4:24), called 
also Jemuel (Gen. 46 : 10). 

(2.) A Reubenite, a son of Eliab, and 
brother of Dathan and Abiram (Num. 
26 : 9). 

Nephiaim (Gen. 6:4; Num. 13 : 33, 
R.V.) — giants — the Hebrew word left un- 
translated by the Revisers, the name of one 
of the Canaanitish tribes. The Revisers 
have, however, translated the Hebrew 
gibborim, in Gen. 6 : 4, "mighty men." 

Nephtc'ah — opened — a fountain and a 
stream issiiing from it on the border be- 
tween Judah and Benjamin (Josh. 15:8, 9 ; 
18 : 15). It has been identified with ^Ain 
Lifta, a spring about 2| miles north-west of 
Jerusalem. Others, however, have identi- 
fied it with '^Ain 'Atdn, on the [south-west 
of Bethlehem, whence water is conveyed 
through "Pilate's aqueduct" to the Haram 
area at Jerusalem. 

Ner — light — the father of Kish (1 Chr, 
8:33). 1 Sam. 14:51 should be read, 
"Kish, the father of Saul, and Ner, the 
father of Abner, were the sons of Abiel." 
And hence this Kish and Ner were 
brothers, and Saul and Abner were first 
cousins (comp. 1 Chr. 9 : 36). 

Ne^reus, a Christian at Rome to whom 
Paul sent his salutation (Rom. 16 : 15). 

Ner^gal — the great hero— one of the chief 
gods of the Assyrians and Babylonians (2 
Kings 17 : 30), the god of war and hunting. 
He is connected with Cutha as its tute- 
lary deity. 

Ner'gal-share'zer — Nergal, prince of 

fire. (1.) One of the "princes of the king 

of Babylon who accompanied him in his 

last expedition against Jerusalem " ( Jer. 

' 39 : 3). 

(2.) Another of the " princes, " who bore 



the title of ' ' Rabmag. " He was one of those 
who were sent to release Jeremiah from 
prison (Jer. 39 : 13) by "the captain of the 
guard." He was a Babylonian grandee of 
high rank. From profane history and the 
inscriptions, we are led to conclude that he 
was the Neriglissar who murdered Evil- 
merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, 
and succeeded him on the throne of Baby- 
lon (B.C. 559-556). He was married to a 
daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. The ruins 
of a palace, the only one on the right bank 
of the Euphrates, bear inscriptions denot- 
ing that it was built by this king. He was 
succeeded by his son, a mere boy, who was 
murdered after a reign of some nine months 
by a conspiracy of the nobles, one of whom, 
Nabonadius, ascended the vacant throne, 
and reigned for a period of seventeen 
years (B.C. 555-538), at the close of which 
period Babylon was taken by Cyrus. Bel- 
shazzar, who comes into notice in connec- 
tion with the taking of Babylon, was by 
some supposed to have been the same as 
Nabonadius, who was called Nebuchadnez- 
zar's son (Dan. 5 : 11, 18, 22), because he 
had married his daughter. But it is known 
from the inscriptions that Nabonadius had a 
son called Belshazzar, who may have been 
his father's associate on the throne at the 
time of the fall of Babylon, and who there- 
fore w^ould be the grandson of Nebuchad- 
nezzar. The Jews had only one word, 
usually rendered "father," to represent 
also such a relationship as that of "grand- 
father" or "great-grandfather." 

Ne''ro occurs only in the superscription 
(which is probably spurious, and is alto- 
gether omitted in the R.V.) to the Second 
Epistle to Timothy. He became emperor 
of Rome when he was about seventeen 
years of age (a.d. 54), and soon began to 
exhibit the character of a cruel tyrant and 
heathen debauchee. In May a.d. 64, a 
terrible conflagration broke out in Rome, 
which raged for six days and seven nights, 
and totally destroyed a great part of the 
city. The guilt of this fire w^as attached 
to him at the time, and the general ver- 
dict of history accuses him of the crime. 
"Hence, to suppress the rumour," says 
Tacitus {Annals, xv. 44), " he falsely 



NET 



•499 



NETHANIAH 



charged with the guilt, and punished with 
the most exquisite tortures, the persons 
commonly called Christians, who are hated 
for their enormities. Christus, the founder 
of that name, was put to death as a crimi- 
nal by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea, 
in the reign of Tiberius ; but the pernicious 
superstition, repressed for a time, broke 
out again, not only throughout Judea, 
where the mischief originated, but through 
the city of Rome also, whither all things 
horrible and disgraceful flow, from all 
quarters, as to a common receptacle, and 
where they are encouraged. Accordingly, 
first three were seized, who confessed they 
were Clxristians. Next, on their informa- 
tion, a vast multitude were convicted, not 
so much on the charge of burning the city 
as of hating the human race. And in their 
deaths they were also made the subjects 
of sport ; for they were covered with the 
hides of wild beasts and worried to death 
by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, 
and, when day declined, burned to serve 
for nocturnal lights. Nero offered his own 
gardens for that spectacle, and exhibited a 
Circensian game, indiscriminately mingling 
with the common people in the habit of a 
charioteer, or else standing in his chariot ; 
whence a feeling of compassion arose toward 
the sufferers, though guilty and deserving 
to be made examples of by capital punish- 
ment, because they seemed not to be cut 
off for the public good, but victims to the 
ferocity of one man." Another Roman 
historian, Suetonius {Nero, xvi.), says 
of him: "He like\\dse inflicted punish- 
ments on the Christians, a sort of people 
who hold a new and impious superstition " 
(Forbes's Footsteps of St. Paul, p. 59). 

Nero was the emperor before whom Paul 
was brought on his first imprisonment at 
Rome, and the apostle is supposed to have 
suffered martyrdom during this persecu- 
tion. He is repeatedly alluded to in Scrip- 
ture (Acts 25 : 11 ; Phil. 1 : 12, 13 ; 4 : 22). 
He died a.d. 68. 

Net, in use among the Hebrews for fish- 
ing, hunting, and fowling. 

The fishing -net was probably constructed 
after the form of that used by the Egyp- 
tians (Isa. 19 : 8). There were three kinds 



of nets. (1.) The drag-net or hauling-net 
(Gr. sagene), of great size, and requiring 
many men to work it. It was usually let 
down from the fishing-boat, and then drawn 
to the shore or into the boat, as circum- 
stances might require (Matt. 13 : 47, 48). 
(2.) The hatvi-net or casting-net (Gr. am- 
phiblestron), which was thrown from a rock 
or a boat at any fish that might be seen 
(Matt. 4 : 18 ; Mark 1 : 16). It was called 
by the Latins funda. It was of circular 
form, "like the top of a tent." (3.) The 
hag-net (Gr. diktyon), used for enclosing 
fish in deep water (Luke 5 : 4-9). 

The foivling-nets were (1) the trap, con- 
sisting of a net spread over a frame, and 
supported by a stick in such a way that it 
fell with the slightest touch (Amos 3 : 5, 
"gin ;" Ps. 69 : 22 ; Job 18 : 9 ; Eccl. 9 : 12). 

(2.) The snare, consisting of a cord to 
catch birds by the leg (Job 18 : 10 ; Ps. 18 : 
5 ; 116 : 3 ; 140 : 5). 

(3.) The decoy, a cage filled with birds 
as decoys ( Jer, 5 : 26, 27). 

Hunting-nets were much in use among the 
Hebrews. 

Nethan^eel — given of God. (1.) The 
son of Zuar, chief of the tribe of Issachar 
at the Exodus (Num. 1:8; 2:5). 

(2.) One of David's brothers (1 Chr. 2: 
14). 

(3.) A priest who blew the trumpet be- 
fore the ark when it was brought up to 
Jerusalem (1 Chr. 15 : 24). 

(4.) A Levite (1 Chr. 24:6). 

(5. ) A temple porter, of the family of the 
Korhites (1 Chr. 26 : 4). 

(6.) One of the "princes" appointed by 
Jehoshaphat to teach the law through the 
cities of Judah (2 Chr. 17 : 7). 

(7. ) A chief Levite in the time of Josiah 
(2 Chr. 35 : 9). 

(8.) Ezra 10: 22. 

(9.) Neh. 12:21. 

(10. ) A priest's son who bore a trumpet 
at the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem 
(Neh. 12 : 36). 

Nethani^ah — given of Jehovah. (1.) One 
of Asaph's sons, appointed by David to 
minister in the temple (1 Chr. 25 : f , 12). 

(2.) A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to 
teach the law . (2 Chr. 17 : 8). 



NETHINIM 



500 



NICODEMUS 



(3.) Jer. 36:14. 

(4.) 2 Kings 25 : 23, 25. 

Neth'inim, the name given to the her- 
editary temple servants in all the post- 
Exilian books of Scripture. The word 
means given — i.e., "those set apart "—riz. , 
to the menial work of the sanctuary for the 
Levites. The name occurs seventeen times, 
and in each case in the Authorized Ver- 
sion incorrectly terminates in s — "Neth- 
inims ; " in the Revised Version, correctly 
without the s (Ezra 2 : 70 ; 7 : 7, 24 ; 8 : 20, 
etc.). The tradition is that the Gibeonites 
(Josh. 9 : 27) were the original caste, after- 
wards called Nethinim. Their numbers 
were added to afterwards from captives 
taken in battle ; and they were formally 
given by David to the Levites (Ezra 8:20), 
and so were called Nethinim — i.e., the 
given ones — given to the Levites to be their 
servants. Only 612 Nethinim returned 
from Babylon (Ezra 2 : 58 ; 8 : 20). They 
were under the control of a chief from 
among themselves (2 : 43 ; Neh. 7 : 46). 

No reference to them appears in the New 
Testament, because it is probable that they 
became merged in the general body of the 
Jewish people. 

Netc'phah — distillation ; dropp ing — a 
town in Judah, in the neighbourhood, 
probably, of Bethlehem (Neh. 7 : 26 ; 1 
Chr, 2 : 54). Two of David's guards were 
Netophathites (1 Chr. 27 : 13, 15). It has 
been identified with the ruins of Metoha, 
or Um Toha, to the north-east of Bethle- 
hem. 

Net^tle. (1.) Heb. Mriil, "pricking" 
or "burning," Prov. 24:30, 31 (R.V. marg., 
"wild vetches"); Job 30:7; Zeph. 2:9. 
Many have supposed that some thorny or 
prickly plant is intended hy this word — 
such as the bramble, the thistle, the wild 
IDlum, the cactus or prickly pear, etc. It 
may probably be a species of mustard, the 
Sinapis arvensis, which is a pernicious weed 
abounding in corn-fields. Tristi-am thinks 
that this word "designates the prickly 
acanthus {Acanthus spiyiosus), a very com- 
mon and troublesome weed in the plains of 
Palestine. " 

(2.) Heb. qimmdsh, Isa. 34:13 (R.V., 
"thorns"); Hos. 9:6; Prov. 24:31 (in 



both versions, "thorns"). This word has 
been regarded as denoting thorns, thistles, 
wild camomile ; but probably it is correctly 
rendered "nettle," the Urtica 2^ilulifera, 
"a tall and vigorous plant, often 6 feet 
high, the sting of which is much more 
severe and irritating than that of our com- 
mon nettle." 

New Moon, Feast of. Sjjecial services 
were appointed for the commencement of 
a month (Num. 28:11-15; 10:10). (See 
Festivals. ) 

New Test^ament (Luke 22 : 20), rather 
"New Covenant," in contrast to the old 
covenant of works, which is superseded. 
"The covenant of grace is called new; it 
succeeds to the old broken covenant of 
works. It is ever fresh, flourishing, and 
excellent ; and under the gospel it is dis- 
pensed in a more clear, spiritual, extensive, 
and powerful manner than of old " (Brown 
of Haddington). Hence is derived the 
name given to the latter portion of the 
Bible. (See Testament.) 

Nezi'^ah — victory ; pure — Ezra 2 : 54 ; 
Neh. 7 : 56. 

Ne'zib, a town in the "plain '' of Judah. 
It has been identified with Beit Nuzih, 
about 14 miles south-west of Jerusalem, 
in the WMy Stir (Josh. 15 : 43). 

Nib'haz — barker — the name of an idol, 
supposed to be an evil demon of the Zabi- 
ans. It was set up in Samaria by the 
Avites (2 Kings 17 : 31), probably in the 
form of a dog. 

Nib'shan — fertile; light soil — a city 
somewhere "in the wilderness" of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 62), probably near Engedi. 

Nica'nor — conqueror — one of the seven 
deacons appointed in the apostolic Church 
(Acts 6 : 1-6). Nothing further is known 
of him. 

Nicode^mus — the people is victor — a 
Pharisee and a member of the Sanhedrin. 
He is first noticed as visiting Jesus by 
night (John 3 : 1-21) for the purpose of 
learning more of his doctrines, which our 
Lord then unfolded to him, giving prom- 
inence to the necessity of being "born 
again." He is next met wdth in the Sanhe- 
drin (7 : 50-52), where he protested against 
the course they were taking in plotting 



NICOLAITANES 



^01 



NINEVEH 



against Christ. Once more he is men- 
tioned as taking i^art in the preparation 
for the anointing and burial of the body of 
Christ (John 19 : 39). We hear nothing 
more of him. There can be little doubt 
that he became a true disciple. 

Nicola'itanes. The church at Ephesus 
(Rev. 2:6) is commended for hating the 
"deeds" of the Nicolaitanes, and the 
church of Pergamos is blamed for having 
them who hold their "doctrines" (15). 
They were seemingly a class of x^rofessing 
Christians, who sought to introduce into 
the church a false freedom or licentious- 
ness, thus abusing Paul's doctrine of grace 
(comp. 2 Pet. 2 : 15, 16, 19), and were prob- 
ably identical with those who held the doc- 
trine of Baalam {q.v.) — Rev. 2 : 14. 

Nicholas — the victory of the jKople — a 
proselyte of Antioch, one of the seven 
deacons (Acts 6 : 5). 

Nicop^olis — city of victory — where Paul 
intended to winter (Titus 3 : 12). There 
were several cities of this name. The one 
here referred to was most probably that 
in Epirus, which was built by Augustus 
Csesar to commemorate his victorj^ at the 
battle of Actium (b.c. 31). It is the 
modern Paleoprevesa — i.e., "Old Prevesa." 
The subscription to the epistle to Titus 
calls it "Nicopolis of Macedonia" — i.e., of 
Thrace. This is, however, probably in- 
correct. 

Ni''ger — Mack — a surname of Simeon 
(Acts 13 : 1). He was probably so called 
from his dark complexion. 

Night-hawk (Heb. talnmis) occurs only 
in the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11 : 16 ; 
Deut. 14 : 15). This was supposed to be 
the night- jar {Caprimulgus), allied to the 
swifts. The Hebrew word is derived from 
a root meaning "to scratch or tear the 
face, "and may be best rendered, in accord- 
ance with tlie ancient versions, ' ' an owl " 
[Strix flammea). The Revised Version 
renders "night-hawk." 

Nile — dark; blue— not found in Scrip- 
ture, but frequently referred to in the Old 
Testament under the name of Sihor — i.e., 
" the black stream " (Isa. 23 : 3 ; Jer. 2 : 18) 
— or simply "the river "(Gen. 41:1; Ex. 
1:22, etc.) and the "flood of Egypt" 



(Amos 8 : 8). It consists of two rivers — 
the White Nile, which takes its rise in 
the Victoria Nyanza, and the Blue Nile, 
which rises in the Abyssinian Mountains. 
These unite at the town of Khartoum, 
whence it pursues its course for 1,800 miles, 
and falls into the Mediterranean through 
its two branches, into which it is divided a 
few miles north of Cairo, the Rosetta and 
the Damietta branch. (See Egypt.) 

Nim^rah — pure — a city on the east of 
Jordan (Num. 32 : 3) ; probably the same 
as Beth-nimrah (Josh. 13 : 27). It has been 
identified with the Nahr Nivirin, at one of 
the fords of Jordan, not far from Jericho. 

Nim^rim, Waters of— the stream of the 
leopards — a stream in Moab (Isa. 15 : 6 ; 
Jer. 48 : 34) ; probably the modern Wddy 
en-Nemeirah, a rich, verdant si)ot at the 
south-eastern end of the Dead Sea. 

Niin''rod — firvi — a descendant of Cush, 
the son of Ham. He was the first who 
claimed to be a "mighty one in the earth." 
Babel was the beginning of his kingdom, 
which he gradually enlarged (Gen. 10 : 8- 
10). The " land of Nimrod " (Micah 5 : 6) 
is a designation of Assyria or of Shinar, 
which is a part of it. 

Nim^shi — saved. Jehu was "the son of 
Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi " (2 Kings 
9:2; comp. 1 Kings 19 : 16). 

Nin^eveh. First mentioned in Gen. 10 : 
11, wliich is rendered in the Revised Ver- 
sion, "He \i.e., Nimrod] went forth into 
Assyria and builded Nineveh. " It is not 
again noticed till the days of Jonah, when 
it is described (Jonah 3:3; 4 : 11) as a great 
and populous city, the flourishing capital 
of the Assyrian empire (2 Kings 19 : 36 ; 
Isa. 37:37). The book of the prophet 
Nahum is almost exclusively taken up 
with prophetic denunciations against this 
city. Its ruin and utter desolation are 
foretold (Nah. 1 : 14 ; 3 : 19, etc. ). Zephaniah 
also (2 : 13-15) predicts its destruction 
along with the fall of the empire of which 
it was the capital. Prom this time there 
is no mention of it in Scripture till it is 
named in gospel history (Matt. 12 : 41 ; 
Luke 11 : 32). 

This "exceeding great city" lay on the 
eastern or left. bank of the river Tigris, along 



NINEVEH 



502 



NINEVEH 



which it stretched for some 30 miles, having 
an average breadth of 10 miles or more 
from the river back toward the eastern 
hills. This whole extensive sj)ace is now 
one immense area of ruins. Occupying a 
central position on the great highway be- 
tween the Mediterranean and the Indian 
Ocean, thus uniting the East and the West, 
wealth flowed into it from many sources, 
so that it became the greatest of all ancient 
cities. 

About B.C. 633 the Assyrian empire be- 
gan to show signs of weakness, and Nine- 



veh was attacked by the Medes, who sub- 
sequently — about B.C. 625 — being joined 
by the Babylonians and Susianians, again 
attacked it, when it fell, and was razed to 
the ground. The Assyrian empire then 
came to an end, the Medes and Baby- 
lonians dividing its provinces between 
them. "After having ruled for more than 
six hundred years with hideous tyranny 
and violence, from the Caucasus and the 
Caspian to the Persian Gulf, and from 
beyond the Tigris to Asia Minor and 
Egypt, it vanished like a dream" (Nah. 







SCULPTURED SLAB FROM NINEVEH. 



2 : 6-11). Its end was strange, sudden, 
tragic. It was God's doing — his judg- 
ment on Assyria's pride (Isa. 10 : 5-19). 

Forty years ago our knowledge of the 
great Assyrian empire and of its magnifi- 
cent capital was almost wholly a. blank. 
Vague memories had indeed survived of 
its power and greatness, biit very little 
was definitely known about it. Other 
cities which had perished — as Palmyra, 
Persepolis, and Thebes — had left ruins to 
mark their sites and tell of their former 
greatness ; but of this city, imperial Nine- 



veh, not a single vestige seemed to remain, 
and the very place on which it had stood 
was only matter of conjecture. In fulfil- 
ment of prophecy, God made "an utter end 
of the place." It became a "desolation." 
In the days of the Greek historian Herod- 
otus, B.C. 400, it had become a thing of the 
past ; and when Xenophon the historian 
passed the place in the "Retreat of the 
Ten Thousand," the very memory of its 
name had been lost. It was buried out of 
sight, and no one knew its grave. It is 
never again to rise from its ruins. 



NINEVEH 



503 



NINEVEH 



At length, after being lost for more than 
two thousand years, the city was disen- 
tombed. A little more than forty years 
ago the French consul at Mosul began to 
search the vast mounds that lay along the 
opposite bank of the river. The Arabs 



whom he employed in these excavations, 
to their great surprise, came upon the ruins 
of a building at the mound of Khorsabad, 
which, on further exploration, turned out 
to be the roj'^al palace of Sargon, one of the 
Assyrian kings. They found their way 




ASSYRIAN TEMPLE RESTORED (kHORSABAD). 



into its extensive courts and chambers, 
and brought forth from its hidden depths 
many wonderful sculptures and other relics 
of those ancient times. The work of ex- 
ploration has been carried on almost con- 
tinuously in the mounds of Nebi-Yunus, 



Nimrud, Kouyunjik, and Khorsabad ever 
since, and a vast treasury of specimens 
of old Assyrian art have been exhumed. 
Palace after palace has been discovered, 
with their decorations and their sculptured 
slabs, revealing the life and manners of 



NINEVEH 



504 



NO 



this ancient people, their arts of war and 
peace, the forms of their religion and the 
style of their architecture, and the magnifi- 
cence of their monarchs. The streets of 
the city have been explored, the inscriptions 
on the bricks and tablets and sculptured 
figures have been read, and now the secrets 
of their history have been brought to light. 
One of the most remarkable of recent dis- 
coveries is that of the library of King 
Assur-bani-pal, or, as the Greek historians 
call him, Sardanajjalus, the grandson of 
Sennacherib (g.r.). (See Asnappek). This 
library consists of about ten thousand flat 
bricks or tablets, all written over with As- 
syrian characters. They contain a record of 
the history, the laws, and the religion of As- 
syria, of the greatest value. These strange 
clay leaves foiind in the royal library form 
the most valuable of all the treasuries of 
the literature of the old world. It contains 
also old Accadian docviments, which are 
the very oldest extant documents in the 
world, dating as far back as probably about 
the time of Abraham. (See Saegon.) 

The bas-reliefs, alabaster slabs, and sculp- 
tured monuments found in these recovered 
palaces serve in a remarkable manner to 
confirm the Old Testament history of the 
kings of Israel. The appearance of the 
ruins shows that the destriiction of the 
city was due not only to the assailing foe 
bvit also to the flood and the fire, thus 
confirming the ancient prophecies con- 
cerning it. "The recent excavations," 
says Rawlinson, "have shown that fire 
was a great instrument in the destruction 
of the Nineveh palaces. Calcined ala- 
baster, charred wood, and charcoal, colos- 
sal statues split through with heat, are met 
with in parts of the Nineveh mounds, and 
attest the veracity of prophecy. " 

Nineveh in its glory was (Jonah 3 : 4) an 
" exceeding great city of three days' jour- 
ney " — i. e. , probably in circuit. This would 
give a circumference of about 60 miles. At 
the four corners of an irregular quadrangle 
are the ruins of Kouyunjik, Nimrud, Kar- 
amless, and Khorsabad. These four great 
masses of ruins, with the whole area in- 
cluded within the parallelogram they form 
by lines drawn from the one to the other, 



are generally regarded as composing the 
whole ruins of Nineveh. 

Nissan — month offloivers — (Neh. 2 : 1) the 
first month of the Jewish sacred year. (See 
Abib.) Assyrian msawnw, "beginning." 

Nis'roch, probably connected with the 
Hebrew word nesher, an eagle. An As- 
syrian god, supposed to be that represented 
with the head of an eagle. Sennacherib 
was killed in the temple of this idol (2 Kings 
19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). 




NISROCH. 



Nrtre (Pro V. 25 : 20 ; R. V. marg. , " soda"), 
properly "natron," a substance so called 
because, rising from the bottom of the Lake 
Natron in Egypt, it becomes dry and hard 
in the sun, and is the soda which effervesces 
when vinegar is poured on it. It is a car- 
bonate of soda— not saltpetre, which the 
word generally denotes. 

No or No-a^mon — the home ofAmon — the 
name of Thebes, the ancient capital of what 



NOADIAH 



505 



NOAH 



is called the Middle Empire, in Upper or 
Southern Egypt. "The multitude of No" 
( Jer. 46 : 25) is more correctly rendered, as 
in the Revised Version, " Amon of No " — 
i.e., No, where Jupiter Amon had his 
temple. In Ezek. 30 : 14, 16 it is simply 
called " No ; " but in ver. 15 the name has 
the Hebrew Hamon prefixed to it, " Hamon 
No." This prefix is probably the name 
simply of the god usually styled Amon or 
Ammon. In Nah. 3 : 8 the "populous No " 
of the Authorized Version is in the Revised 
Version correctly rendered ' ' No Amon, " 

It was the Diospolis or Thebes of the 
Greeks, celebrated for its hundred gates 
and its vast population. It stood on both 
sides of the Nile, and is by some supposed 
to have included Karnak and Luxor. In 
grandeur and extent it can only be com- 
pared to Nineveh. It is mentioned only in 
the prophecies referred to, which point to 
its total destruction. It was first taken by 
the Assyrians in the time of Sargon (Isa. 
20). It was afterwards "delivered into 
the hand " of Nebuchadnezzar and Assur- 
bani-pal (Jer. 46 : 25, 26). Cambyses, king 
of the Persians (B.C. 525), further laid it 
waste by fire. Its ruin was completed (B.C. 
81) by Ptolemy Lathyrus. The ruins of 
this city are still among the most notable 
in the valley of the Nile. They have 
formed a great storehouse of interesting 
historic remains for more than two thou- 
sand years. "As I wandered day after 
day with ever-growing amazement amongst 
these relics of ancient magnificence, I felt 
that if all the ruins in Europe — classical, 
Celtic, and medieval — were brought to- 
gether into one centre, they would fall far 
short both in extent and grandeur of those 
of this single Egyptian city." — Manning, 
The Land of the Pharaohs. 

Noadi^ah — meeting ivith the Lord. (1.) 
A Levite who returned from Babylon 
(Ezra 8 : 33). 

(2. ) A false prophetess who assisted To- 
biah and Sanballat against the Jews (Neh. 
6 : 14). Being bribed by them, she tried to 
stir up discontent among the inhabitants 
of Jerusalem, and so to embarrass Nehemiah 
in his great work of rebuilding the ruined 
walls of the city. 



No^ah — rest — (Heb. Noah) the grandson 

of Methuselah (Gen. 5 : 25-29), who was for 
two hundred and fifty years contemporary 
with Adam, and the son of Lamech, who 
was about fifty years old at the titne of 
Adam's death. This patriarch is rightly 
regarded as the connecting link betvveen 
the old and the new world. He is the second 
great progenitor of the human family. 

The words of his father Lamech at his 
birth (Gen. 5 : 29) have been regarded as in 
a sense prophetical, designating Noah as a 
type of Him who is the true "rest and com- 
fort " of men under the burden of life (Matt. 
11 : 28). 

He lived five hundred years, and then 
there were born unto him three sons — 
Shem, Ham, and Japheth (Gen. 5 : 32). 
He was a "just man and perfect in his 
generation," and "walked with God" 
(comp. Ezek. 14 : 14, 20). But now the 
descendants of Cain and of Seth began 
to intermarry, and then there sprang 
up a race distinguished for their ungodli- 
ness. Men became more and more corrupt, 
and God determined to sweep the earth of 
its wicked population (Gen. 6 : 7). But 
with Noah God entered into a covenant, 
with a promise of deliverance from the 
threatened deluge (18). He was accordingly 
commanded to build an ark (6 : 14-16) for 
the saving of himself and his house. An 
interval of one hundred and twenty years 
elapsed while the ark was being built (6 : 3), 
during which Noah bore constant testi- 
mony against the unbelief and wickedness 
of that generation (1 Pet. 3 : 18-20 ; 2 Pet. 
2:5). 

When the ark of " gopher- wood " (men- 
tioned only here) was at length completed 
according to the command of the Lord, the 
living creatures that were to be preserved 
entered into it ; and then Noah and his 
wife and sons and daughters-in-law entered 
it, and the "Lord shut him in" (Gen. 7: 
16). The judgment threatened now fell on 
the guilty world — "the world that then 
was, being overflowed with water, perished " 
(2 Pet. 3 : 6). The ark floated on the waters 
for one hundred and fifty days, and then 
rested on the mountains of Ararat (Gen. 
8 : 3, 4) ; but not for a considerable time 



NOAH 



506 



NORTHWARD 



after this was divine permission given him 
to leave the ark, so that he and his family 
were a whole year shut up within it (Gen. 
6-14). 

On leaving the ark Noah's first act was 
to erect an altar, the first of which there is 
any mention, and offer the sacrifices of ador- 
ing thanks and praise to God, who entered 
into a covenant with him — the first cove- 
nant between God and man — granting 
him possession of the earth by a new and 
special charter, which remains in force to 
the present time (Gen. 8 : 21-9 : 17). As a 
sign and witness of this covenant, the rain- 
bow was adopted and set apart by God, as 
a sure pledge that never again would the 
earth be destroyed by a flood. 

But, alas ! Noah after this fell into 
grievous sin (Gen. 9 : 21) ; and the conduct 
of Ham on this sad occasion led to the 
memorable prediction regarding his three 
sons and their descendants. Noah "lived 
after the flood three hundred and fifty 
years, and he died " (28 : 29). (See Deluge. ) 

No'ah— motion— {Heb. No^ah) one of the 
five daughters of Zelophehad (Num. 26 : 
33 ; 27 : 1 ; 36 : 11 ; Josh. 17 : 3). 

Nob — high place— dt, city of the priests, 
first mentioned in the history of David's 
wanderings (1 Sam. 21 : 1). Here the 
tabernacle was then standing, and here 
Ahimelech the priest resided. (See Ahim- 
ELECH. ) From Isa. 10 : 28-32 it seems to 
have been near Jerusalem. It has been iden- 
tified by some with el-Isawiyeh, one mile 
and a half to the north-east of Jerusalem. 
But according to Isa. 10 : 28-32 it was on the 
south of Geba, on the road to Jerusalem, 
and within sight of the city. This identi- 
fication does not meet these conditions, and 
hence others (as Dean Stanley) think that 
it was the northern summit of Mount Olivet, 
the place where David "worshipped God" 
when fleeing from Absalom (2 Sam. 15 : 32), 
or more probably (Conder) that it was the 
same as Mizpeh {q.v.) — Judg. 20 : 1 ; Josh. 
18:26; 1 Sam. 7:16 — at Nebi Samwil, 
about 5 miles north-west of Jerusalem. 

After being supplied with the sacred 
loaves of showbread, and girding on the 
sword of Goliath, which was brought forth 
from behind the ephod, David fled from 



Nob and sought refuge at the court of 
Achish, the king of Gath, where he was 
cast into prison. (Comp. titles of Ps. 34 
and 56. ) 

No'lasiii—hoivling. (1. ) Num. 32 : 42. 

(2.) The name given to Kenath {q.v.) by 
Nobah when he conquered it. It was on 
the east of Gilead (Judg. 8 : 11). 

No^bleman (Gr. basilikos — i.e., "king's 
man ")■ — an officer of state (John 4 : 49) in 
the service of Herod Antipas. He is sup- 
posed to have been the Chuza, Herod's 
steward, whose wife was one of those 
women who ' ' ministered unto the Lord of 
their substance " (Luke 8 : 3). This officer 
came to Jesus at Cana and besought him 
to go down to Capernaum and heal his son, 
who lay there at the point of death. Our 
Lord sent him away with the joyful assur- 
ance that his son was alive. 

Nod — exile ; wandering ; unrest — a name 
given to the country to which Cain fled 
(Gen. 4 : 16). It lay on the east of Eden. 

No^dab — noble — probably a tribe de- 
scended from one of the sons of Ishniael, 
with whom the trans- Jordanic tribes made 
war (1 Chr. 5 : 19). 

No^gah — splendoui — one of David's sons, 
born at Jerusalem (1 Chr. 3 : 7). 

Noph, the Hebrew name of an Egyptian 
city (Isa. 19 : 13 ; Jer. 2 : 16 ; 44 : 1 ; 46 : 14, 
19; Ezek. 30:13, 16). In Hos. 9:6 the 
Hebrew name is Moph, and is translated 
"Memphis," which is its Greek and Latin 
form. It was one of the most ancient and 
important cities of Egypt, and stood a little 
to the south of the modern Cairo, on the 
western bank of the Nile. It was the 
capital of Lower Egypt. Among the ruins 
found at this place is a colossal statue of 
Rameses the Great. (See Memphis.) 

No^phah — Mast — a city of Moab which 
was occupied by the Amorites (Num. 21 : 
30). 

North country, a general name for the 
countries that lay north of Palestine. Most 
of the invading armies entered Palestine 
from the north (Isa. 41 : 25 ; Jer. 1 : 14, 15 ; 
50 : 3, 9, 41 ; 51 : 48 ; Ezek. 26 : 7). 

North^ward (Heb. tsdphdn), a "hidden" 
or "dark place," as opposed to the sunny 
south (Deut. 3 : 27). A Hebrew in speak- 



NOSE-JEWELS 



507 



NUMBERS 



ing of the points of the compass was con- 
sidered as always having his face to the 
east, and hence " the left hand " (Gen. 14 : 
15; Job 23:9) denotes the north. The 
" kingdoms of the north " are Chaldea, As- 
syria, Media, etc. 

Nose-jew'els. Only mentioned in Isa. 
3 : 21, although referred to in Gen. 24 : 47, 
Prov, 11 : 22, Hos. 2 : 13. They were among 
the most valued of ancient female orna- 
ments. They "were made of ivory or 
metal, and occasionally jewelled. They 
were more than an inch in diameter, and 
hung upon the mouth. Eliezer gave one 
to E-ebekah which was of gold and weighed 

half a shekel At the present day the 

women in the country and in the desert 
wear these ornaments in one of the sides of 
the nostrils, which droop like the ears in 
consequence. " 

Numbering of the people. Besides the 
numbering of the tribes mentioned in the 
history of the wanderings in the wilderness, 
we have an account of a general census of 
the whole nation from Dan to Beersheba, 
which David gave directions to Joab to 
make (1 Chr. 21 : 1). Joab very reluctantly 
began to carry out the king's command. 

This act of David in ordering a number- 
ing of the people arose from pride and a 
self-glorifying spirit. It indicated a reliance 
on his part on an arm of flesh, an estimat- 
ing of his power not by the divine favour 
but by the material resources of his king- 
dom. He thought of military achievement 
and of conquest, and forgot that he was 
God's vicegerent. In all this he sinned 
against God. While Joab was engaged in 
the census, David's heart smote him, and 
he became deeply conscious of his fault ; 
and in profound humiliation he confessed, 
"I have sinned greatly in what I have 
done. " The prophet Gad was sent to him 
to put before him three dreadful alterna- 
tives (2 Sam, 24 : 13 ; for "seven years " in 
this verse, the LXX. and 1 Chr. 21:12 
have ' ' three years "), three of Jehovah's 
four sore judgments (Ezek. 14 : 21). Two 
of these David had already experienced. 
He had fled for some months before Absa- 
lom, and had siiffered three years' famine 
on viccQunt of the slaughter of the Gibeon- 



ites. In his "strait" David said, "Let 
me fall into the hands of the Lord." A 
pestilence broke out among the people, and 
in three days swept away 70,000. At 
David's intercession the plague was stayed, 
and at the threshing-floor of Araunah {q.v.), 
where the destroying angel was arrested in 
his progress, David erected an altar, and 
there offered up sacrifices to God (2 Chr. 
3:1). 

The census, so far as completed, showed 
that there were at least 1,300,000 fighting 
men in the kingdom, indicating at that 
time a i^opulation of about six or seven 
millions in all. (See Census.) 

Num'bers, Book of, the fourth of the 
books of the Pentateuch, called in the 
Hebrew be-midbar — i.e., "in the wilder- 
ness." In the LXX. version it is called 
"Numbers," and this name is now the 
usual title of the book. It is so called 
because it contains a record of the number- 
ing of the people in the wilderness of Sinai 
(1-4), and of their numbering forty years 
afterwards on the plain of Moab (26). 

This book is of special historical interest 
as furnishing us with details as to the route 
of the Israelites in the wilderness and their 
principal encampments. It may be divided 
into three parts : — 

1. The numbering of the people at Sinai, 
and preparations for their resuming their 
march (1-10 : 10). The sixth chapter gives 
an account of the vow of a Nazarite. 

2. An account of the journey from Sinai 
to Moab, the sending out of the spies and 
the report they brought back, and the 
murmurings (eight times) of the people at 
the hardships by the way (10 : 11-21 : 20). 

3. The transactions in the plain of Moab 
before crossing the Jordan (21 : 21-ch. 36). 

The period comprehended in the history 
extends from the second month of the 
second year after the Exodus to the begin- 
ning of the eleventh month of the fortieth 
year — in all about thirty -eight years and 
ten months ; a dreary period of wander- 
ings, during which that disobedient genera- 
tion all died in the wilderness. They were 
fewer in number at the e'nd of their wan- 
derings than when they left the land of 
Egypt. We see in this history, on the one 

33 



NUN 



508 



OATH 



hand, the unceasing- care of the Almighty 
over his chosen people during their wan- 
derings ; and, on the other hand, the mur- 
murings and rebellions by which they of- 
fended their heavenly Protector, drew down 
repeated marks of his displeasure, and pro- 
voked him to say that they should "not 
enter into his rest " because of their un- 
belief (Heb. 3 : 19). 

This, like the other books of the Penta- 
teuch, bears evidence of having been written 
by Moses. 

The expression ' ' the book of the wars of 
the Lord," occurring in 21:14, has given 
rise to much discussion. But, after all, 
" what this book was is uncertain — whether 
some writing of Israel not now extant, or 
some writing of the Amorites which con- 



tained songs and triumphs of their king 
Sihon's victories, out of which Moses may 
cite this testimony, as Paul sometimes 
does out of heathen poets (Acts 17 : 28 ; 
Titus 1:12)." 

Nun. Beyond the fact that he was the 
father of Joshua nothing more is known of 
him (Ex. 33 : 11). 

Nuts were among the presents Jacob sent 
into Egypt for the purpose of conciHating 
Joseph (Gen. 43 : 11). This was the fruit 
of the pistachio tree, which resembles the 
sumac. It is of the size of an olive. In 
Cant. 6:11 a different Hebrew word {^egoz), 
which means "walnuts," is used. 

Nym'phas — nymph — saluted by Paul in 
his Epistle to the Colossians as a member 
of the church of Laodicea (Col. 4 : 15). 



Oak. There are six Hebrew words ren- 
dered "oak." 

• (1.) '^^ occurs only in the word El-paran 
(Gen. 14:6). The LXX. renders by 
"terebinth." In the plural form this 
word occurs in Isa. 1 : 29 ; 57 : 5 (A. V. 
marg. and R.V., "among the oaks ") ; 61 : 
3 ("trees"). The word properly means 
strong, mighty, and hence a strong tree. 

(2.) 'Eldh, Gen. 35:4, "under the oak 
which was by Shechem " (li.V. marg., 
' ' terebinth "). Isa. 6 : 13, A. V. , " teil-tree ; " 
R.V., " terebinth." Isa. 1 : 30, R.V. marg., 
"terebinth." Absalom in his flight was 
caught in the branches of a "great oak" 
(2 Sam. 18 : 9 ; R.V. marg., "terebinth"). 

(3. ) 'Elon, Judg. 4 : 11 ; 9 : 6 (R. V. , " oak ; " 
A. v., following the Targum, "plain") pro- 
perly the deciduous species of oak shedding 
its foliage in autumn. 

(4.) 'Elan, only in Dan. 4 : 11, 14, 20, ren- 
dered "tree " in Nebuchadnezzar's dream. 
Probably some species of the oak is in- 
tended. 

(5.) 'Allah, Josh. 24 : 26. The place here 
referred to is called Allon-moreh ("the oak 
of Moreh," as in R.V.) in Gen. 12:6 and 
35:4. 



(6.) 'Alldn, always rendered "oak." 
Probably the evergreen oak (called also ilex 
and holm oak) is intended. The oak woods 
of Bashan are frequently alluded to (Isa. 2 : 
13 ; Ezek. 27 : 6). Three species of oaks are 
found in Palestine, of which the "prickly 
evergreen oak" {Quercus coccifera) is the 
most abundant. ' ' It covers the rocky hills of 
Palestine with a dense brushwood of trees 
from 8 to 12 feet high, branching from the 
base, thickly covered with small evergreen 
rigid leaves, and bearing acorns copiously." 
The so-called Abraham's oak at Hebron is 
of this species. Tristram says that this 
oak near Hebron " has for several centuries 
taken the place of the once renowned tere- 
binth which marked the site of Mamre on 
the other side of the city. The terebinth 
existed at Mamre in the time of Vespasian, 
and under it the captive Jews were sold as 
slaves. It disappeared about a.d. 330, and 
no tree now marks the grove of Mamre. 
The present oak is the noblest tree in 
Southern Palestine, being 23 feet in girth, 
and the diameter of the foliage, which is 
unsymmetrical, being about 90 feet." (See 
Hebron ; Teil-tkee. ) 

Oath, a solemn appeal to God. permitted 



OBADIAH 



509 



OBED-EDOM 



on fitting occasions (Deut. 6 : 13 ; Jer. 4 : 2), 
in various forms (Gen. 16 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 5 ; 
Ruth 1 : 17 ; Hos. 4 : 15 ; Rom. 1 : 9), and 
taken in different ways (Gen. 14 : 22 ; 24 : 
2 ; 2 Chr. 6 : 22). God is represented as 
taking an oath (Heb. 6 : 16-18), so also 
Christ (Matt. 26 : 64), and Pa\il (Rom. 9:1; 
Gal. 1 : 20 ; Phil. 1 : 8). The precept, ' ' Swear 
not at all," refers probably to ordinary con- 
versation between man and man (Matt. 5 : 
34, 37). But if the words are taken as re- 
ferring to oaths, then their intention may 
have been to show " that the proper state 
of Christians is to require no oaths ; that 
when evil is expelled from among them 
every yea and nay will be as decisive as an 
oath, every promise as binding as a vow. " 

Obadi^ah — servant of the Lord. (1.) An 
Israelite who was chief in the household of 
King Ahab (1 Kings 18 : 3). Amid great 
spiritual degeneracy he maintained his 
fidelity to God, and interposed to protect 
the Lord's prophets, an hundred of whom 
he hid at great personal risk in a cave (4, 
13). Ahab seems to have held Obadiah in 
great honour, although he had no sympathy 
with his piety (5, 6, 7). The last notice of 
him is his bringing back tidings to Ahab 
that Elijah, whom he had so long sought 
for, was at hand (9-16). " Go," said Elijah 
to him, when he met him in the way — " go 
tell thy lord. Behold, Elijah is here." 

(2.) A chief of the tribe of Issachar (1 
Chr. 7:3). 

(3.) A descendant of Saul (1 Chr. 8 : 38). 

(4.) A Levite, after the Captivity (1 Chr. 
9 : 16). 

(5. ) A Gadite who joined David at Ziklag 
(1 Chr. 12 : 9). 

(6. ) A prince of Zebulun in the time of 
David (1 Chr. 27 : 19). 

(7. ) One of the princes sent by Jehosha- 
phat to instruct the people in the law (2 
Chr. 17 : 7). 

(8. ) A Levite who superintended the re- 
pairs of the temple under Josiah (2 Chr. 
34 : 12). 

(9.) One who accompanied Ezra on the 
return from Babylon (Ezra 8 : 9). 

(10.) A prophet, fourth of the minor 
prophets in the Hebrew canon, and fifth in 
the LXX. He was probably contemporary 



with Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Of his per- 
sonal history nothing is known. 

Obadi^ah, Book of, consists of one 
chapter, " concerning Edom," its impending 
doom (1-16), and the restoration of Israel 
(17-21). This is the shortest book of the 
Old Testament. 

There are on record the account of four 
captures of Jerusalem — (1) by Shishak in 
the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kings 14 : 25) ; 
(2) by the Philistines and Arabians in the 
reign of Jehoram (2 Chr. 21 : 16) ; (3) by 
Joash, the king of Israel, in the reign of 
Amaziah (2 Kings 14 : 13) ; and (4) by the 
Babylonians, when Jerusalem was taken 
and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (b.c. 
586). Obadiah (11-14) sj)eaks of this cap- 
ture as a thing past. He sees the calamity 
as having already come on Jerusalem, and 
the Edomites as joining their forces with 
those of the Chaldeans in bringing about 
the degradation and ruin of Israel. We do 
not indeed read that the Edomites actually 
took part with the Chaldeans, but the 
probabilities are that they did so, and this 
explains the words of Obadiah in denouncing 
against Edom the judgments of God. The 
date of his prophecies was thus in or about 
the year of the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Edom is the type of Israel's and of God's 
last foe (Isa. 62 : 1-4). These will finally 
all be vanquished, and the kingdom will be 
the Lord's (comp. Ps. 22 : 28). 

O^bal — stripped — the eighth son of Jok- 
tan (Gen. 10 : 28) ; called also Ebal (1 Chr. 
1 : 22). 

O'bed — serving; ivorshipping. (1.) A 
son of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4 : 21, 22), and 
the grandfather of David (Matt. 1 : 5). 

(2.) iChr. 2:34-38. 

(3.) 1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

(4.) 2 Chr. 23 :L. 

O'bed-E^dom — servant of Edom. (1.) 
" The Gittite " (probably so called because 
he was a native of Gath-rimmon), a Levite 
of the family of the Korahites (1 Chr. 26 : 
1, 4-8), to whom was specially intrusted 
the custody of the ark (1 Chr. 15 : 18). 
When David was bringing up the ark 
" from the house of Abinadab, that was in 
Gibeah " (probably some hill or eminence 
near Kirjath-jearim), and had reached 



OBEISANCE 



510 



OLD 



Nachon's threshing-floor, he became afraid 
because of the "breach upon Uzzah," and 
carried it aside into the house of Obed- 
edom (2 Sam. 6 : 1-12). There it remained 
for six months, and was to him and his 
house the occasion of great blessing. David 
then removed it with great rejoicing to 
Jerusalem, and set it in the midst of the 
tabernacle he had pitched for it. 

(2. ) A Merarite Levite, a temple porter, 
who with his eight sons guarded the southern 
gate (1 Chr. 15 : 18, 21 ; 26 : 4, 8, 15). 

(3. ) One who had charge of the temple 
treasures (2 Chr. 25 : 24). 

Obei^sance, homage or reverence to any- 
one (Gen. 37 : 7 ; 43 : 28). 

0''bil — a keeper of camels — an Ishmaelite 
who was " over the camels " in the time of 
David (1 Chr. 27 : 30). 

O'both — bottles — an encampment of the 
Israelites during the wanderings in the 
wilderness (Num. 33 : 43) — the first after 
the setting up of the brazen serpent. 

0''ded — restoring, or setting up. (1.) 
Father of the prophet Azariah (2 Chr. 
15 : 1, 8). (2. ) A prophet in the time of 
Ahaz and Pekah (2 Chr. 28 : 9-15). 

Offence''. (1.) An injury or wrong done 
to one (1 Sam. 25 : 31 ; Rom. 5 : 15). 

(2.) A stumbling-block or cause of temp- 
tation (Isa. 8:14; Matt. 16:23; 18:7). 
Greek skandalon, properly that at which 
one stumbles or takes offence. The "of- 
fence of the cross " (Gal. 5 : 11) is the 
offence the Jews took at the teaching that 
salvation was by the crucified One, and by 
him alone. Salvation by the cross was a 
stumbling-block to their national pride. 

Offering, an oblation, dedicated to God. 
Thus Cain consecrated to God of the first- 
fruits of the earth, and Abel of the first- 
lings of the flock (Gen. 4 : 3, 4). 

Under the Levitical system different 
kinds of offerings are specified, and laws 
laid down as to their presentation. These 
are described under their distinctive names. 

Og — gigantic — the king of Bashan, who 
was defeated by Moses in a pitched battle 
at Edrei, and was slain along with his sons 
(Deut. 1 : 4), and whose kingdom was given 
to the tribes of Reuben and Gad and half 
the .tribe of Mauasseh (Num. 21:32-35; 



Deut. 3 : 1-13). His bedstead was of iron, 

9 cubits in length and 4 cubits in breadth. 
His overthrow was afterwards celebrated 
in song (Ps. 135 : 11 ; 136 : 20). (See Ba- 
shan ; SiHON. ) 

0''had — united, or power — the third son 
of Simeon (Gen. 46 : 10). 

O'hel — a house ; tent — the fourth son of 
Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3 : 20). 

Oil. Only olive oil seems to have been 
used among the Hebrews. It was used for 
many purposes : for anointing the body or 
the hair (Ex. 29:7; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 
23:5; 92:10; 104:15; Luke 7:46); in 
some of the offerings (Ex. 29 : 40 ; Lev. 7 : 
12 ; Num. 6 : 15 ; 15 : 14), but was excluded 
from the sin-offering (Lev. 5 : 11) and the 
jealousy-offering (Num. 5 : 15) ; for burning 
in lamps (Ex. 25 : 6 ; 27 : 20 ; Matt. 25 : 3) ; 
for medicinal purposes (Isa. 1:6; Luke 

10 : 34 ; James 5 : 14) ; and for anointing 
the dead (Matt. 26 : 12 ; Luke 23 : 56). 

It was one of the most valuable products 
of the country (Deut. 32:13; Ezek. 16: 
13), and formed an article of extensive 
commerce with Tyre (27 : 17). 

The use of it was a sign of gladness (Ps. 
92 : 10 ; Isa. 61 : 3), and its omission a token 
of sorrow (2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Matt. 6 : 17). It 
was very abundant in Galilee. (See Olive. ) 

Oil-tree (Isa. 41 : 19 ; R. V. marg., " ole- 
aster ") — Heb. ''itz shemen — rendered 
"olive tree" in 1 Kings 6:23, 31, 32, 33 
(R.V., "olive wood") and " pine branches " 
in Neh. 8:15 (R.V., "branches of wild 
olive"), was some tree distinct from the 
olive. It was probably the oleaster {Eleag- 
nus angustifolius), which grows abundantly 
in almost all parts of Palestine, especially 
about Hebron and Samaria. "It has a 
fine hard wood," says Tristram, "and 
yields an inferior oil, but it has no relation- 
ship to the olive, which, however, it re- 
sembles in general appearance." 

Oint^ment. Various fragrant prepara- 
tions, also compounds for medical purposes, 
are so called (Ex. 30 : 25 ; Ps. 133 : 2 ; Isa. 
1:6; Amos 6:6; John 12:3; Rev. 18: 
13). 

Old gate, one of the gates in the north 
wall of Jerusalem, so called because built 
by the Jebusites (Neh. 3 : 6 ; 12 : 39). 



OLIVE 



511 



OLIVES 



Ol'ive, the fruit of the olive-tree. This 
tree yielded oil which was highly valued. 
The best oil was from olives that were 
plucked before being fully ripe, and then 
beaten or squeezed (Deut. 24 : 20 ; Isa. 
17 : 6 ; 24 : 13). It was called " beaten," or 
"fresh oil " (Ex. 27 : 20). There were also 
oil-presses, in which the oil was trodden 
out by the feet (Micah 6 : 15). James (3 : 
12) calls the fruit "olive berries." The 
phrase "vineyards and olives" (Judg. 15 : 5, 
A.V.) should be simply "olive-yard," or 



"olive-garden," as in the Revised Version. 
(See Oil.) 

Ol^ive-tree is frequently mentioned in 
Scripture. The dove from the ark brought 
an olive-branch to Noah (Gen. 8 : 11). It 
is mentioned among the most notable trees 
of Palestine, where it was cultivated long 
before the time of the Hebrews (Deut. 6 : 
11 ; 8 : 8). It is mentioned in the first Old 
Testament parable, that of Jotham (Judg. 
9 : 9), and is named among the blessings of 
the "good land," and is at the present day 




Branch. 



OLIVE-TREE. 



the one characteristic tree of Palestine. 
The oldest olive-trees in the country are 
those which are enclosed in the Garden of 
Gethsemane. It is referred to as an em- 
blem of prosperity and beauty and religious 
privilege (Ps. 52 : 8 ; Jer. 11 : 16 ; Hos. 14 : 
6). The two "witnesses" mentioned in 
Rev. 11:4 are spoken of as "two olive 
trees standing before the God of the earth." 
(Comp. Zech. 4:3, 11-14.) 

The "olive-tree, wild by nature" (Rom. 
11 : 24), is the shoot or cutting of the good 
olive-tree which, left ungrafted, grows up 



to be a " \\dld olive." In Rom. 11 : 17 Paul 
refers to the practice of grafting shoots of 
the wild olive into a "good "olive which 
has become unfruitful. By such a process 
the sap of the good olive, by pervading the 
branch which is "graffed in," makes it a 
good branch, bearing good olives. Thus 
the Gentiles, being a "wild olive," but 
now "graffed in," yield fruit, but only 
through the sap of the tree into which they 
have been graffed. This is a process "con- 
trary to nature " (11 : 24). 
Ol'ives, Mount of, so called from the 



OLIVES 



512 



OMRI 



olive trees with which its sides are clothed, 
is a mountain ridge on the east of Jeru- 
salem (1 Kings 11 : 7 ; Ezek. 11 : 23 ; Zech. 
14:4), from which it is separated by the 
valley of Kidron. It is first mentioned in 
connection with David's flight from Jeru- 
salem through the rebellion of Absalom 
(2 Sam. 15 : 20), and is only once again 
mentioned in the Old Testament, in Zech. 
14 : 4. It is, however, frequently alluded 
to (1 Kings 11 : 7 ; 2 Kings 23 : 13 ; Neh. 
8 : 15 ; Ezek. 11 : 23). 

It is frequently mentioned in the New 
Testament (Matt. 21 : 1 ; 26 : 30, etc.). It 
now bears the name of Jehel et-Tur — i.e., 
" Mount of the Summit ; " also sometimes 
called Jehel ez-Zeitun — i.e., "Mount of 
Olives." It is about 200 feet above the 
level of the city. The road from Jerusalem 
to Bethany runs as of old over this mount. 
It was on this mount that Jesus stood 
when he wept over Jerusalem. " No name 
in Scripture," says Dr. Porter, "calls up 
associations at once so sacred and so pleas- 
ing as that of Olivet. The ' mount ' is so 
intimately connected with the private, the 
devotional life of the Saviour, that we read 
of it and look at it with feelings of deepest 
interest and affection. Here he often sat 
with his disciples, telling them of wondrous 
events yet to come — of the destruction of 
the Holy City ; of the sufferings, the perse- 
cution, and the final triumph of his follow- 
ers (Matt. 24). Here he gave them the 
beautiful parables of the ten virgins and 
the five talents (25) ; here he was wont 
to retire on each evening for meditation, 
and prayer, and rest of body, when weary 
and harassed by the labours and trials of 
the day (Luke 21 : 37) ; and here he came 
on the night of his betrayal to utter that 
wonderful prayer, 'O my Father, if it be 
possible, let this cup pass from me : never- 
theless not as I will, but as thou wilt' 
(Matt. 26 : 39). And when the cup of God's 
wrath had been drunk, and death and the 
grave conquered, he led his disciples out 
again over Olivet as far as to Bethany, 
and after a parting blessing ascended to 
heaven (Liike 24 : 50, 51 ; Acts 1 : 12)." 

This mount, or rather mountain range, 
has four summits or peaks : (1) the "Gali- 



lee " peak, so called from a tradition that 
the angels stood here when they spoke to 
the disciples (Acts 1 : 11) ; (2) the "Mount 
of Ascension," the supposed site of that 
event, which was, however, somewhere 
probably nearer Bethany (Luke 24 : 51, 52) ; 
(3) the "Prophets, "from the catacombs on 
its side, called ' ' the prophets' tombs ; " 
and (4) the "Mount of Corruption," so 
called because of the "high places " erected 
there by Solomon for the idolatrous wor- 
ship of his foreign wives (1 Kings 11 : 7, 8 ; 
2 Kings 23:13; Vulg., "Mount of Of- 
fence "). 

Olym^pas, a Roman Christian whom 
Paul salutes (Pom. 16 : 15). 

O'tasiY— eloquent — the son of Eliphaz, 
who was Esau's eldest son (Gen. 36 : 11-15). 

0''mega (Pev. 1 : 8), the last letter in the 
Greek alphabet. (See Alpha.) 

Cmer — a handful — one-tenth of an ephah 
=half a gallon dry measure (Ex. 16 : 22, 
32, 33, 36). 

Om''ri — servant of Jehovah. (1.) When 
Elah was murdered by Zimri at Tirzah 
(1 Kings 16 : 15-27), Omri, his captain, was 
made king (B.C. 931). For four years there 
Avas continued opposition to his reign, 
Tibni, another claimant to the throne, 
leading the opposing j)arty ; but at the 
close of that period all his rivals were 
defeated, and he became king of Israel — 
" Tibni died and Omri reigned " (B.C. 927). 
By his vigour and power he gained great 
eminence and consolidated the kingdom. 
He fixed his dynasty on the throne so 
firmly that it continued during four suc- 
ceeding reigns. Tirza was for six years 
the seat of his government. He then re- 
moved the capital to Samaria {q.v.), where 
he died, and was succeeded by his son 
Ahab. "He wrought evil in the eyes of 
the Lord, and did worse than all that were 
before him." 

Beth-omri, "the house" or "city of 
Omri," is the name usually found on As- 
syrian inscriptions for Samaria. In the 
stele of Mesha (the " Moabite stone "), which 
was erected in Moab about twenty or 
thirty years after Omri's death, it is re- 
corded that Omri oppressed Moab till 
Mesha delivered the land: "Omri, king 



ON 



613 



ONYX 



of Israel, oppressed Moab many days, for 
Chemosh was angry with his land. His 
son succeeded him, and he also said, I will 
oppress Moab " (comi^. 2 Kings 1:1; 3:4, 
5). The " Moabite stone'' also records 
that ' ' Omri took the land of Medeba, and 
occupied it in his day and in the days of 
his son forty years. " 

On— light ; the sun — (Gen. 41 : 45, 50), the 
great seat of sun-worship, called also Beth- 
shemesh ( Jer. 43 : 13) and Aven (Ezek. 
30 : 17), stood on the east bank of the Nile, 
a few miles north of Memphis, and near 
Cairo, in the north-east. The Vulgate and 
the LXX. Versions have " Heliopolis " 
("city of the sun") instead of On in Genesis 
and of Aven in Ezekiel. The "city of de- 
struction " Isaiah speaks of (19 : 18, marg. 
' ' of Heres ; " Heb. '^ Ir-ha-heres, which some 
MSS. read Ir-ha-heres — i.e., "city of the 
sun ") may be the name given to On, the 
prophecy being that the time will come 
when that city which was known as the 
' ' city of the sun-god " shall become the "city 
of destruction" of the sun-god — i.e., when 
idolatry shall cease, and the worship of 
the true God be established. 

In ancient times this city was full of 
obelisks dedicated to the sun. Of these 
only one now remains standing. "Cleo- 
patra's Needle " was one of those which 
stood in this city in front of the Temple of 
Turn — i.e., "the sun." It has now been 
removed to London (1879), and is erected 
on the Thames Embankment. 

O'nsixa— strong. (1.) Son of Shobal, a 
descendant of Esau (Gen. 36 : 33). 

(2. ) The son of Atarah, who was ajopar- 
ently the second wife of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 
2 : 26). 

0''nan — strong — the second son of Judah 
(Gen. 38 : 4-10 ; comp. Deut. 25 : 5 ; Matt. 
22 : 24). He died before the going do^\n of 
Jacob and his family into Egypt. 

Ones'imus — useful — a slave who, after 
robbing his master Philemon {q.v.) at 
Colosse, fled to Rome, where he was con- 
verted by the apostle Paul, who sent him 
back to his master vnih the epistle which 
bears his name. In it he beseeches Phile- 
mon to receive his slave as a "faithful 
and beloved brother." Paul offers to pay 



to Philemon anything his slave had taken, 
and to bear the Avrong he had done him. 
He was accompanied on his return by 
Tj'chicus, the bearer of the Epistle to the 
Colossians (Philemon 16, 18). 

The story of this fugitive Colossian slave 
is a remarkable evidence of the freedom of 
access to the prisoner which was granted 
to all, and "a beautiful illustration both 
of the character of St. Paul and the trans- 
figuring power and righteous principles of 
the gosi^el." 

Onesiph'orus — bringing profit — an 
Ephesian Christian who showed great 
kindness to Paul at Rome. He served 
him in many things, and had oft refreshed 
him. Paul expresses a warm interest in 
him and his household (2 Tim. 1 : 16-18 ; 
4 : 19). 

On^ion. The Israelites in the A\T.lderness 
longed for the ' ' onions and garlick of Egypt " 
(Num. 11 : 5). This was the hetstl of the 
Hebrews, the Allium cepe of botanists, of 
which it is said that there are some thirty 
or forty species now growing in Palestine. 
The onion is "the 'undivided' leek — unto, 
unus, one." 

O'no, a to^^Ti of Benjamin, in the "plain 
of Ono " (1 Chr. 8 : 12 ; Ezra 2 : 33) ; now 
Kefr 'Ana, 5 miles north of Lydda, and 
about 30 miles north-west of Jerusalem. 
Not succeeding in their attempts to deter 
Nehemiah from rebuilding the walls of 
Jerusalem, Sanballat and Tobiah resorted 
to stratagem, and pretending to wish a 
conference with him, they invited him to 
meet them at Ono. Fotir times they made 
the request, and every time Nehemiah 
refused to come. Their object was to take 
him j)risoner. 

On'ycha — a nail; claio ; hoof — (Heb. 
sheMleth; Ex. 30:34), a Latin word ap- 
plied to the operculum — i.e., the claw or 
nail of the strombus or wing-shell, a uni- 
valve common in the Red Sea. The oper- 
cula of these shell-fish when burned emit a 
strong odour "like castoreum." This was 
an ingredient in the sacred incense. 

O'nyx — a nail; elaio ; hoof — (Heb. 
shoham), a precious stone adorning the 
breast-plate of the high priest and the 
shoulders of the ephod (Ex. 28:9-12, 20; 



OPEN 



514 



ORION 



35 : 27 ; Job 28 : IG ; Ezek. 28 : 13). It was 
found in the land of Havilah (Gen. 2 : 12). 
The LXX. translates the Hebrew word by 
smaragdos, an emerald. Some think that 
the sardonyx is meant. But the onyx 
differs from the sardonyx in this, that 
while the latter has two layers (black and 
Avhite) the former has three (black, white, 
and red). 

Open place. Gen. 38 : 14, 21, marg. 
Enaim ; the same probably as Enam (Josh. 
15 : 34), a city in the lowland or Shephelah. 

O'phel — hill ; mound — the long, narrow, 
rounded promontory on the southern slope 
of the temple hill, between the Tyropoeon 
and the Kedron valley (2 Chr. 27 : 3 ; 33 : 
14; Neh. 3:26, 27). It was surrounded 
by a separate wall, and was occupied by 
the Nethinim after the Captivity. This 
wall has been discovered by the engineers 
of the Palestine Exploration Eund at the 
south-eastern angle of the temple area. It 
is 4 feet below the present surface. 

In 2 Kings 5 : 24 this word is translated 
"tower" (R. v., "hill"), denoting probably 
some eminence near Elisha's house. 

O^phir. (1. ) One of the sons of Joktan 
(Gen. 10 : 29). 

(2.) Some region famous for its gold 
(1 Kings 9 : 28; 10 : 11; 22 : 48; Job 22 : 24; 
28:10; Isa. 45 : 9). In the LXX. this 
word is rendered "Sophir," and "Sofir" 
is the Coptic name for India, which is the 
rendering of the Arabic version, as also of 
the Vulgate. Josephus has identified it 
with the Golden Chersonese — i. g. , th e Malay 
peninsula. It is now generally identified 
with AhMra, at the mouth of the Indus. 
Much may be said, however, in favour of the 
opinion that it was somewhere in Arabia. 

Oph''ni — mouldy — a city of Benjamin 
(Josh. 18 : 24). 

Oph^rah — a faion. 1 Chr. 4 : 14. 

Oph''rah— to?. (1.) A city of Benjamin 
(Josh. 18 : 23) ; probably identical with 
Ephron (2 Chr. 13 : 19) and Ephraim (John 
11 : 54). 

(2.) "Of the Abi-ezrites." A city of 
Manasseh, 6 miles south-west of Shechem, 
the residence of Gideon ( Judg. 6 : 11 ; 8 : 27, 
32). After his great victory over the 
Midianites, he slew at this ]place the caj)- 



tive kings (8 : 18-21). He then assumed 
the function of high priest, and sought to 
make Ophrah what Shiloh should have 
been. This thing "became a snare" to 
Gideon and his house. After Gideon's 
death his family resided here till they were 
put to death by Abimelech (Judg. 9 : 5). 
It is identified with Ferdta. 

Or'acle. In the Old Testament used in 
every case, except 2 Sam. 16 : 23, to denote 
the most holy place in the temple (1 Kings 
6:5, 19-23; 8:6). In 2 Sam. 16:23 it 
means the Word of God. A man inquired 
"at the oracle of God" by means of the 
Urim and Thummim in the breastplate on 
the high priest's ephod. 

In the New Testament it is used only in 
the plural, and always denotes the Word 
of God (Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12, etc. ). The 
Scriptures are called "living oracles" 
(comp. Heb. 4 : 12) because of their quick- 
ening power (Acts 7 : 38). 

Creb — raven — a prince of Midian, who, 
being defeated by Gideon and put to 
straits, was slain along with Zeeb (Judg. 
7:20-25). Many of the Midianites per- 
ished along with him (Ps. 83 : 9 ; Isa. 10 : 
26). 

O'reto, The rock of, the place where 
Gideon slew Oreb after the defeat of the 
Midianites (Judg. 7:25; Isa. 10:26). It 
was probably the place now called Orho, on 
the east of Jordan, near Bethshean. 

O'ren — ash orpine — the son of Jerahmeel 
(1 Chr. 2 : 25). 

Origan, some kind of wind instrument, 
probably a kind of Pan's pipes (Gen. 4 : 21 ; 
Job 21 : 12 ; Ps. 150 : 4), which consisted of 
seven or eight reeds of unequal length. 

Orison— Heb. kesil ; i.e., "the fool"— 
the name of a constellation (Job 9:9; 38 : 
31 ; Amos 5:8) consisting of about eighty 
stars. The Vulgate renders thus, but the 
LXX. renders by Hesperus — i.e., "the 
evening-star," Venus. The Orientals " ap- 
pear to have conceived of this constellation 
under the figure of an impious giant bound 
upon the sky." This giant was, according 
to tradition, Nimrod, the type of the folly 
that contends against God. In Isa, 13 : 10 
the plural form of the Hebrew word is 
rendered "constellations. 



ORNAN 



515 



OVEN 



Or'nan. 1 Chr. 21 : 15. (See Abaunah.) 

Or'pah — forelock or faion — a Moabitess, 
the ^\-ife of Chilion (Ruth 1:4; 4 : 10). On 
the death of her husband she accompanied 
Naomi, her mother-in-law, part of the way 
to Bethlehem, and then returned to Moab. 

Or'phans (Lam. 5:3) — i.e., desolate 
and \\T.thout protectors. The word occurs 
only here. In John 14 : 18 the word there 
rendered " comfortless "(R.V., "desolate; " 
marg., "orphans") properly means "or- 
phans. " The same Greek word is rendered 
" fatherless " in James 1 : 27. 

Os^prey — Heb. ''ozniyydh — an unclean 
bird according to the Mosaic law (Lev. 11 : 
13 ; Deut. 14 : 12) ; the fish - eating eagle 
{Pandion haliaetus) ; one of the lesser eagles. 
But the Hebrew word may be taken to de- 
note the short-toed eagle {Circaetus gallicus 
of Southern Europe), one of the most 
abundant of the eagle tribe found in Pal- 
estine. 

Os'sifrage — Heb. peres — to "break" 
or "crush" — the lammer-geier, or bearded 
vulture, the largest of the whole vulture 
tribe. It was an unclean bird (Lev. 11 : 13 ; 
Deut. 14 : 12). It is not a gregarious bird, 
and is found but rarely in Palestine. 
" When the other vultures have picked the 
flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end 
of the feast, and swallows the bones, or 
breaks theni, and swallo^^'s the pieces if he 
cannot otherwise extract the marrow. The 
bones he cracks [hence the appropriateness 
of the name ossif rage — i. e. , " bone-breaker "] 
by letting them fall on a rock from a great 
height. He does not, however, confine 
himself to these delicacies, but whenever 
he has an opportunity will devour lambs, 
kids, or hares. These he generally obtains 
by pushing them over cliffs, when he has 
watched his opportunity ; and he has been 
known to attack men while climbing rocks, 
and dash them against the bottom. But 
tortoises and serjDents are his ordinary food. 

No doubt it was a lammer-geier that 

mistook the bald head of the poet ^schylus 
for a stone, and dropped on it the tortoise 
which killed him" (Tristram's Nat. Hist.). 
Os'trich (Lam. 4 : 3), the rendering of 
Hebrew pi. '^entm; so called from its greedi- 
ness and gluttony. The allusion here is to 



the habit of the ostrich with reference to its 
eggs, which is thus described : " The outer 
layer of eggs is generally so ill covered that 
they are destroj-ed in quantities by jackals, 
wild-cats, etc., and that the natives carry 
them away, only taking care not to leave 
the marks of their footsteps, since, when 
the ostrich comes and finds that her nest is 
discovered, she crushes the whole brood, 
and builds a nest elsewhere." In Job 
39 : 13 this word in the Authorized Version 
is the rendering of a Hebrew word {notsdh) 
which means ' ' feathers, " as in the Revised 
Version. In the same verse the word 
"peacocks" of the Authorized Version is 
the rendering of the Hebrew pi. rendnim, 
properly meaning "ostriches," as in the 
Revised Version. (See Owl [1]. ) 

Oth^ni — a lion of Jehovah — a son of 
Shemaiah, and one of the temple porters in 
the time of David (1 Chr. 26 : 7). He was 
a "mighty man of valour." 

Oth^niel — lion of God— the first of the 
judges. His wiie Achsah was the daughter 
of Caleb (Josh. 15 : IG, 17; Judg. 1:13). 
He gained her hand as a reward for his 
bravery in leading a successful expedition 
against Debir {q. v. ) Some thirty years after 
the death of Joshua, the Israelites fell under 
the subjection of Chushan-rishathaim {q.v.), 
the king of Mesopotamia. He oppressed 
them for full eight years, when they "cried" 
unto Jehovah, and Othniel was raised up 
to be their deliverer. He was the younger 
brother of Caleb (Judg. 3 : 6, 0-11). He is 
the only judge mentioned connected with 
the tribe of Judah. Under him the land 
had rest forty years. 

Ouch^es, an Old English word denoting 
cavities or sockets in which gems were set 
(Ex. 28 : 11). 

Ov^en — Heb. tannUi — (Hos. 7:4). In 
towns there appear to have been public 
ovens. There was a street in Jerusalem 
(Jer. 37:21) called "bakers' street" (the 
only case in which the name of a street in 
Jerusalem is preserved). The words ' ' tower 
of the furnaces" (Neh. 3:11; 12:38) is 
more j)roj)erly "tower of the ovens " (Heb. 
tannurim). These resemble the ovens in 
use among ourselves. 

There were other private ovens of differ- 



OWL 



516 



OX 



ent kinds. Some were like large jars made 
of earthenware or copper, which were heated 
inside with wood (1 Kings 17 : 12 ; Isa. 44 : 
15 ; Jer. 7 : 18) or grass (Matt. 6 : 30), and 
when the fire had burned out, small pieces 
of dough were placed inside or spread in 
thin layers on the outside, and were thus 
baked. (See Fuenace.) 

Pits were also formed for the same pur- 
poses, and lined with cement. These were 
used after the same manner. 

Heated stones, or sand heated by a fire 
heaped over it, and also flat iron pans, all 
served as ovens for the preparation of bread. 
(See Gen. 18 : 6 ; 1 Kings 19 : 6.) 

Owl. (1.) Heb. hath - haya^andh, 
" daughter of greediness " or of " shouting. " 




GREAT EAGLE OWL (bUBO MAXIMUS). 

In the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11 : 16 ; 
Deut. 14 : 15) ; also mentioned in Job 30 : 29 ; 
Isa. 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 50:39; 
Micah 1 : 8. In all these passages the Re- 
vised Version translates "ostrich" (q.v.), 
which is the correct rendering. 

(2. ) Heb. yanshiiph, rendered "great owl " 
in Lev. 11 : 17 : Deut. 14 : 16, and "owl " 
in Isa. 34 : 11, This is supposed to be the 
Egyptian eagle-owl [Bubo ascalaphus), 



which takes the place of the eagle-owl 
{Bubo inaximus) found in Southern Europe. 
It is found frequenting the ruins of Egypt 
and also of the Holy Land. " Its cry is a 
loud, prolonged, and very powerful hoot. I 
know nothing which more vividly brought 
to my mind the sense of desolation and 
loneliness than the re-echoing hoot of two 
or three of these great owls as I stood at 
midnight among the ruined temples of 
Baalbek " (Tristram). 

The LXX. and Vulgate render this word 
by "ibis " — i.e., the Egyptian heron. 

(3.) Heb. kos, rendered "little owl" in 
Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, and "owl" in 
Ps. 102 : 6. The Arabs call this bird " the 
mother of ruins." It is by far the most 
common of all the owls of Palestine. It is 
the Athene persica, the bird of Minerva, 
the symbol of ancient Athens. 

(4.) Heb. kippoz, the "great owl "(Isa. 
34 : 15) ; Revised Version, "arrow-snake ; " 
LXX. and Vulgate, "hedgehog," read- 
ing in the text, kippod, instead of kippoz. 
There is no reason to doubt the correct- 
ness of the rendering of the Authorized 
Version. Tristram says : " The word 
{i.e., kippoz] is very possibly an imitation 
of the cry of the scops owl {Scops giu), 
which is very common among ruins, caves, 

and old walls of towns It is a migrant, 

returning to Palestine in spring. " 

(5.) Heb. Itltth, "screech owl" (Isa. 34: 
14 — marg. and R.V., "night monster"). 
The Hebrew word is from a root signifying 
"night." Some species of the owl is ob- 
viously intended by this word. It may be 
the hooting or tawny owl {Syrnium aluco), 
which is common in Egypt and in many 
parts of Palestine. This verse in Isaiah is 
" descriptive of utter and perpetual desola- 
tion — of a land that should be full of ruins, 
and inhabited by the animals that usually 
make such ruins their abode. " 

Ox — Heb, hdkdr, " cattle ; " " neat 
cattle "—(Gen. 12 : 16 ; 34 : 28 ; Job 1 : 3, 14 ; 
42 : 12, etc. ) ; not to be muzzled when 
treading the corn (Deut. 25 : 4). Referred 
to by our Lord in his reproof to the 
Pharisees (Luke 13 : 15 ; 14 : 5). 

Ox goad — mentioned only in Judg. 3 : 31 
— the weapon with which Shamgar {q. v, )slew 



OZEM 



517 



PALACE 



six hundred Philistines. " The ploughman 
still carries his goad — a weapon apparently- 
more fitted for the hand of the soldier than 
the peaceful husbandman. The one I saw 
was of the ' oak of Bashan,' and measured 
upwards of ten feet in length. At one end 
M'as an iron spear, and at the other a piece 
of the same metal flattened. One can well 
understand how a warrior might use such 



a weapon with effect in the battle-field" 
(Porter's Syria, etc.). (See Goad.) 

O'zeva.— strong. (1. ) One of David's broth- 
ers ; the sixth son of Jesse (1 Chr. 2 : 15). 

(2.) A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2 : 25). 

Ozi^as, son of Joram (Matt. 1:8); called 
also Uzziah (2 Kings 15 : 32, 34). 

Oz^ni — hearing — one of the sons of Gad ; 
also called Elzon (Gen. 46 : 16 ; Num. 26 : 16). 



Pa'ari — opening of the Lord — "the 
Arbite," one of David's heroes (2 Sam. 
23 : 35) ; called also Naarai, 1 Chr. 11 : 37. 

Pa'dan— a ^?am— occurring only in Gen. 
48 : 7, where it designates Padan-aram. 

'Psi'AsiTi.-Si^TSiva.— the plain of Aram, or the 
plain of the highlands — (Gen. 25 : 20 ; 28 : 2, 
5-7 ; 31 : 18, etc. ), commonly regarded as 
the district of Mesopotamia {q.v.) lying 
around Haran. 

Pagi''el — God allots — a prince of the 
tribe of Asher (Num. 1 : 13), in the wilder- 
ness. 

Pa^hath-mo^ab — governor of Moah — a 
person whose descendants returned from 
the Captivity and assisted in rebuilding 
Jerusalem (Ezra 2:6; 8:4; 10 : 30). 

Paint. Jezebel " painted her face " 
(2 Kings 9 : 30) ; and the practice of paint- 
ing the face and the eyes seems to have 
been common ( Jer. 4 : 30 ; Ezek. 23 : 40). 
An allusion to this practice is found in the 
name of Job's daughter (42 : 14) Keren- 
happuch {q.v.). Paintings in the modern 
sense of the word were unknown to the 
ancient Jews. 

Pal''ace. Used now only of royal dwell- 
ings, although originally meaning simply 
(as the Latin word palatium, from which it 
is derived, shows) a building surrounded by 
a fence or a paling. In the Authorized 
Version there are many different words so 
rendered, presenting different ideas, such 
as that of citadel or lofty fortress or royal 
residence (Neh. 1:1; Dan. 8 : 2). It is the 
name given to the temple fortress (Neh. 
2 : 8) and to the temple itself (1 Kings 29 : 1). 



It denotes also a spacious building or a 
great house (Dan. 1:4; 4:4, 29 ; Esther 
1:5; 7:7), and a fortified place or an en- 
closure (Ezek. 25 : 4). Solomon's palace is 
described in 1 Kings 7 : 1-12 as a series of 
buildings rather than a single great struc- 
ture. Thirteen years were spent in their 
erection. This palace stood on the eastern 
hill, adjoining the temple on the south. 

In the New Testament it designates the 
official residence of Pilate or that of the 
high priest (Matt. 26 : 3, 58, 69 ; Mark 14 : 
54, 66 ; John 18 : 15). In Phil. 1 : 13 this 
word is the rendering of the Greek prai- 
torion, meaning the praetorian cohorts at 
Rome (the life-guard of the Caesars). Paul 
was continually chained to a soldier of that 
corps (Acts 28 : 16), and hence his name and 
sufferings became known in all the prce- 
torium. The "soldiers that kept" him 
would, on relieving one another on guard, 
naturally spread the tidings regarding him 
among their comrades. Some, however, 
regard the prastorium {q.v.) as the barrack 
within the palace (the palatium) of the 
Caesars in Rome where a detachment of 
these praetorian guards was stationed, or as 
the camp of the guards placed outside the 
eastern walls of Rome. 

' ' In the chambers which were occupied 
as guard-rooms," says Dr. Manning, "by 
the praetorian troops on duty in the palace, 
a number of rude caricatures are found 
roughly scratched upon the walls, just such 
as may be seen upon barrack walls in every 
part of the world. Amongst these is one 
of a human figure nailed upon a cross. To 



PALESTINE 



518 



PALESTINE 



add to the 'offence of the cross,' the cruci- 
fied one is represented with the head of an 
animal, probably that of an ass. Before it 
stands the figure of a Roman legionary with 
one hand upraised in the attitude of wor- 
ship. Underneath is the rude, misspelt, 
ungrammatical inscription, Alexamenos 
worships his god. It can scarcely be 
doubted that we have here a contemporary 
caricature, executed by one of the prae- 
torian guard, ridiculing the faith of a 
Christian comrade." 

Pal'estine originally denoted only the 
sea-coast of the land of Canaan inhabited 
by the Philistines (Ex. 15 : 14 ; Isa. 14 : 29, 
31 ; Joel 3 : 4), and in this sense exclusively 
the Hebrew name Felesheth (rendered 
"Philistia" in Ps. 60:8; 83:7; 87:4; 
109 : 9) occurs in the Old Testament. 

Not till a late period in Jewish history 
was this name used to denote " the land of 
the Hebrews " in general (Gen, 40 : 15), It 
is also called " the holy land " (Zech. 2: 12), 
the "land of Jehovah " (Hos. 9 : 3 ; Ps. 85 : 
1), the "land of promise" (Heb. 11 : 9), be- 
cause promised to Abraham (Gen. 12 : 7 ; 
24 : 7), the "land of Canaan " (Gen. 12 : 5), 
the "land of Israel" (1 Sam. 13:19), and 
the "land of Judah " (Isa. 19 : 17). 

The territory promised as an inheritance 
to the seed of Abraham (Gen. 15 : 18-21 ; 
Num. 34 : 1-12) was bounded on the east 
by the river Euphrates, on the west by the 
Mediterranean, on the north by the "en- 
trance of Hamath," and on the south by 
the "river of Egypt." This extent of 
territory, about 60,000 square miles, was at 
length conquered by David, and was ruled 
over also by his son Solomon (2 Sam. 8 ; 
1 Chr. 18 ; 1 Kings 4 : 1, 21). This vast 
empire was the Promised Land ; but Pales- 
tine was only a part of it, terminating in 
the north at the southern extremity of the 
Lebanon range, and in the south in the 
wilderness of Paran — thus extending in all 
to about 144 miles in length. Its average 
breadth was about 60 miles from the Medi- 
terranean on the west to beyond the Jordan. 
It has fittingly been designated "the least 
of all lands." Western Palestine, on the 
south of Gaza, is only about 40 miles in 
breadth from the Mediterranean to the 



Dead Sea, narrowing gradually toward the 
north, where it is only 20 miles from the 
sea-coast to the Jordan. 

Palestine, " set in the midst " (Ezek, 5 : 5) 
of all other lands, is the most remarkable 
country on the face of the earth. No single 
country of such an extent has so great a 
variety of climate, and hence also of plant 
and animal life. Moses describes it as "a 
good land, a land of brooks of water, of 
fountains and depths that spring out of 
valleys and hills ; a land of wheat, and 
barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pome- 
granates ; a land of oil olive, and honey ; 
a land wherein thou shalt eat bread without 
scarceness, thou shalt not lack any thing 
in it ; a land whose stones are iron, and 
out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass " 
(Deut. 8 : 7-9). 

' ' In the time of Christ the country looked , 
in all probability, much as now. The whole 
land consists of rounded limestone hills, 
fretted into countless stony valleys, offering 
but rarely level tracts, of which Esdraelon 
alone, below Nazareth, is large enough to 
be seen on the map. The original woods i 
had for ages disappeared, though the slopes 
were dotted, as now, with figs, olives, and 
other fruit-trees where there was any soil. 
Permanent streams were even then un- 
known, the passing rush of winter torrents 
being all that was seen among the hills. 
The autumn and spring rains, caught in 
deep cisterns hewn out like huge under- 
ground jars in the soft limestone, with arti- 
ficial mud-banked ponds still found near 
all villages, furnished water. Hills now 
bare, or at best rough with stunted growth, 
were then terraced, so as to grow vines, 
olives, and grain. To-day almost desolate, 
the country then teemed with population. 
Wine-presses cut in the rocks, endless ter- 
races, and the ruins of old vineyard towers 
are now found amidst solitudes overgrown 
for ages with thorns and thistles, or with 
wild shrubs and poor gnarled scrub" 
(Geikie's Life of Christ). 

From an early period the land was in- 
habited by the descendants of Canaan, who 
retained possession of the whole land "from 
Sidon to Gaza " till the time of the conquest 
by Joshua, when it was occupied by the 




PHYSICAL MAP OF PAUESTINE. 



PALESTINE 



519 



PALESTINE 



twelve tribes. Two tribes and a half had 
their allotments given them by Moses on 
the east of the Jordan (Deut. 3 : 12-20 ; 
comp. Num. 1:17-46; Josh. 4:12-13). 
The remaining tribes had their portion on 
the west of Jordan. 

Erom the conquest till the time of Saul — 
about four hundred years — the people were 
governed by judges. Eor a period of one 
hundred and twenty years the kingdom 
retained its unity while it was rvded by 
Saul and David and Solomon. On the 
death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam as- 
cended the throne ; but his conduct was 
such that ten of the tribes revolted, and 
formed an independent monarchy, called 
the kingdom of Israel, or the northern 
kingdom, the capital of which was first 
Shechem and afterwards Samaria. This 
kingdom was destroyed. The Israelites 
were carried captive by Shalmanezer, king 
of Assyria, B.C. 722, after an independent 
existence of two hundred and fifty -three 
years. The place of the captives carried 
away was supplied by tribes brought from 
the east, and thus was formed the Samar- 
itan nation (2 Kings 17 : 24-29). 

Nebuchadnezzar came up against the 
kingdom of the two tribes, the kingdom of 
Judah, the capital of which was Jerusalem, 
one hundred and thirty-four years after the 
overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. He 
overthrew the city, plundered the temple, 
and carried the people into captivity to 
Babylon (b.o. 587), where they remained 
seventy years. At the close of the period 
of the Captivity, they returned to their 
own land, under the edict of Cyrus (Ezra 
1 : 1-4). They rebuilt the city and temple, 
and restored the old Jewish commonwealth. 

Eor a while after the Restoration the 
Jews were ruled by Zerubbabel, Ezra, and 
Nehemiah, and afterwards by the high 
priests, assisted by the Sanhedrin. After 
the death of Alexander the Great at 
Babylon (B.C. 323), his vast empire was 
divided between his four generals. Egyj^t, 
Arabia, Palestine, and Coele-Syria fell to 
the lot of Ptolemy Lagus. Ptolemy took 
possession of Palestine in B.C. 320, and 
carried nearly one hundred thousand of the 
inhabitants of Jerusalem into Egypt. He 



made Alexandria the capital of his king- 
dom, and treated the Jews with considera- 
tion, confirming th^ in the enjoyment of 
many privileges. ^ 

After suffering persecution at the hands 
of Ptolemy's successors, the Jews threw off 
the Egyptian yoke, and became subject to 
Antiochus the Great, the king of Syria. 
The cruelty and oppression of the suc- 
cessors of Antiochus at length led to the 
revolt under the Maccabees (b.c. 163), when 
they threw off the Syrian yoke. 

In the year B. c. 68, Palestine was reduced 
by Pompey the Great to a Roman province. 
He laid the walls of the city in ruins, and 
massacred some twelve thousand of the in- 
habitants. He left the temple, however, 
uninjured. About twenty-five years after 
this the Jews revolted and cast off the 
Roman yoke. They were, however, subdued 
by Herod the Great {q.v.). The city and 
the temple were destroyed, and many of 
the inhabitants were put to death. About 
B.C. 20, Herod proceeded to rebuild the 
city and restore the ruined temple, which 
in about nine years and a half was so far 
completed that the sacred services could be 
resumed in it (comp. John 2 : 20). He was 
succeeded by his son Archelaus, who was 
deprived of his power, however, by Augus- 
tus, A.D. 6, when Palestine became a Roman 
province, ruled by Roman governors or 
procurators. Pontius Pilate was the fifth 
of these procurators. He was appointed 
to his office A.D. 25. 

Exclusive of Idumea, the kingdom of 
Herod the Great comprehended the whole 
of the country originally divided among the 
twelve tribes, which he divided into four 
provinces or districts. This division was 
recognized so long as Palestine was under 
the Roman dominion. These four provinces 
were — (1) Judea, the southern portion of 
the country ; (2) Samaria, the middle prov- 
ince, the northern boundary of which ran 
along the hills to the south of the plain of 
Esdraelon ; (3) Galilee, the northern prov- 
ince ; and (4) Persea (a Greek name meaning 
the " opposite country "), the country lying 
east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. This 
province was subdivided into these dis- 
tricts — (1) Prrrra proper, lying between the 




PALESTINE UNDER HEROD. 
(The dotted lines ijidicate the Joitr)ieys of Christ.) 



PALLU 



520 



PANNAG 



rivers Arnon and Jabbok ; (2) Galaaditis 
(Gilead) ; (3) Batancea ; (4) Gaulonitis 
( Jaulan) ; (5) Iturcea or Auranitis, the 
ancient Bashan; (6) Trachonitis; (7) Abi- 
lene; (8) Decapolis — i.e., the region of the 
ten cities. The whole territory of Palestine, 
including the portions allotted to the trans- 
Jordan tribes, extended to about eleven 
thousand square miles. Recent exploration 
has shown the territory on the west of Jor- 
dan alone to be six thousand square miles in 
extent, the size of the principality of Wales. 

Pal^lu — separated — the second son of 
Reuben (1 Chr. 5:3); called Phallu, Gen. 
46 : 9. He was the father of the Palluites 
(Ex. 6:14; Num. 26:5,8). 

Palm tree (Heb. tdmdr), the date-palm 
characteristic of Palestine. It is described 
as "flourishing" (Ps. 92:12), tall (Cant. 
7:7), " upright " ( Jer. 10 : 5). Its branches 
are a symbol of victory (Rev. 7 : 9). " Ris- 
ing with slender stem 40 or 50, at times 
even 80, feet aloft, its only branches, the 
feathery, snow-like, pale-green fronds from 
6 to 12 feet long, bending from its top, the 
palm attracts the eye wherever it is seen." 
The whole land of Palestine was called by 
the Greeks and Romans Phoenicia — i.e., 
"the land of palms." Tadmor in the 
desert was called by the Greeks and Ro- 
mans Palmyra — i.e., "the city of palms." 
The finest specimens of this tree grew at 
Jericho (Deut. 34 : 3) and Engedi and along 
the banks of the Jordan. Branches of the 
palm tree were carried at the feast of 
Tabernacles (Lev. 23 : 40). At our Lord's 
triumphal entrance into Jerusalem the 
crowds took palm branches, and went forth 
to meet him, crying, "Hosanna: Blessed 
is the King of Israel that cometh in the 
name of the Lord " (Matt. 21 : 8 ; John 12 : 
13). (See Date.) 

Palm trees. The city of, the name 
given to Jericho {q.v.) — Deut. 34 : 3 ; Judg. 
1 : 16 ; 3 : 13. 

Palmier- worm (Heb. gdzdm). The En- 
glish word may denote either a caterpillar 
(as rendered by the LXX.) — which wanders 
like a palmer or pilgrim, or which travels 
like pilgrims in bands (Joel 1:4; 2 : 25) — 
the wingless locust, or the migratory locust 
in its larva state. 



Pal^sy, a shorter form of "paralysis." 
Many persons thus afflicted were cured by 
our Lord (Matt. 4:24; 8:5-13; 9:2-7; 
Mark 2 : 3-11 ; Luke 7 : 2-10 ; John 5 : 5-7) 
and the apostles (Acts 8:7; 9 : 33, 34). 

"PaVti— -deliverance from the Lord— one of 
the spies representing the tribe of Benjamin 
(Num. 13 : 9). 

Pal^tiel — deliverance of God — the prince 
of Issachar who assisted "to divide the 
land by inheritance " (Num. 34 : 26). 

Pal^tite, the designation of one of David's 
heroes (2 Sam. 23 : 26) ; called also the 
Pelonite (1 Chr. 11 : 27). 

Pamphyl'ia. Paul and his company, 
loosing from Paphos, sailed north-west and 
came to Perga, the capital of Pamphylia 
(Acts 13 : 13, 14), a province about the 
middle of the southern sea-board of Asia 
Minor. It lay between Lycia on the west 
and Cilicia on the east. There were 
strangers from Pamphylia at Jerusalem on 
the day of Pentecost (2 : 10). 

Pan, a vessel of metal or earthenware 
used in culinary operations ; a cooking-pan 
or frying-pan frequently referred to in the 
Old Testament (Lev. 2:5; 6:21; Num. 
11:8; ISam. 2:14, etc.). 

The " ash-pans " mentioned in Ex. 27 : 3 
were made of copper, and were used in con- 
nection with the altar of burnt - off ering. 
The "iron pan" mentioned in Ezek. 4:3 
(marg., "flat plate" or "slice") was prob 
ably a mere plate of iron used for baking. 
The "fire-pans" of Ex. 27:3 were fire- 
shovels used for taking up coals. The 
same Hebrew word is rendered " snuff - 
dishes" (25:38; 37:23) and "censers" 
(Lev. 10:1; 16:12; Num. 4:14, etc.). 
These were probably simply metal vessels 
employed for carrying burning embers from 
the brazen altar to the altar of incense. 

The "frying-pan" mentioned in Lev. 
2:7, 7:9 was a pot for boiling. 

Pan^nag (Ezek. 27:17; marg. R.V., 
"perhaps a kind of confection ") the Jews 
explain as the name of a kind of sweet 
pastry. Others take it as the name of 
some place, identifying it with Pingi, on 
the road between Damascus and Baalbec. 
"Pannaga" is the Sanscrit name of an 
aromatic plant (comp. Gen. 43 : 11). 



PAPER 



521 



PARBAR 



Pa'per. The expression in the Author- 
ized Version (Isa. 19 : 7), "the paper reeds 
by the brooks," is in the Revised Version 
more correctly ' ' the meadows by the Nile. " 
The words undoubtedly refer to a grassy 
place on the banks of the Nile fit for 
pasturage. 

In 2 John 12 the word is used in its 
proper sense. The material so referred to 
was manufactured from the papyrus, and 
hence its name. The papyrus (Heb. gome) 
Avas a kind of bulrush {q. v. ). It is mentioned 
by Job (8 : 11) and Isaiah (35 : 7). It was 
used for many purposes. This plant 
{Papyrus Nilotica) is now unknown in 
Egypt ; no trace of it can be found. The 
unaccountable disappearance of this plant 
from Egypt was foretold by Isaiah (19 : 
6, 7) as a part of the divine judgment on 
that land. The most extensive papyrus 
growths now known are in the marshes at 
the northern end of the lake of Merom. 

Pa'phos, .the capital of the island of 
Cyprus, and therefore the residence of the 
Roman governor. It was visited by Paul 
and Barnabas on their first missionary tour 
(Acts 13 : 6). It is new Paphos which is 
here meant. It lay on the west coast of 
the island, about 8 miles north of old 
Paphos. Its modern name is Baffa. 

Par''able (Gr. jparabole), a placing be- 
side ; a comparison ; equivalent to the Heb. 
mdshdl, a similitude. In the Old Testa- 
ment this is used to denote (1) a proverb 
(1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20), 
(2) a prophetic utterance (Num. 23 : 7 ; 
Ezek. 20 : 49), (3) an enigmatic saying (Ps. 
78 : 2 ; Prov, 1 : 6). In the Ncav Testament, 

(1) a proverb (Mark 7 : 17 ; Luke 4 : 23), 

(2) a typical emblem (Heb. 9:9; 11 : 19), 

(3) a similitude or allegory (Matt. 15 : 15 ; 
24 : 32 ; Mark 3 : 23 ; Luke 5 : 36 ; 14 : 7) ; 

(4) ordinarily, in a more restricted sense, a 
comparison of earthly with heavenly things, 
"an earthly story with a heavenly mean- 
ing," as in the parables of our Lord. 

Instruction by parables has been in use 
from the earliest times. A large portion 
of owT Lord's public teaching consisted of 
parables. He himself explains his reasons 
for this in his answer to the inquiry of the 
disciples, "Why speakest thou to them in 



parables?" (Matt. 13:13-15; Mark 4: 11, 
12; Luke 8:9, 10). He followed in so 
doing the rule of the divine procedure, as 
recorded in Matt. 13 : 12. 

The parables uttered by our Lord are all 
recorded in the synoptical {i.e., the first 
three) Gospels. The fourth Gospel con- 
tains no parable properly so called, al- 
though the illustration of the good shep- 
herd (John 10 : 1-10) has all the essential 
features of a parable. (See List of Para- 
bles in Appendix. ) 

Par'adise, a Persian word {pardes), pro- 
perly meaning a " pleasui-e - ground " or 
' ' park "or " king's garden. " (See Eden. ) 
It came in course of time to be used as a 
name for the world of happiness and rest 
hereafter (Luke 23 : 43 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 4 ; Rev. 
2:7). Por "garden" in Gen. 2:8 the 
LXX. has "paradise." 

Pa''rah — the heifer — a town in Benjamin 
(Josh. 18 : 23), supposed to be identical 
with the ruins called Fdr^ah — about 6 miles 
north-east of Jerusalem- — in the Wady 
Far'ah, which is a branch of the Wady 
Kelt. 

Pa'^ran — abounding in foliage, or abound- 
ing in caverns — (Gen. 21 : 21), a desert tract 
forming the north-eastern division of the 
peninsula of Sinai, lying between the 
'Arabah on the east and the wilderness of 
Shur on the west. It is intersected in a 
north-western direction by the Wady el- 
'Arish. It bears the modern name of Bddiet 
et-Tih — i.e., "the desert of the wander- 
ings." This district, through which the 
children of Israel wandered, lay three days' 
march from Sinai (Num. 10 : 12, 33). Prom 
Kadesh, in this wilderness, spies {q.v.) were 
sent to spy the land (13 : 3, 26). Here, 
long afterwards, David found refuge from 
Saul (1 Sam. 25 : 1, 4). 

Pa^ran, Mount, probably the hilly region 
or upland wilderness on the north of the 
desert of Paran forming the southern 
boundary of the Promised Land (Deut. 
33 : 2 ; Hab. 3 : 3). 

Par^bar (1 Chr. 26 : 18), a place appa- 
rently connected with the temple, prob- 
ably a "suburb" {q.v.), as the word is 
rendered in 2 Kings 23 : 11 ; a space between 
the temple wall and the wall of the court ; 

34 



PARCHED 



522 



PARTRIDGE 



an open portico into which the chambers 
of the official persons opened (1 Chr, 26 : 
18). 

Parch^ed ground (Isa. 35 : 7) — Heb. 
shdrdb, a "mirage" — a phenomenon caused 
by the refraction of the rays of the sun on 
the glowing sands of the desert, causing 
them suddenly to assume the appearance 
of a beautiful lake. It is called by the 
modern Arabs by the same Hebrew name 
serdb. 

Parch''inent, a skin prepared for writ- 
ing on; so called from Pergamos {q.v.), 
where this was first done (2 Tim. 4 : 
13). 

Par^don, the forgiveness of sins granted 
freely (Isa. 43:25), readily (Neh. 9:17; 
Ps. 86 : 5), abundantly (Isa. 55 : 7 ; Rom. 
5 : 20). Pardon is an act of a sovereign, 
in pure sovereignty, granting simply a re- 
mission of the penalty due to sin, but secur- 
ing neither honour nor reward to the par- 
doned. Justification {q.v.), on the other 
hand, is the act of a judge, and not of a 
sovereign, and includes pardon and, at the 
same time, a title to all the rewards and 
blessings promised in the covenant of 
life. 

Parlour (from the Fr. parler, "to 
speak ") denotes an ' ' audience chamber, " 
but that is not the import of the Hebrew 
word so rendered. It corresponds to what 
the Turks call a kiosk, as in Judg. 3 : 20 
(the "summer parlour "), or as in the margin 
of the Revised Version (" the upper cham- 
ber of cooling "), a small room built on the 
roof of the house, with open windows to 
catch the breeze, and having a door com- 
municating with the outside by which per- 
sons seeking an audience may be admitted. 
While Eglon was resting in such a parlour, 
Ehud, under pretence of having a message 
from God to him, was admitted into his 
presence, and murderously plunged his 
dagger into his body (21, 22). 

The "inner parlours" in 1 Chr. 28:11 
were the small rooms or chambers which 
Solomon built all round two sides and one 
end of the temple (1 Kings 6:5), "side 
chambers ; " or they may have been, as some 
think, the porch and the holy place. 

In 1 Sam. 9 : 22 the Revised Version reads 



"guest chamber," a chamber at the high 
place specially used for sacrificial feasts. 

Parmash^ta — strong-fisted — a son of Ha- 
man, slain in Shushan (Esther 9 : 9). 

Par'^menas — constant — one of the seven 
" deacons " (Acts 6 : 5). 

Parshan'datha — an interx)reter of the 
laio — the eldest of Haman's sons, slain in 
Shushan (Esther 9 : 7). 

Par''thians were present in Jerusalem 
at Pentecost (Acts 2 : 9). Parthia lay on 
the east of Media and south of Hyrcania, 
which separated it from the Caspian Sea. 
It corresponded with the western half of 
the modern Khorasan, and now forms a 
part of Persia. 

Par'tridge (Heb. Mre—i.c, "caller"). 
This bird, unlike our own partridge, is dis- 
tinguished by "its ringing call-note, which 
in early morning echoes from cliff to cliff 
amidst the barrenness of the wilderness of 
Judea and the glens of the forest of Carmel " 
— hence its Hebrew name. This name oc- 
curs only twice in Scripture. 

In 1 Sam. 26 :20 "David alludes to the 
mode of chase practised now, as of old, 
when the partridge, continuously chased, 
was at length, when fatigued, knocked down 
by sticks thrown along the ground." It 
endeavours to save itself "by running, in 
preference to flight, unless when suddenly 
started. It is not an inhabitant of the 
plain or the corn-field, but of rocky hill- 
sides " (Tristram's Nat. Hist.). 

In Jer. 17 : 11 the prophet is illustrating 
the fact that riches unlawfully acquired 
are precarious and short-lived. The exact 
nature of the illustration cannot be pre- 
cisely determined. Some interpret the 
words as meaning that the covetous man 
will be as surely disappointed as the par- 
tridge which gathers in eggs, not of her 
own laying, and is unable to hatch them ; 
others (Tristram), with more probability, as 
denoting that the man who enriches him- 
self by unjust means "will as surely be 
disappointed as the partridge which com- 
mences to sit, but is speedily robbed of her 
hopes of a brood " by her eggs being stolen 
away from her. 

The commonest partridge in Palestine is 
the Caccahis saxatilis, the Greek partridge. 



PARUAH 



523 



PASSOVER 



The partridge of the wilderness {Ammo- 
perdix heyi) is a smaller species. 




DESERT PARTRIDGE (aMMOPERDIX HEYI). 

Paru'ah — flourishing — the father of 
Jehoshaphat, appointed to provide monthly 
supplies for Solomon from the tribe of 
Issachar (1 Kings 4 : 17). 

Parva^im, the name of a country from 
which Solomon obtained gold for the temple 
(2 Chr. 3 : 6). Some have identified it with 
Ophir, but it is uncertain whether it is even 
the name of a place. It may simply, as some 
think, denote "Oriental regions." 

Pa''sach — clearing — one of the sons of 
Japhlet, of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7 : 33). 

Pas-dam^mim — the hm'der of Wood — 
Ephes-dammim [q.v.) — between Shochoh 
and Azekah (1 Sam. 17 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 13). 

Pash'ur — release. (1. ) The son of Immer 
(probably the same as Amariah — Neh. 10 : 
3 ; 12 : 2), the head of one of the priestly 
courses, was "chief governor [Heb. paqid 
nagid, meaning " deputy governor "] of the 
temple " (Jer. 20 : 1, 2). At this time the 
nagid, or "governor," of the temple was 
Seraiah the high priest (1 Chr. 6 : 14), and 
Pashur was his 23CiQid, or "deputy." En- 
raged at the plainness with which Jeremiah 
uttered his solemn warnings of coming 
judgments, because of the abounding in- 
iquity of the times, Pashur ordered the 



temple police to seize him, and after in- 
flicting on him corporal punishment (forty 
stripes save one — Deut. 25 : 3 ; comp. 2 Cor. 
11 : 24), to put him in the stocks in the high 
gate of Benjamin, where he remained all 
night. On being set free in the morning, 
Jeremiah went to Pashur (Jer. 20 : 3, 5), and 
announced to him that God had changed 
his name to Magor-missabib — i.e., "terror 
on every side. " The punishment that fell 
upon him was probably remorse, when he 
saw the ruin he had brought upon his coun- 
try by advising a close alliance with Egypt 
in opposition to the counsels of Jeremiah 
(20:4-6). He was carried captive to Baby- 
lon, and died there. 

(2.) A priest sent by king Zedekiah to 
Jeremiah to inquire of the Lord (1 Chr. 
24 : 9 ; Jer. 21 : 1 ; 38 : 1-6). He advised 
that the prophet should be pvit to death. 

(3.) The father of Gedaliah. He was 
probably the same as (1), 

Pass^age denotes in Josh. 22 : 11, as is 
generally understood, the place where the 
children of Israel passed over Jordan. The 
Avords "the passage of" are, however, 
more correctly rendered "by the side of," 
or " at the other side of," thus designating 
the position of the great altar erected by 
the eastern tribes on their return home. 
This word also designates the fords of the 
Jordan to the south of the Sea of Galilee 
( Judg. 12 : 5, 6), and a pass or rocky de- 
file (1 Sam. 13:23; 14:4). "Passages" 
in Jer. 22 : 20 is in the Revised Version 
more correctly "Abarim" {q.v.), a proper 
name. 

Pas'sion. Only once found, in Acts 1 : 3, 
meaning suffering, referring to the suffer- 
ings of our Lord. 

Pass'over, the name given to the chief 
of the three great historical annual festivals 
of the Jews. It was kept in remembrance 
of the Lord's passing over the houses of the 
Israelites (Ex. 12 : 13) when the first born 
of all the Egyptians were destroyed. It is 
called also the ' ' feast of unleavened bread " 
(Ex. 23 : 15 ; Mark 14 : 1 ; Acts 12 : 3), be- 
cause during its celebration no leavened 
bread was to be eaten or even kept in the 
household (Ex. 12 : 15). The word after- 
wards came to denote the lamb that was 



PASSOVER 



524 



PATRIARCH 



slain at the feast (Mark 14 : 12-14 ; 1 Cor. 
5:7). 

A detailed account of the institution of 
this feast is given in Ex. 12 and 13. It was 
afterwards incorporated in the ceremonial 
law (Lev. 23 : 4-8) as one of the great 
festivals of the nation. In after times 
many changes seem to have taken place as 
to the mode of its celebration as compared 
with its first celebration (comp. Deut. 16 : 
2, 5, 6 ; 2 Chr. 30 : 16 ; Lev. 23 : 10-14 ; Num. 
9 : 10, 11 ; 28 : 16-24). Again, the use of 
wine (Luke 22 : 17, 20), of sauce with the 
bitter herbs (John 13 : 26), and the service 
of praise were introduced. 

There is recorded only one celebration of 
this feast between the Exodus and the en- 
trance into Canaan — namely, that men- 
tioned in Num. 9:5. (See JosiAH.) It 
was primarily a commemorative ordinance, 
reminding the children of Israel of their 
deliverance out of Egypt ; but it was, no 
doubt, also a tyj^e of the great deliverance 
wrought by the Messiah for all his people 
from the doom of death on account of sin, 
and from the bondage of sin itself, a worse 
than Egyptian bondage (1 Cor. 5:7; John 
1:29; 19:32-36; 1 Pet. 1:19; Gal. 4:4,5). 
The appearance of Jerusalem on the occa- 
sion of the Passover in the time of our 
Lord is thus fittingly described: — "The 
city itself and the neighbourhood became 
more and more crowded as the feast ap- 
proached, the narrow streets and dark 
arched bazaars showing the same throng of 
men of all nations as when Jesus had first 
visited Jerusalem as a boy. Even the 
temple offered a strange sight at this season, 
for in parts of the outer courts a wide space 
was covered with pens for sheep, goats, and 
cattle to be used for offerings. Sellers 
shouted the merits of their beasts, sheep 
bleated, oxen lowed. Sellers of doves also 
had a place set apart for them. Potters 
offered a choice from huge stacks of clay 
dishes and ovens for roasting and eating 
the Passover lamb. Booths for wine, oil, 
salt, and all else needed for sacrifices in- 
vited customers. Persons going to and 
from the city shortened their journey by 
crossing the temple grounds, often carrying 
b urdens Stalls to change foreign money 



into the shekel of the temple, which alone 
could be paid to the priests, were numerous, 
the whole confusion making the sanctuary 
like a noisy market " (Geikie's Life oj 
Christ). 

Pat^ara, a city on the south-west coast 
of Lycia at which Paul landed on his re- 
turn from his third missionary journey 
(Acts 21:1, 2). Here he found a larger 
vessel, which was about to sail across the 
open sea to the coast of Phoenicia. In this 
vessel he set forth, and reached the city of 
Tyre in perhaps two or three days. 

Path''ros, the name generally given to 
Upper Egypt (the Thebaid of the Greeks), 
as distinguished from Matsor, or Lower 
Egypt (Isa. 11 : 11 ; Jer. 44 : 1, 15 ; Ezek. 
30 : 14), the two forming Mizraim. After 
the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, colonies of Jews settled "in the 
country of Pathros " and other parts of 
Egypt. 

Pat^mos, a small rocky and barren 
island, one of the group called the "Spo- 
rades," in the ^gean Sea. It is mentioned 
in Scripture only in Rev. 1:9. It was on 
this island, to which John was banished by 
the emperor Domitian (a.d. 95), that he 
received from God the wondrous revelation 
recorded in his book. This has naturally 
invested it with the deepest interest for 
all time. It is now called Patmo. (See 
John. ) 

Pa'triarch, a name employed in the 
New Testament with reference to Abraham 
(Heb. 7 : 4), the sons of Jacob (Acts 7 : 8, 9), 
and to David (2 : 29). This name is gener- 
ally applied to the progenitors of families 
or "heads of the fathers" (Josh. 14:1) 
mentioned in Scripture, and they are spoken 
of as antediluvian (from Adam to Noah) 
and post-diluvian (from Noah to Jacob) 
patriarchs. But the expression "the patri- 
archs, " by way of eminence, is applied to 
the twelve sons of Jacob, or to Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob. 

"Patriarchal longevity presents itself as 
one of the most striking of the facts con- 
cerning mankind which the early history 

of the Book of Genesis places before us 

There is a large amount of consentient 
tradition to the effect that the life of man 



PATROBAS 



525 



PAUL 




was originally far more prolonged than it 
is at present, extending to at least several 
hundred years. The Babylonians, Egyj)- 
tians, and Chinese exaggerated these hun- 
dreds into thousands. The Greeks and 
Romans, with more moderation, limited 
human life within a thousand or eight 
hundred years. The Hindus still farther 
shortened the term. Their books taught 
that in the first age of the world man was 
free from diseases, and lived ordinarily four 
hundred years ; in the second age the term 
of life was reduced from four hundred to 
three hundred ; in the third it became two 
hundred; in the fourth and last it was 
brought down to one hundred" (Rawlin- 
son's Historical Illustrations). 

Pat''robas, a Christian at Rome to whom 
Paul sent salutations (Rom. 16 : 14). 

Pa'u (Gen. 36 : 39) or Pai (1 Chr. 1 : 50) 
— bleating — an Edomitish city ruled over 
by Hadar. 

Paul = Saul [q.v.) was born about the 
same time as our Lord. His circumcision- 
name was Saul, and probably the name 
Paul was also given to him in infancy ' ' for 
use in the Gentile world, "as " Saul " would 
be his Hebrew home-name. He was a 
native of Tarsus, the capital of Cilicia, a 



Roman province in the south-east of Asia 
Minor. That city stood on the banks of 
the river Cydnus, which was navigable thus 
far ; hence it became a centre of extensive 
commercial traffic with many countries 
along the shores of the Mediterranean, as 
well as with the countries of central Asia 
Minor. It thus became a city distinguished 
for the wealth of its inhabitants. 

Tarsus was also the seat of a famous 
university, higher in reputation even than 
the universities of Athens and Alexandria, 
the only others that then existed. Here 
Saul was born, and here he spent his youth, 
doubtless enjoying the best ediication his 
native city could afford. His father was 
of the straitest sect of the Jews — a Pharisee 
— of the tribe of Benjamin, of pure and un- 
mixed Jewish blood (Acts 23 : 6 ; Phil. 3 : 5). 
We learn nothing regarding his mother ; 
but there is reason to conclude that she 
was a pious woman, and that, like-minded 
with her husband, she exercised all a 
mother's influence in moulding the char- 
acter of her son, so that he could afterwards 
speak of himself as being, from his youth 
up, "touching the righteousness which is 
in the law, blameless " (Phil. 3 : 6). 

We read of his sister and his sister's son 



PAUL 



526 



PAUL 



(Acts 23 : 16), and of other relatives (Rom. 
IG : 7, 11, 12). Though a Jew, his father 
was a Roman citizen. How he obtained 
this privilege we are not informed. "It 
might be bought, or won by distingviished 
service to the state, or acquired in several 
other ways ; at all events, his son was free- 
born. It was a valuable privilege, and one 
that was to prove of great use to Paul, al- 
though not in the way in which his father 
might have been expected to desire him to 
make use of it." Perhaps the most natural 
career for the youth to follow was that of a 

merchant. "But it was decided that he 

should go to college and become a rabbi — 
that is, a minister, a teacher, and a lawyer 
all in one." 

According to Jewish custom, however, 
he learned a trade before entering on the 
more direct preparation for the sacred pro- 
fession. The trade he acquired was the 
making of tents from goats' hair cloth, a 
trade which was one of the commonest in 
Tarsus. 

His preliminary education having been 
completed, Saul was sent, when about thir- 
teen years of age probably, to the great 
Jewish school of sacred learning at Jeru- 
salem as a student of the law. Here he 
became a pupil of the celebrated rabbi 
Gamaliel, and here he spent many years in 
an elaborate study of the Scriptures and of 
the many questions concerning them with 
which the rabbis exercised themselves. 
During these years of diligent study he 
lived "in all good conscience," unstained 
by the vices of that great city. 

After the period of his student-life ex- 
pired, he probably left Jerusalem for Tar- 
sus, where he may have been engaged in 
connection with some synagogue for some 
years. But we find him back again at 
Jerusalem very soon after the death of our 
Lord. Here he now learned the particulars 
regarding the crucifixion, and the rise of 
the new sect of the "Nazarenes." 

For some two years after Pentecost, 
Christianity was quietly, spreading its in- 
fluence in Jerusalem. At length Stephen, 
one of the seven deacons, gave forth more 
public and aggressive testimony that Jesiis 
was the Messiah, and this led to much ex- 



citement among the Jews and much dis- 
putation in their synagogues. Persecution 
arose against Stephen and the followers of 
Christ generally, in which Satxl of Tarsus 
took a prominent part.. He was at this 
time probably a member of the great San- 
hedrin, and became the active leader in 
the furious persecution by which the rulers 
then sought to exterminate Christianity. 

But the object of this persecution also 
failed. ' ' They that were scattered abroad 
went everywhere preaching the word." 
The anger of the persecutor was thereby 
kindled into a fiercer flame. Hearing that 
fugitives had taken refuge in Damascus, 
he obtained from the chief priest letters 
authorizing him to proceed thither on his 
persecuting career. This was a long j ourney 
of about 130 miles, which would occupy 
perhaps six days, during which, with his 
few attendants, he steadily went onward, 
"breathing out threatenings and slaugh- 
ter." But the crisis of his life was at hand. 
He had reached the last stage of his journey, 
and was within sight of Damascus. As he 
and his companions rode on, suddenly at 
mid-day a brilliant light shone round them, 
and Saul was laid j)rostrate in terror on the 
ground, a voice sounding in his ears, " Saul, 
Saul, why persecutest thou me?" The 
risen Saviour was there, clothed in the 
vesture of his glorified humanity. In an- 
swer to the anxious inquiry of the stricken 
persecutor, "Who art thou, Lord?" he 
said, " I am Jesus whom thou persecutest " 
(Acts 9 : 5 ; 22 : 8 ; 26 : 15). 

This was the moment of his conversion, 
the most solemn in all his life. Blinded 
by the dazzling light (Acts 9 : 8), his com- 
panions led him into the city, where, ab- 
sorbed in deep thought for three days, he 
neither ate nor drank (9 : 11). Ananias, a 
disciple living in Damascus, was informed 
by a vision of the change that had hap- 
pened to Saul, and was sent to him to open 
his eyes and admit him by baptism into 
the Christian church (9 : 11-16). The whole 
purpose of his life was now permanently 
changed. 

Immediately after his conversion he re 
tired into the solitudes of Arabia (Gal. 
1 : 17), perhaps of " Sinai in Arabia," for the 



PAUL 



527 



PAUL 



purpose, probably, of devout study and 
meditation on the marvellous revelation 
that had been made to him. "A veil of 
thick darkness hangs over this visit to 
Arabia. Of the scenes among which he 
moved, of the thoughts and occupations 
which engaged him while there, of all the 
circumstances of a crisis which must have 
shaped the whole tenor of his after-life, 
absolutely nothing is known. ' Immedi- 
ately,' says St. Paul, 'I went away into 
Arabia.' The historian passes over the in- 
cident [comp. Acts 9 : 23 and 1 Kings 11 : 
38, 39]. It is a mysterious pause, a moment 
of suspense, in the apostle's history, a 
breathless calm, which ushers in the tu- 
multuous storm of his active missionary 
life." Coming back, after three years, to 
Damascus, he began to preach the gospel 
" boldly in the name of Jesus " (Acts 9 : 27), 
but was soon obliged to flee (9 : 25 ; 2 Cor. 
11:33) from the Jews and betake himself 
to Jerusalem. Here he tarried for three 
weeks, but was again forced to flee (Acts 
9:28, 29) from persecution. He now re- 
turned to his native Tarsus (Gal. 1 : 21), 
where, for probably about three years, we 
lose sight of him. The time had not yet 
come for his entering on his great life- 
work of preaching the gospel to the Gen- 
tiles. 

At length the city of Antioch, the capital 
of Syria, became the scene of great Chris- 
tian activity. There the gospel gained a 
firm footing, and the cause of Christ pros- 
pered. Barnabas {q.v.), who had been sent 
from Jerusalem to superintend the work 
at Antioch, found it too m\ich for him, and 
remembering Saul, he set out to Tarsus to 
seek for him. He readily responded to the 
call thus addressed to him, and cam.e down 
to Antioch, which for "a whole year" be- 
came the scene of his labours, which were 
croAvned with great success. The disciples 
now, for the first time, were called "Chris- 
tians " (Acts 11 : 26). 

The church at Antioch now proposed to 
send out missionaries to the Gentiles, and 
Saul and Barnabas, with John Mark as 
their attendant, were chosen for this work. 
This was a great epoch in the history of the 
church. Now the disciples began to give 



effect to the Master's command : "Go ye 
into all the world, and preach the gospel 
to every creature. " 

The three missionaries went forth on the 
first missionary tour. They sailed from 
Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch, across to 
Cyprus, some 80 miles to the south-west. 
Here at Paphos, Sergius Paulus, the Roman 
proconsul, was converted, and now Saul 
took the lead, and was ever afterwards 
called Paul. The missionaries now crossed 
to the mainland, and then proceeded 6 or 7 
miles up the river Cestrus to Perga (Acts 
13 : 13), where John Mark deserted the 
work and returned to Jerusalem. The two 
then proceeded about 100 miles inland, 
passing through Pamphylia, Pisidia, and 
Lycaonia. The towns mentioned in this 
tour are the Pisidian Antioch — where Paul 
delivered his first address of which we have 
any record (13 : 16-31 ; comp. 10 : 30-43)— 
Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. They returned 
by the same route to see and encourage the 
converts they had made, and ordain elders 
in every city to watch over the churches 
Avhich had been gathered. Prom Perga 
they sailed direct for Antioch, from which 
they had set out. 

After remaining "a long time" — prob- 
ably till A.D. 50 or 51 — in Antioch, a great 
controversy broke out in the church there 
regarding the relation of the Gentiles to 
the Mosaic law. For the purpose of ob- 
taining a settlement of this question, Paul 
and Barnabas were sent as deputies to con- 
sult the church at Jerusalem. The council 
or synod which was there held (Acts 15) 
decided against the Judaizing party ; and 
the deputies, accompanied by Judas and 
Silas, returned to Antioch, bringing with 
them the decree of the council. 

After a short rest at Antioch, Paul said 
to Barnabas : "Let us go again and visit 
our brethren in every city where we have 
preached the word of the Lord, and see 
how they do." Mark proposed again to 
accompany them ; but Paul refused to allow 
him to go. Barnabas was resolved to take 
Mark, and thus he and Paul had a sharj) 
contention. They separated, and never 
again met. Paul, however, afterwards 
speaks with honour of Barnabas, and sends 



PAUL 



528 



PAUL 



for Mark to come to him at Rome (Col. 
4 : 10 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 11). 

Paul took with him Silas, instead of Bar- 
nabas, and began his second missionary 
journey about A.D. 51. This time he went 
by land, revisiting the churches he had 
already founded in Asia. But he longed 
to enter into "regions beyond," and still 
went forward through Phrygia and Galatia 
(16 : 6). Contrary to his intention, he was 
constrained to linger in Galatia [q.v.), on 
account of some bodily affliction (Gal. 4 : 
13, 14). Bithynia, a populous province on 
the shore of the Black Sea, lay now before 
him, and he wished to enter it ; but the way 
was shut, the Spirit in some, manner guid- 
ing him in another direction, till he came 
down to the shores of the -^gean and 
arrived at Troas, on the north-western 
coast of Asia Minor (Acts 16 : 8). Of this 
long journey from Antioch to Troas we 
have no account except some references to 
it in his Epistle to the Galatians (4 : 13). 

As he waited at Troas for indications of 
the will of God as to his future movements, 
he saw, in the vision of the night, a man 
from the opposite shores of Macedonia 
standing before him, and heard him cry, 
"Come over, and help us" (Acts 16:9). 
Paul recognized in this vision a message 
from the Lord, and the very next day set 
sail across the Hellespont, which separated 
him from Europe, and carried the tidings 
of the gospel into the Western world. In 
Macedonia, churches were planted in 
Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea. Leav- 
ing this province, Paul passed into Achaia, 
"the paradise of genius and renown." 
He reached Athens, but quitted it after, 
probably, a brief sojourn (17 : 17-31). The 
Athenians had received him with cold dis- 
dain, and he never visited that city again. 
He passed over to Corinth, the seat of the 
Roman government of Achaia, and re- 
mained there a year and a half, labouring 
with much success. While at Corinth, he 
wrote his two epistles to the church of 
Thessalonica — his earliest apostolic letters — 
and then sailed for Syria, that he might be 
in time to keep the feast of Pentecost at 
Jerusalem. He was accompanied by Aquila 
and Priscilla. whom he left at Ephesus, at 



which he touched, after a voyage of thir- 
teen or fifteen days. He landed at Caesarea, 
and went up to Jerusalem, and having 
"saluted the church" there, and kept the 
feast, he left for Antioch, where he abode 
"some time " (Acts 18 : 20-23). 

He then began his third missionary tour. 
He journeyed by land in the "upper 
coasts " (the more eastern parts) of Asia 
Minor, and at length made his way to 
Ephesus, where he tarried for no less than 
three years, engaged in ceaseless Christian 
labour. "This city was at that time the 
Liverpool of the Mediterranean. It pos- 
sessed a splendid harbour, in which was 
concentrated the traffic of the sea which 
was then the highway of the nations ; and 
as Liverpool has behind her the great 
towns of Lancashire, so had Ephesus be- 
hind and around her such cities as those 
mentioned along with her in the epistles to 
the churches in the book of Revelation — 
Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phil- 
adelphia, and Laodicea. It was a city of 
vast wealth, and it was given over to every 
kind of pleasure, the fame of its theatres and 
race -course being world-wide" (Stalker's 
Life of St. Paul). Here a "great door and 
effectual " was opened to the apostle. His 
fellow - labourers aided him in his work, 
carrying the gospel to Colosse and Laodicea 
and other places which they could reach. 

Very shortly before his departure from 
Ephesus, the apostle wrote his Eirst Epistle 
to the Corinthians {q.v. ). The silversmiths, 
whose traffic in the little images which 
they made was in danger (see Demetrius), 
organized a riot against Paul, and he left 
the city, and proceeded to Troas (2 Cor. 
2 : 12), whence after some time he went to 
meet Titus in Macedonia. Here, in con- 
sequence of the report Titus brought from 
Corinth, he wrote his second epistle to that 
church. Having spent probably most of 
the summer and autumn in Macedonia, 
visiting the churches there, specially the 
churches of Philippi, Thessalonica, and 
Berea, probably penetrating into the in- 
terior, to the shores of the Adriatic (Rom. 
15 : 19), he then came into Greece, Avhere 
he abode three months, spending probably 
the greater part of this time in Corinth 




PAUL'S FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY. 




PAUL'S SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY. 



PAUL 



529 



PAUL 



(Acts 20 : 2). During his stay in this city 
he wrote his Epistle to the Galatians, and 
also the great Epistle to the Romans. At 
the end of the three months he left Achaia 
for Macedonia, thence crossed into Asia 
Minor, and touching at Miletus, there ad- 
dressed the Ephesian presbyters, whom he 
had sent for to meet him (Acts 20 : 17), and 
then sailed for Tyre, finally reaching Jeru- 
salem, probably in the spring of A.D. 58. 

While at Jerusalem, at the feast of Pente- 
cost, he was almost murdered by a Jewish 
mob in the temple. (See Temple, Herod's. ) 
Rescued from their violence by the Roman 
commandant, he was conveyed as a prisoner 
to Csesarea, where, from various causes, he 
was detained a prisoner for two years in 
Herod's prsetorium (Acts 23:35). "Paul 
was not kept in close confinement ; he had 
at least the range of the barracks in which 
he was detained. There we can imagine 
him pacing the ramparts on the edge of the 
Mediterranean, and gazing wistfully across 
the blue waters in the direction of Macedo- 
nia, Achaia, and Ephesus, where his spirit- 
ual children were pining for him, or perhaps 
encountering dangers in which they sorely 
needed his presence. It was a mysterious 
providence which thus arrested his energies 
and condemned the ardent worker to in- 
activity ; yet we can now see the reason 
for it. Paul was needing rest. After 
twenty years of incessant evangelization, 
he required leisure to garner the harvest 

of experience During these two years 

he wrote nothing ; it was a time of inter- 
nal mental activity and silent progress" 
(Stalker's Life of St. Paul). 

At the end of these two years Felix {q.v.) 
was succeeded in the governorship of Pales- 
tine by Porcius Festus, before whom the 
apostle was again heard. But judging it 
right at this crisis to claim the privilege of 
a Roman citizen, he appealed to the em- 
peror (Acts 25 : 11). Such an appeal could 
not be disregarded, and Paul was at once 
sent on to Rome under the charge of one 
Julius, a centurion of the "Aiigustan co- 
hort." After a long and perilous voyage, 
he at length reached the imperial city in 
the early spring, probably, of A.D. 61. Here 
he was permitted to occupy his own hired 



house, under constant military custody. 
This privilege was accorded to him, no 
doubt, because he was a Roman citizen, 
and as such could not be put into prison 
without a trial. The soldiers who kept 
guard over Paul were of course changed at 
frequent intervals, and thus he had the 
opportunity of preaching the gospel to 
many of them during these "two whole 
years," and with the blessed result of 
spreading among the imperial guards, and 
even in Caesar's household, an interest in 
the truth (Phil. 1 : 13). His rooms were re- 
sorted to by many anxious inquirers, both 
Jews and Gentiles (Acts 28 : 23, 30, 31), and 
thus his imprisonment "turned rather te 
the furtherance of the gospel," and his 
"hired house" became the centre of a 
gracious influence which spread over the 
whole city. According to a Jewish tradi- 
tion, it was situated on the borders of the 
modern Ghetto, which has been the Jewish 
quarters in Rome from the time of Pompey 
to the present day. During this period 
the apostle wrote his epistles to the Co- 
lossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and to 
Philemon, and probably also to the He- 
brews. 

This first imprisonment came at length 
to a close, Paul having been acquitted, 
probably because no witnesses appeared 
against him. Once more he set out on 
his missionary labours, probably visiting 
western and eastern Europe and Asia 
Minor. During this period of freedom he 
wrote his First Epistle to Timothy and his 
Epistle to Titus. The year of his release 
was signalized by the burning of Rome, 
which Nero saw fit to attribute to the 
Christians. A fierce persecution now broke 
out against the Christians. Paul was 
seized, and once more conveyed to Rome 
a prisoner. During this imj^risonment 
he probably Avrote the Second Epistle to 
Timothy, the last he ever wrote. "There 
can be little doubt that he appeared again 
at Nero's bar, and this time the charge did 
not break down. In all history there is 
not a more startling illustration of the irony 
of human life than this scene of Paul at the 
bar of Nero. On the judgment-seat, clad 
in the imperial purple, sat a man who, in a 




PAUL'S THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY. 




PAUL'S VOYAGE TO ROME. 



PAVEMENT 



580 



PEKAH 



bad world, had attained the eminence of 
being the very worst and meanest being in 
it — a man stained with every crime — a man 
whose whole being was so steeped in every 
nameable and unnameable vice, that body 
and soul of him were, as some one said at 
the time, nothing but a compound of mud 
and blood ; and in the prisoner's dock stood 
the best man the world possessed, his hair 
whitened with labours for the good of men 
and the glory of God. The trial ended : 
Paul was condemned, and delivered over 
to the executioner. He was led out of the 
city, with a crowd of the lowest rabble at 
his heels. The fatal spot was reached ; he 
knelt beside the block ; the headsman's 
axe gleamed in the sun and fell; and the 
head of the apostle of the world rolled down 
in the dust" (probably A.D. 66), four years 
before the fall of Jerusalem. 

Pave'ment. It was the custom of the 
Roman governors to erect their tribunals 
in open places, as the market-place, the 
circus, or even the highway. Pilate caused 
his seat of judgment to be set down in a 
place called "the Pavement " (John 19 : 13) 
— i.e., a place paved with a mosaic of 
coloured stones. It was probably a place 
thus prepared in front of the "judgment 
hall." (See Gabbatha.) 

Pavilion, a tent or tabernacle (2 Sam. 
22:12; 1 Kings 20:12-16), or enclosure 
(Ps. 18 : 11 ; 27 : 5). In Jer. 43 : 10 it pro- 
bably denotes the canopy suspended over 
the judgment-seat of the king. 

Peace offerings (Heb. sheldmim), de- 
tailed regulations regarding given in Lev. 
3 ; 7 : 11-21, 29-34. They were of three 
kinds — (1) e^ucharistic or thanksgiving 
offerings, expressive of gratitude for bless- 
ings received ; (2) in fulfilment of a vow, 
but expressive also of thanks for bene- 
fits received; and (3) free-will offerings, 
something spontaneously devoted to God. 

Pea^cock (Heb. tHk, apparently bor- 
rowed from the Tamil toTcei). This bird is 
indigenous to India. It was brought to 
Solomon by his ships fromTarshish (1 Kings 
10 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 21), which in this case was 
probably a district on the Malabar coast 
of India, or in Ceylon. The word so ren- 
dered in Job 39 : 13 literally means wild, 



tumultuous crying, and properly denotes 
the female ostrich {q.v.). 

Pearl (Heb. gdbtsh — 3 oh 28:18; Gr. 
margarltes — Matt. 7:6; 13 : 46 ; Rev. 21 : 
21). The pearl oyster is found in the Per- 
sian Gulf and the Red Sea. Its shell is 
the "mother of pearl," which is of great 
value for ornamental purposes (1 Tim. 2:9-, 
Rev. 17 : 4). Each shell contains eight or 
ten pearls of various sizes. 

Pecu^liar, as used in the phrase "peculiar 
people " in 1 Pet. 2 : 9, is derived from the 
Lat. pecuUum, and denotes, as rendered in 
the Revised Version ("a people for God's 
own possession"), a special possession or 
property. The church is the "property" 
of God, his "purchased possession" (Eph. 
1 : 14 ; R. v., " God's own possession "). 

Peda''hel — redeemed of God — the son of 
Ammihu4, ^ prince of Naphtali (Num. 
34 : 28). 

Pedali''zur — rock of redemption — the 
father of Gamaliel and prince of Manasseh 
at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1 : 10 ; 
2 : 20). 

Pedai''ah — redemption of the Lord. (1.) 
The father of Zebudah, who was the wife 
of Josiah and mother of king Jehoiakim 
(2 Kings 23 : 36). 

(2.) The father of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 
3 : 17-19). 

(3. ) The father of Joel, ruler of the half - 
tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. 27 : 20). 

(4.) Neh. 3:25. 

(5.) A Levite (8 : 4). 

(6.) A Benjamite (11 : 7). 

(7.) A Levite (13: 13). 

Pe''kah — open-eyed — the son of Remaliah : 
a captain in the army of Pekahiah, king ot 
Israel, whom he slew, with the aid of a band 
of Gileadites, and succeeded (b.c. 758) on 
the throne (2 Kings 15 : 25). Seventeen 
years after this he entered into an alliance 
with Rezin, king of Syria, and took part 
with him in besieging Jerusalem (2 Kings 
15:37; 16:5). But Tiglath - pileser, who 
was in alliance with Ahaz, king of Judah, 
came up against Pekah, and carried away 
captive many of the inhabitants of his 
kingdom (2 Kings 15 : 29). This was the 
beginning of the "Captivity." Soon after 
this Pekah was put to death by Hoshea, 



PEKAHIAH 



531 



PELICANS 



the son of Elah, who usurped the throne 
(2 Kings 15 : 30 ; 16 : 1-9. Comp. Isa. 7 : 16 ; 
8:4; 9 : 12). He is supposed by some to 
have been the "shepherd" mentioned in 
Zech. 11 : 16. 

Pekahi^ah — the Lord opened his eyes — 
the son and successor of Menahem on the 
throne of Israel. He was murdered in the 
royal palace of Samaria by Pekah, one of 
the captains of his army (2 Kings 15 : 23-26), 
after a reign of two years (b.c. 761-759). 
He "did that which was evil in the sight 
of the Lord." 

Pe'kod, probably a place in Babylonia 
(Jer. 50:21; Ezek. 23:23). It is the 
opinion, however, of some that this word 
signifies "visitation," "punishment," and 
allegorically " designates Babylon as the 
city which was to be destroyed. " 

Pelai''ah — distinguished of the Lord. 
(1.) One of David's posterity (1 Chr. 3 : 24). 

(2.) A Levite who expounded the law 
(Neh. 8 : 7). 

Pelati^ah — deliverance of the Lord. (1. ) 
A son of Hananiah and grandson of Zerub- 
babel (1 Chr. 3 : 21). 

(2.) A captain of "the sons of Simeon" 
(4 : 42, 43). 

(3.) Neh. 10:22. 

(4. ) One of the twenty -five princes of the 
people against whom Ezekiel prophesied 
on account of their wicked counsel (Ezek. 
11 : 1-13). 

Pe'leg — division — one of the sons of 
Eber ; so called because "in his days was 
the earth divided " (Gen. 10 : 25). Possibly 
he may have lived at the time of the dis- 
persion from Babel. But more probably 
the reference is to the dispersion of the two 
races which sprang from Eber — the one 
spreading towards Mesopotamia and Syria, 
and the other southward into Arabia. 

Pe'let — deliverance. (1.) A descendant 
of Judah (1 Chr. 2 : 47). 

(2.) A Benjamite who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 3). 

Pe'leth — swiftness. (1.) A Reubenite 
whose son was one of the conspirators 
against Moses and Aaron (Num. 16 : 1). 

(2.) One of the sons of Jonathan (1 Chr. 
2 : 33). 

Pel'ethites, mentioned always along 



with the Cherethites, and only in the 
time of David. The word probably means 
"runners" or "couriers," and may denote 
that while forming part of David's body- 
guard, they were also sometimes employed 
as couriers (2 Sam. 8 : 18 ; 20 : 7, 23 ; 1 Kings 
1 : 38, 41 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 17). Some, however, 
think that these are the names simply of 
two Philistine tribes from which David 
selected his body-guard. They are men- 
tioned along with the Gittites (2 Sam. 15 : 
18), another body of foreign troops whom 
David gathered round him. 

Pel'icans are frequently met with at the 
waters of Merom and the Sea of Galilee. 




PELICAN (PELICANUS ONOCROTALUS). 

"They breed among reeds and rushes, but 
at other seasons, after fishing all day, 
assemble in flocks towards the evening, and 
after soaring for some time in circles, alight 
on an island, or more commonly on an open 
plain where the grasses and herbs do not 
grow high, and roost in a circle with their 
heads outwards, so that no jackal or other 
enemy can approach them unseen ; some- 
times also they fly separately to lonely 
places in the wilderness, where they sit for 
hours or even days almost without moving, 



PELONITE 



532 



PENTATEUCH 



'a picture of melancholy.' The psalmist 
in his affliction compares himself to ' a 
pelican in the wilderness ' " (Ps. 102 : 6). 

The pelican is ranked among unclean 
birds (Lev. 11 : 18 ; Deut. 14 : 17). It is of 
an enormous size, being about 6 feet long, 
with wings stretching out over 12 feet. 
The Hebrew name [kciath — i.e., " vomiter ") 
of this bird is incorrectly rendered "cor- 
morant " in the Authorized Version of Isa. 
34 : 11 and Zeph, 2 : 14, but correctly in the 
Revised Version. It receives its Hebrew 
name from its habit of storing in its pouch 
large quantities of fish, which it disgorges 
when it feeds its young. Two species are 
found on the Syrian coast^the Pelicanus 
onocrotalus, or white pelican, and the Peli- 
canus crispus, or Dalmatian pelican. 

Pel''onite, a name given to Helez and 
Ahijah, two of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11 : 
27, 36). In 2 Sam. 23 : 26 Helez is called 
the Paltite, a word which some have inter- 
preted as meaning "of Beth-pelet," some 
town in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 27), but this is quite vmcertain. In 
1 Chr. 27 : 10 Helez is said to have been "of 
Ephraim. " 

Pelu^sium — muddy — (Ezek. 30 : 15marg. 
for "Sin" — q.v.), an Egyptian city. 

Pen "of iron " (Job 19 : 24 ; Jer. 17 : 1), 
the stylus used for cutting on hard stone or 
metal, as well as for writing on tablets of 
wax. Pens were also made of hollow cane 
or reed, and formed like a quill, for writing 
with ink (Ps. 45 : 1 ; Isa. 8:1; Jer. 8:8; 
3 John 13). Such pens are still in use in 
many Oriental countries. 

Peni^el. See Penuel. 

Penin^'nali — cored — one of Elkanah's 
two wives (1 Sam. 1 : 1, 2). 

Pen''ny (Gr. denarion), a silver coin of 
the value of about 7id. or 8d. of our present 
money. It is thus rendered in the New 
Testament, and is more frequently men- 
tioned than any other coin (Matt. 18 : 28 ; 
20:2, 9, 13; Mark 6 : 37 ; 14:5, etc.). It 
was the daily pay of a Roman soldier in 
the time of Christ. In the reign of Ed- 
ward III. an English penny was a labourer's 
day's wages. This was the ' ' tribute money " 
with reference to which our Lord said, 
" Whose image and superscription is this ?" 



When they answered, "Csesar's," he re- 
plied, "Render therefore to Csesar the 
things that are Caesar's ; and to God the 




DENARIUS. 

things that are God's " (Matt. 22 : 19 ; Mark 
12 : 15). 

Pen''tateuch, the five-fold volume, con- 
sisting of the first five books of the Old 
Testament. This word does not occur in 
Scripture, nor is it certainly known when 
the roll was thus divided into five portions 
— Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, 
Deuteronomy. Probably that was done by 
the LXX. translators. 

These books profess to have been written 
by Moses in the name of God (Ex. 17 : 14 ; 
24:3, 4, 7; 32:7-10, 30-34; 34:27; Lev. 
26 : 46 ; 27 : 34 ; Deut. 31 : 9, 24, 25). This 
also is the uniform and persistent tradition 
among the Jews of all ages, countries, and 
sects (comp. Josh. 8 : 31, 32 ; 1 Kings 2:3; 
Jer. 7:22; Ezra3:2; Neh.8:l; Mal.4:l; 
Acts 15 : 21 ; Matt. 22 : 24). Our Lord and 
his apostles held and taught the same thing. 
Quotations from the Pentateuch which are 
found in the Gospels are spoken of as from 
Moses (John 5 : 46, 47 ; 7 : 19). 

These books, besides, bear internal evi- 
dence of being one harmonious whole, mak- 
ing evident everywhere one controlling 
mind. Erom the earliest times the Pen- 
tateuch has been regarded as one book — 
the "Law of Moses," the "Book of the 
Law of Moses," the "Book of Moses," or, 
as the Jews designate it, the "Torah"or 
" Law." This has been well stated by Keil 
in his Introduction to the Old Testament: 
"That the Pentateuch, in its present shape, 
proceeds from a single author is proved by 
its plan and aim, according to which its 
whole contents refer to the covenant con- 
cluded between Jehovah and his people, by 
the instrumentality of Moses, in such a way 



PENTECOST 



533 



PERES 



that everything before his time is perceived 
to be preparatory to this fact, and all the 
rest to be the development of it. Neverthe- 
less, this unity has not been stamped upon 
it as a matter of necessity by the latest 
redactor : it has been there from the be- 
ginning, and is visible in the first plan and 
in the whole execution of the work. This is 
clearly seen, indeed, from the exact chron- 
ology which runs through all the five books 
and knits all the parts together, yet more 
from the care with which the materials are 
organically connected and the individual 
elements are linked together internally, so 
that the earlier sections point forward to 
those by which they are succeeded, and for 
which they prepare the way, while the 
later sections point back to those which 
have preceded, partly developing them, 
partly explaining and supplementing them. " 

Granting, which we may well do, that in 
the time of Moses there existed certain oral 
traditions or ^\'ritten records which he in- 
corporated in his history, this in no way 
militates against the idea that he wrote the 
Pentateuch. It is the basis and necessary 
preliminary of all the Old Testament history 
and literature. The objections that have 
been brought against the Mosaic author- 
ship of the Pentateuch are all capable of 
a reasonable explanation. (See Deuteron- 
omy. ) 

Pen'tecost— r. e. , " fiftieth "—found only 
in the New Testament (Acts 2:1; 20 : 16 ; 
1 Cor. 16 : 8). The festival so named is 
first spoken of in Ex. 23:16 as "the feast 
of harvest, " and again in Ex. 34 : 22 as 
"the feast of weeks." It is called also 
" the day of the firstfruits " (Num. 28 : 26). 
From the sixteenth of the month of Nisan 
(the second day of the Passover), seven 
complete weeks — i.e., forty-nine days — were 
to be reckoned, and this feast was held on 
the fiftieth day. The manner in which it 
was to be kept is described in Lev. 23 : 15- 
19 ; Num. 28 : 27-29. Besides the sacrifices 
prescribed for the occasion, every one was 
to bring to the Lord his " tribute of a free- 
will offering " (Deut. 16 : 9-11). The pur- 
pose of this feast was to commemorate the 
completion of the grain harvest. Its dis- 
tinguishing feature was the offering of ' ' two 



leavened loaves " made from the new corn 
of the comi^leted harvest, which, with two 
lambs, were waved before the Lord as a 
thank offering. 

The day of Pentecost is noted in the 
Christian Church as the day on which the 
Spirit descended upon the apostles, and on 
which, under Peter's preaching, so many 
thousands were converted in Jerusalemi 
(Acts 2). 

Penu'el — face of God — ^a place not far 
from Succoth, on the east of the Jordan 
and north of the river Jabbok. It is also 
called "Peniel." Here Jacob wrestled 
(Gen. 32:24-32) 'Svith a man" ("the 
angel" — Hos. 12:4. Jacob says of him, 
"I have seen God face to face") "till the 
break of day," 

A town was afterwards built there ( Judg. 
8 : 8 ; 1 Kings 12 : 25). The men of this 
place refused to succour Gideon and his 
little army when they were in pursuit of 
the Midianites (Judg. 8 : 1-21). On his re- 
turn, Gideon slew the men of this city and 
razed its lofty watch-tower to the ground. 

Pe^or — opening. (1.) A mountain peak 
(Num. 23 : 28) to which Balak led Balaam 
as a last effort to induce him to pronounce 
a curse upon Israel. When he looked on 
the tribes encamped in the acacia groves 
below him, he could not refrain from giving 
utterance to a remarkable benediction (24 : 
1-9). Balak was more than ever enraged 
at Balaam, and bade him flee for his life. 
But before he went he gave expression to 
that wonderful prediction regarding the 
future of this mysterious people, whose 
"goodly tents " were spread out before him, 
and the coming of a "Star" out of Jacob 
and a " Sceptre " out of Israel (24 : 14-17). 

(2.) A Moabite divinity, called also 
"Baal-peor" (Num. 25:3, 5, 18; comp. 
Deut. 3 : 29). 

Pera''zim, Mount — mount of breaches — 
only in Isa. 28 : 21. It is the same as Baal- 
PERAZIM [q. V. ), where David gained a victory 
over the Philistines (2 Sam. 5 : 20). 

Pe^res — divided — one of the mysterious 
words "written over against the candle- 
stick upon the plaster of the wall " of king 
Belshazzar's palace (Dan. 5 : 28). (See 
Mexe.) 



PEREZ 



534 



PERSEVERANCE 



Pe'rez = Pharez {q.v.) — breach — the son 
of Judah (Neh. 11 : 4). "The chief of all 
the captains of the host for the first 
month" in the reign of David was taken 
from his family (1 Chr. 27 : 3). Four hun- 
dred and sixty-eight of his " sons " came 
back from captivity with Zerubbabel, who 
himself was one of them (1 Chr. 9:4; Neh. 
11 : 6). 

Pe'rez-uz'zah — the Ireach of Uzzah—a, 
place where God "burst forth upon Uzzah, 
so that he died," when he rashly "took 
hold " of the ark (2 Sam. 6 : 6-8). It was 
not far from Kirjath-jearim {q.v.). 

Perfec'tion. See Sanctification. 

Per'Tumes were used in religious wor- 
ship and for personal and domestic enjoy- 
ment (Ex. 30 : 35-37 ; Prov. 7 : 17 ; Cant. 
3:6; Isa. 57 : 9), and also in embalming 
the dead, and in other funeral ceremonies 
(Mark 14 : 8 ; Luke 24 : 1 ; John 19 : 39). 

Per'ga, the capital of Pamphylia, on the 
coast of Asia Minor. Paul and his com- 
panions landed at this place from Cyprus 
on their first missionary journey (Acts 13 : 
13, 14), and here Mark forsook the party 
and returned to Jerusalem. Some time 
afterwards Paul and Barnabas again visited 
this city and " preached the word " (14 : 25). 
It stood on the banks of the river Cestrus, 
some 7 miles from its mouth, and was a 
place of some commercial importance. It 
is now a ruin, called EsJci Kalessi. 

Per^gamos, the chief city of Mysia, in 
Asia Minor. One of the " seven churches " 
was planted here (Rev. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 17). It 
was noted for its wickedness, insomuch that 
our Lord says "Satan's seat" was there. 
The church of Pergamos was rebuked for 
swerving from the truth and embracing 
the doctrines of Balaam and the Nicolai- 
tanes. Antipas, Christ's "faithful mar- 
tyr," here sealed his testimony with his 
blood. 

This city stood on the banks of the river 
Caicus, about 20 miles from the sea. It is 
now called Bergama, and has a population 
of some twenty thousand, of whom about 
two thousand profess to be Christians. 
Parchment {q.v.) was first made here, and 
was called by the Greeks pergamene, from 
the name of the city. 



Peri'da — kernel — Neh. 7 : 57. (See 
Pekuda. ) 

Per^izzites — villagers; dwellers in the 
open country— the Canaanitish nation in- 
habiting the fertile regions south and south- 
west of Carmel. ' ' They were the graziers, 
farmers, and peasants of the time." They 
were to be driven out of the land by the 
descendants of Abraham (Gen. 15 : 20 ; Ex. 
3 : 8, 17 ; 23 : 23 ; 33 : 2 ; 34 : 11). They are 
afterwards named among the conquered 
tribes (Josh. 24 : 11). Still lingering in the 
land, however, they were reduced to servi- 
tude by Solomon (1 Kings 9 : 20). 

Persecu'tion. The first great persecu- 
tion for religious opinion of which we have 
any record was that which broke out against 
the worshippers of God among the Jews 
in the days of Ahab, when that king, at 
the instigation of his wife Jezebel — "a 
woman in whom, with the reckless and 
licentious habits of an Oriental queen, were 
united the fiercest and sternest qualities 
inherent in the old Semitic race " — sought 
in the most relentless manner to extirpate 
the worship of Jehovah and substitute in 
its place the worship of Ashtoreth and 
Baal. Ahab's example in this respect was 
followed by Manasseh, who "shed inno- 
cent blood very much, till he filled Jeru- 
salem from one end to another " (2 Kings 
21 : 16 ; comp. 24 : 4). In all ages, in one 
form or another, the people of God have 
had to suffer persecution. In its earliest 
history the Christian church passed through 
many bloody persecutions. Of subsequent 
centuries in our own and in other lands the 
same sad record may be made. 

Christians are forbidden to seek the prop- 
agation of the gospel by force (Matt. 7:1; 
Luke 9:54-56; Rom. 14:4; James 4:11, 
12). The words of Ps. 7 : 13, " He ordaineth 
his arrows against the persecutors," ought 
rather to be, as in the Revised Version, 
"He maketh his arroAvs fiery [shafts] 
against," etc. 

Persever'ance of the saints, their cer- 
tain continuance in a state of grace. Once 
justified and regenerated, the believer can 
neither totally nor finally fall away from 
grace, but will certainly persevere therein 
and attain everlasting life. 




THE PERSIAN EMPIRE IN ITS GREATEST EXTENT. 



See page 335. 




THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER AUGUST US, 



See page sSS, 



i.5 



PERSIA 



535 



PETER 



This doctrine is clearly taught in these 
passages — John 10:28, 29; Rom. 11:29; 
Phil. 1 : 6 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 5. It, moreover, fol- 
lows from a consideration of (1) the immut- 
ability of the divine decrees ( Jer. 31 : 3 ; 
Matt. 24 : 22-24 ; Acts 13 : 48 ; Rom. 8 : 30) ; 
(2) the provisions of the covenant of grace 
(Jer. 32 : 40 ; John 10 : 29 ; 17 : 2-6) ; (3) the 
atonement and intercession of Christ (Isa. 
53 : 6, 11 ; Matt. 20 : 28 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 24 ; John 
11:42; 17:11, 15, 20; Rom. 8:34); and 
(4) the indwelling of the Holy Ghost (John 
14 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 1': 21, 22 ; 5 : 5 ; Eph. 1 : 14 ; 
1 John 3 : 9). 

This doctrine is not inconsistent with the 
truth that the believer may nevertheless 
fall into grievous sin, and continue therein 
for some time. (See Backslide.) 

Per'^sia, an ancient empire, extending 
from the Indus to Thrace and from the 
Caspian Sea to the Red Sea and the Per- 
sian Gulf, — thus including the whole of 
"Western Asia and a portion of both Europe 
and Africa. The country of Persia proper 
(Ezek. 38 : 5)- — now called Fars or Farsistan 
— however, was only a part of this empire. 
It was bounded on the north by Media, 
from which it was separated by a mountain 
range, on the west by Susiana (Elam), and 
on the south by the Persian Gulf. Till the 
time of Cyrus, Persia seems to have been 
in a state of subjection to Media. Cyrus 
{q.v.) secured its independence (about B.C. 
588), and extended his conquests far and 
wide, till Persia became a great empire, 
which held sway in Asia for about two 
hundred years, when it was conquered by 
Alexander the Great (b.c. 330) in the days 
of Darius, the only successor of Cyrus who 
is mentioned in Scripture (Neh. 12 : 22). 
Modern Persia is still an important Asiatic 
power, embracing a territory of about 
500,000 square miles, with a population ©f 
about ten million. 

Per''sis, a female Christian at Rome 
whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 12). She is 
spoken of as "beloved," and as having 
"laboured much in the Lord." 

Peru''da, one whose descendants returned 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2 : 55) ; called also 
Perida (Neh. 7 : 57). 

Pe'ter, originally called Simon ( = Simeon 



— i.e., "hearing"), a very common Jewish 
name in the New Testament. He was the 
son of Jona (Matt. 16 : 17). His mother is 
nowhere named in Scripture. He had 
a younger brother called Andrew, who first 
brought him to Jesus (John 1 : 40-42). His 
native town was Bethsaida, on the western 
coast of the Sea of Galilee, to which also 
Philip belonged. Here he was brought up 
by the shores of the Sea of Galilee, and was 
trained to the occupation of a fisher. His 
father had probably died while he was still 
young, and he and his brother were brought 
up under the care of Zebedee and his wife 
Salome (Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark 15 : 40 ; 16 : 1). 
There the four youths — Simon, Andrew, 
James, and John — spent their boyhood 
and early manhood in constant fellowship. 
Simon and his brother doubtless enjoyed 
all the advantages of a religious training, 
and were early instructed in an acquaint- 
ance with the Scriptures and with the great 
prophecies regarding the coming of the 
Messiah. They did not probably enjoy, 
however, any special training in the study 
of the law under any of the rabbis. When 
Peter appeared before the Sanhedrin, he 
looked like an ' ' unlearned man " (Acts 
4 : 13). 

" Simon was a Galilean, and he was that 

out and out The Galileans had a marked 

character of their own. They had a reputa- 
tion for an independence and energy which 
often ran out into turbulence. They were 
at the same time of a franker and more 
transparent disposition than their brethren 
in the south. In all these respects — 
in bluntness, impetuosity, headiness, and 
simplicity — Simon was a genuine Galilean. 
They spoke a peculiar dialect. They had 
a difficulty with the guttural sounds and 
some others, and their pronunciation was 
reckoned harsh in Judea. The Galilean 
accent stuck to Simon all through his career. 
It betrayed him as a follower of Christ 
when he stood within the judgment -hall 
(Mark 14 : 70). It betrayed his own nation- 
ality and that of those conjoined with him 
on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2 : 7)." 

It would seem that Simon was married 
before he became an apostle. His wife's 
mother is referred to (Matt. 8 : 14 ; Mark 




ANCIENT PERSIAN KINGS. PERSEPOLIS. 




STATUE OF CYRUS. 



See "Persia." 



PETER 



536 



PETER 



1 : 30 ; Luke 4 : 38). He was in all proba- 
bility accompanied by his wife on his mis- 
sionary journeys (1 Cor. 9:5; comp. 1 Pet. 
5 : 13). 

He appears to have been settled at Caper- 
naum when Christ entered on his public 
ministry, and may have reached beyond the 
age of thirty. His house was large enough 
to give a home to his brother Andrew, his 
wife's mother, and also to Christ, who 
seems to have lived with him (Mark 1 : 29- 
35 ; 2 : 1), as well as to his own family. It 
was apparently two stories high (2 : 4). 

At Bethabara (R. V., John 1 : 28, "Beth- 
any"), beyond Jordan, John the Baptist 
had borne testimony concerning Jesus as 
the "Lamb of God " (John 1 : 29-36). An- 
drew and John hearing it, followed Jesus, 
and abode with him where he was. They 
were convinced, by his gracious words and 
by the authority with which he spoke, that 
he was the Messiah (Luke 4 : 22 ; Matt. 7 : 
29) ; and Andrew went forth and found 
Simon and brought him to Jesus (John 1 : 

41). 

Jesus at once recognized Simon, and de- 
clared that hereafter he would be called 
Cephas, an Aramaic name corresponding to 
the Greek Petros, which means ' ' a mass of 
rock detached from the living rock." The 
Aramaic name does not occur again, but the 
name Peter gradually displaces the old 
name Simon, though our Lord himself 
always uses the name Simon when address- 
ing him (Matt. 17 : 25 ; Mark 14 : 37 ; Luke 
22 : 31, comp. 21 : 15-17). We are not told 
what impression the first interview with 
Jesus produced on the mind of Simon, 
When we next meet him it is by the Lake 
of Galilee (Matt. 4 : 18-22). There the four 
(Simon and Andrew, James and John) had 
had an unsuccessful night's fishing. Jesus ap- 
peared suddenly, and entering into Simon's 
boat, bade him launch forth and let down 
the nets. He did so, and enclosed a great 
multitude of fishes. This was plainly a 
miracle wrought before Simon's eyes. The 
awe -stricken disciple cast himself at the 
feet of Jesus, with the cry, "Depart from 
me ; for I am a sinful man, O Lord." Jesus 
addressed him with the assuring words, 
*' Tear not, " and announced to hirii hi^ life's 



work. Simon responded at once to the call 
to become a disciple, and after this we find 
him in constant attendance on our Lord, 

He is next called into the rank of the 
apostleship, and becomes a " fisher of men " 
in the stormy seas of the world of human 
life (Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:13-19; Luke 
6 : 12-19), and takes a more and more prom- 
inent part in all the leading events of our 
Lord's life. It is he who utters that notable 
profession of faith at Capernaum (John 6 : 
66-69), and again at Caesarea Philippi (Matt. 
16 : 13-20 ; Mark 8 : 27-30 ; Luke 9 : 18-21). 
This profession at Caesarea was one of 
supreme importance, and our Lord in re- 
sponse used these memorable words : " Thou 
art Peter, and upon this rock I will build 
my church." 

"Prom this time forth" Jesus began to 
speak of his sufferings. For this Peter re- 
buked him. But our Lord in return re- 
buked Peter, speaking to him in sterner 
words than he ever used to any other of 
his disciples (Matt. 16 : 21-28 ; Mark 8 : 31). 
At the close of his brief sojourn at Caesarea 
our Lord took Peter and James and John 
with him into "an high mountain apart," 
and was transfigured before them. Peter 
on that occasion, under the impression the 
scene produced on his mind, exclaimed, 
"Lord, it is good to be here : let us make 
three tabernacles " (Matt. 17 : 1-13). 

On his return to Capernaum the collectors 
of the temple-tax (a didrachma, half a sacred 
shekel), which every Israelite of twenty 
years old and upwards had to pay (Ex. 
30 : 15), came to Peter and reminded him 
that Jesus had not paid it (Matt. 17 : 24-27). 
Our Lord instructed Peter to go and catch 
a fish in the lake and take from its mouth 
the exact amount needed for the tax — viz., 
a stater, or two half -shekels. " That take," 
said our Lord, "and give unto them for me 
and thee." 

As the end was drawing nigh, our Lord 
sent Peter and John (Luke 22 : 7-13) into 
the city to prepare a place where he should 
keep the feast with his disciples. There 
he was forewarned of the fearful sin into 
which he afterwards fell (22 : 31-34). He 
accompanied our Lord from the guest- 
chamber to the garden of Getbsemane (Lv(U(i 



PETER 



537 



pp:ter 



22 : 39-46), which he and the other two who 
had been witnesses of the transfiguration 
were permitted to enter with our Lord, 
while the rest were left without. Here he 
passed through a strange experience. Un- 
der a sudden impulse he cut off the ear of 
Malchus (47-51), one of the band that had 
come forth to take Jesus. Then follow 
the scenes of the judgment-hall (54-62) and 
of his bitter grief (Luke 24 : 9-12). 

He is found in John's company early on 
the morning of the resurrection. He boldly 
entered into the empty grave (John 20 : 1- 
10), and saw the "linen clothes laid by 
themselves." To him, the first of the 
apostles, our risen Lord revealed himself — 
thus conferring on him a signal honour, and 
showing how fully he was restored to his 
favour (John 21 : 1-19 ; Luke 24 : 34 ; 1 Cor. 
15 : 5). We next read of our Lord's singular 
interview with Peter on the shores of the 
Sea of Galilee, where he thrice asked him, 
"Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me?" 
(See Love. ) 

After this scene at the lake we hear 
nothing of Peter till he again appears wnth 
the others at the ascension (Acts 1 : 15-26). 
It was he who proposed that the vacancy 
caused by the apostasy of Judas should be 
filled up. He is prominent on the day of 
Pentecost (2:14-40). The events of that 
day "completed the change in Peter him- 
self which the painful discipline of his fall 
and all the lengthened process of previous 
training had been slowly making. He is 
now no more the unreliable, changeful, self- 
confident man, ever swaying between rash 
courage and weak timidity, but the stead- 
fast, trusted guide and director of the fel- 
lowship of believers, the intrepid preacher 
of Christ in Jerusalem and abroad. And 
now that he is become Cephas indeed, we 
hear almost nothing of the name Simon 
(only in Acts 10 : 5, 32 ; 15 : 14), and he is 
known to us finally as Peter. " 

After the miracle at the temple -gate 
(Acts 4) persecution arose against the Chris- 
tians, and Peter was cast into prison. He 
boldly defended himself and his companions 
at the bar of the council (4 : 19, 20). A fresh 
outburst of violence against the Christians 
(5:17-28) led to the whole body of the 



apostles being cast into prison ; but during 
the night they were wonderfully delivered, 
and were found in the morning teaching 
in the temple. A second time Peter de- 
fended them before the council (Acts 5 : 
29-33), who, "when they had called the 
apostles and beaten them, let them go." 

The time had come for Peter to leave 
Jerusalem. After labouring for some time 
in Samaria, he returned to Jerusalem, and 
reported to the church there the results of 
his work (Acts 8 : 14-25). Here he remained 
for a period, during which he met Paul for 
the first time since his conversion (9:26- 
30 ; Gal. 1 : 18). Leaving Jerusalem again, 
he went forth on a missionary journey to 
Lydda and Joppa (Acts 9 : 32-43). He is 
next called on to open the door of the 
Christian church to the Gentiles by the 
admission of Cornelius of Csesarea (ch. 10). 

After remaining for some time at Caesarea, 
he returned to Jerusalem (Acts 11 : 1-18), 
where he defended his conduct with refer- 
ence to the Gentiles. Next we hear of his 
being cast into prison by Herod Agrippa 
(12 : 1-19) ; but in the night an angel of the 
Lord opened the prison gates, and he went 
forth and found refuge in the house of 
Mary. 

He took part in the deliberations at the 
council in Jerusalem (Acts 15 : 1-31 ; Gal. 
2 : 1-10) regarding the relation of the Gen- 
tiles to the church. This subject had 
awakened new interest at Antioch, and for 
its settlement was referred to the council 
of the apostles and elders at Jerusalem. 
Here Paul and Peter met again. 

We have no further mention of Peter in 
the Acts of the Apostles. He seems to 
have gone down to Antioch after the coun- 
cil at Jerusalem, and there to have been 
guilty of dissembling, for which he was 
severely reprimanded by Paul (Gal. 2 : 11- 
16), who "rebuked him to his face." 

After this he appears to have carried the 
gospel to the east, and to have laboured for 
a while at Babylon, on the Euphrates (1 Pet. 
5 : 13). There is no satisfactory evidence 
that he was ever at Rome. Where or when 
he died is not certainly known. Probably 
he died between a.d. 64 and 67. 

Pe^'ter, First Epistle of. This epistle 



PETER 



538 



PHARAOH 



is addressed to "the strangers scattered 
abroad" — i.e., to the Jews of the Disper- 
sion (the Diaspora). 

Its object is to confirm its readers in the 
doctrines they had been already taught. 
Peter has been called "the apostle of hope," 
because this epistle abounds with words of 
Comfort and encouragement fitted to sustain 
a "lively hope." It contains about thirty- 
five references to the Old Testament. 

It was written from Babylon, on the 
Euphrates, which was at this time one of 
the chief seats of Jewish learning, and a 
fitting centre for labour among the Jews. 
It has been noticed that in the beginning 
of his epistle Peter names the provinces of 
Asia Minor in the order in which they 
would naturally occur to one writing from 
Babylon. He counsels (1) to steadfastness 
and perseverance under persecution (1-2 : 
10) ; (2) to the practical duties of a holy life 
(2 : 11-3 : 13) ; (3) he addiices the example of 
Christ and other motives to patience and 
holiness (3 : 14-4 : 19) ; and (4) concludes 
with counsels to pastors and people (5). 

Pester, Second Epistle of. The ques- 
tion of the authenticity of this epistle has 
been much discussed, but the weight of evi- 
dence is wholly in favour of its claim to be 
the production of the apostle whose name 
it bears. It appears to have been written 
shortly before the apostle's death (1 : 14). 
This epistle contains eleven references to 
the Old Testament, It also contains (3:15, 
16) a remarkable reference to Paul's epistles. 
Some think this reference is to 1 Thess. 4 : 
13-5 : 11. Some six years ago, among other 
documents, a parchment fragment, called 
the "Gospel of Peter," was discovered in a 
Christian tomb at Akhmim in Upper Egypt. 
Origen [ohlit 254 A.D.), Eusebius [obiit 340), 
and Jerome [ohiit 420) refer to such a work, 
and hence it has been concluded that it was 
probably written about the middle of the 
second century. It professes to give a his- 
tory of our Lord's resurrection and ascen- 
sion. While differing in not a few particu- 
lars from the canonical gospels, the writer 
shows plainly that he was acquainted both 
with the synoptics and with the Gospel of 
John. Though apocryphal, it is of con- 
siderable value as showing that the main 



facts of the history of our Lord were then 
widely known. 

Pethahi'ah— toosec? of the Lord. (1. ) The 
chief of one of the priestly courses (the nine- 
teenth) in the time of David (1 Chr. 24:16). 

(2.) ALevite(EzralO:'23). 

(3.)Neh. 9:5. 

(4. ) A descendant of Judah who had some 
office at the court of Persia (Neh. 11 : 24). 

Pe'thor — interpretation of dreams. An 
unknown place somewhere in Aram, from 
which Balak fetched Balaam (Num. 22 : 5 ; 
23 : 7) to curse Israel at the end of their 
wilderness wanderings. 

Pethu''el — vision of God — the father of 
Joel the prophet (Joel 1 : 1). 

Pe'tra— roc^— Isa. 16 : 1, marg. (See Sela.) 

Peurthai— wac/cs of the Lord— one of the 
sons of Obed-edom, a Levite porter (1 Chr. 
26 : 5). 

Phaaec (Luke 3:35) = Peleg [q.v.) — 
Gen. 11 : 16. 

Phallu — separated — the second son Of 
Reuben (Gen. 46 : 9). 

Phal''ti — deliverance of the Lord — the 
son of Laish of Gallim (1 Sam. 25:44) = 
Phaltrel (2 Sam. 3 : 15). Michal, David's 
wife, was given to him. 

Phanu'el— /ace of God — father of the 
prophetess Anna [q.v.) — Luke 2 : 36. 

Pha'raoh, the official title borne by the 
Egyptian kings down to the time when 
that country was conquered by the Greeks. 
(See Egypt.) The name is a compound of 
the Egyptian words, i2a, the "sun"or "sun- 
god," and the article ^Ae, " the," prefixed ; 
hence, phera, "the sun," or "the sun-god." 

In the Scriptures there is reference to at 
least twelve separate Pharaohs, suggestive of 
the fact that the Hebrews during their long 
history had much intercourse with Egypt. 

(1.) The Pharaoh who was on the throne 
when Abram went down into Egypt (Gen. 
12 : 10-20) was probably one of the Hyks6s, 
or "shepherd kings." The Egyptians called 
the nomad tribes of Syria Shous or Shasu, 
and their king or chief Hyk, and hence the 
name of these invaders who conquered the 
native kings and established a strong 
government, with Zoan or Tanis as their 
capital. They were of Semitic origin, and 
of kindred blood accordingly with Abram. 



PHARAOH 



539 



PHARAOH 



They were probably driven forward by the 
pressure of the Hittites. The name they 
bear on the monuments is " Mentiu." 

(2.) The Pharaoh of Joseph's days (Gen. 
41) was probably Apepi, or Apopis, the last 
of the Hyksds kings. To the old native 
Egyptians, who were an African race, shep- 
herds were "an abomination ; " but to the 
Hyksos kings these Asiatic shepherds who 
now appeared with Jacob at their head 
were congenial, and being akin to their own 
race, had a warm welcome (Gen. 47 : 5, 6). 
Some argue that Joseph came to Egypt in 
the reign of Thothmes III., long after the 
expulsion of the Hyksos, and that his influ- 
ence is to be seen in the rise and progress 
of the religious revolution in the direction 
of monotheism which characterized the 
middle of the eighteenth dynasty. The wife 
of Amenophis III., of that dynasty, was a 
Semite. Is th is singular fact to be explained 
from the presence of some of Joseph's kin- 
dred at the Egyptian court ? Pharaoh said 
to Joseph, "Thy father and thy brethren 
are come unto thee : the land of Egypt is be- 
fore thee ; in the best of the land make thy 
father and brethren to dwell " (Gen. 47 : 5, 6). 

(3.) The "new king who knew not Jo- 
seph " (Ex. 1 : 8-22) has been generally sup 
posed to have been Aahmes I. , or Amosis, 
as he is called by Josephus. Recent dis- 
coveries, however, have led to the conclusion 
that Seti was the "new king." 

During about seventy years the Hebrews 
in Egypt were under the powerful protec- 
tion of Joseph. After his death their con- 
dition was probably very slowly and grad- 
ually changed. The invaders, the Hyksos, 
who for some five centuries had been mas- 
ters of Egypt, were driven out, and the old 
dynasty restored. The Israelites now began 
to be looked down upon. They began to be 
afflicted and tyrannized over. In process of 
time a change appears to have taken place 
in the government of Egypt. A new dyn- 
asty — the nineteenth, as it is called — came 
into power under Seti I., who was its foun- 
der. He associated with him in his govern- 
ment his son, Rameses II. , when he was yet 
young, probably ten or twelve years of age. 

Note. — Professor Maspero, keeper of the 
museum of Bvil^k, near Cairo, had his at- 



tention in 1870 directed to the fact that 
scarabs — i.e., stone and metal imitations 
of the beetle (symbols of immortality), ori- 
ginally worn as amulets by royal person- 
ages — which were evidently genuine relics 
of the [time of the ancient Pharaohs, were 
being sold at Thebes and different places 
along the Nile. This led him to suspect 
that some hitherto undiscovered burial- 
place of the Pharaohs had been opened, 
and that these and other relics, now se- 
cretly sold, were a part of the treasure 
found there. For a long time he failed, 
with all his ingenuity, to find the source 
of these rare treasures. At length one of 
those in the secret volunteered to give in- 
formation regarding this burial-place. The 
result was that a party was conducted in 
1881 to Deir-el-Baharl, near Thebes, when 
the wonderful discovery was made of thirty- 
six mummies of kings, queens, princes, and 
high priests hidden away in a cavern pre- 
pared for them, where they had lain undis- 
turbed for thirty centuries. "The temple 
of Deir-el-Bahari stands in the middle of a 
natural amphitheatre of cliffs, which is only 
one of a number of smaller amphitheatres 
into which the limestone mountains of the 
tombs are broken up. In the wall of rock 
separating this basin from the one next to 
it some ancient Egyptian engineers had 
constructed the hiding-place, whose secret 
had been kept for nearly three thousand 
years." The exploring party being guided 
to the place, found behind a great rock a 
shaft 6 feet square and about 40 feet deep, 
sunk into the limestone. At the bottom, of 
this a passage led westward for 25 feet, and 
then turned sharply northward into the very 
heart of the mountain, where in a chamber 
23 feet by 13, and 6 feet in height, they 
came upon the wonderful treasures of an- 
tiquity. The mummies were all carefully 
secured and brought down to Btilak, where 
they were deposited in the royal museum, 
which has now been removed to Ghizeh. 

Among the most notable of the an- 
cient kings of Egypt thus discovered were 
Thothmes III., Seti I., and Rameses II. 
Thothmes III. was the most distinguished 
monarch of the brilliant eighteenth dyn- 
asty. When this mummy was unwound 



PHARAOH 



540 



PHARAOH 



"once more, after an interval of thirty-six 
centuries, human eyes gazed on the fea- 
tures of the man who had conquered Syria 
and Cyprus and Ethiopia, and had raised 
Egypt to the high- 
est pinnacle of 
her power. The 
spectacle, how- 
ever, was of brief 
duration. The 
reinains proved 
to be in so fragile 
a state that there 
was only time to 
take a hasty pho- 
tograph, and then 
the features crum- 
bled to pieces 
and vanished like 
an apparition, 
and so passed 
away from human 
view for ever.'" 
" It seems strange 
that though the 
body of this man," 
who overran Pal- 
estine with his 
armies two hun- 
dred years be- 
fore the birth of 
Moses, "mouldered to dust, the flowers 
with which it had been wreathed were so 
wonderfully preserved that even their 
colour could be distinguished" (Manning's 
Land of the Pharaohs). 

Seti I. (his throne name Merenptah), the 
father of Rameses II., was a great and 
successfvil warrior, also a great builder. 
The mummy of this Pharaoh, when un- 
rolled, brought to view "the most beauti- 
ful mummy-head ever seen within the walls 
of the museum. The sculptors of Thebes 
and Abydos did not flatter this Pharaoh 
when they gave him that delicate, sweet, 
and smiling profile which is the admiration 
of travellers. After a lapse of thirty-two 
centuries, the mummy retains the same ex- 
pression which characterized the features 
of the living man. Most remarkable of 
all, when compared with the mummy of 
Rameses II., is the striking resemblance 




THOTHMES III. 



between the father and the son. Seti I. is, 
as it were, the idealized type of Rameses 
II. He must have died at an advanced age. 
The head is shaven, the eyebrows are white, 
the condition of the body points to consider- 
ably more than threescore years of life, thus 
confirming the opinions of the learned, who 
have attributed a long reign to this king." 

(4.) Rameses II., the son of Seti I., is pro- 
bably the Pharaoh of the oppression. Dur- 
ing his forty years' residence at the court of 
Egypt, Moses must have known this ruler 
well. During his sojourn in Midian, how- 
ever, Rameses died, after a reign of sixty- 
seven years, and his body was embalmed 
and laid in the royal sepulchre in the Val- 
ley of the Tombs of Kings beside that of 
his father. Like the other mummies found 
hidden in the cave of Deir-el-Bahari, it 
had been for some reason removed from its 
original tomb, and probably carried from 
place to place till finally deposited in the 
cave where it was so recently discovered. 

In 1886, the mummy of this king, the 
"great Rameses," the "Sesostris" of the 
Greeks, was unwound, and showed the body 
of what must have been a robust old man. 
The features revealed to view are thus de- 
scribed by Maspero : "The head is long and 
small in proportion to the body. The top 
of the skull is quite bare. On the temple 
there are a few sparse hairs, but at the 
poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, 
straight locks about two inches in length. 




MUMMY HEAD OF SETI I. 

White at the time of death, they have been 
dyed a light yellow by the spices used in 




STATUE OF RAMESES II., THE PHARAOH OF THE OPPRESSION. 
(Found at Tattis,) 



PHARAOH 



542 



PHARAOH 



embalmment. The forehead is low and nar- 
row ; the brow-ridge prominent ; the eye- 
brows are thick and white ; the eyes are 
small and close together ; the nose is long, 
thin, arched like the noses of the Bourbons ; 
the temples are sunken ; the cheek-bones very 
prominent ; the ears round, standing far out 
from the head, and pierced, like those of a 
woman, for the wearing of ear-rings ; the 
jaw-bone is massive and strong ; the chin 
very prominent ; the mouth small, but thick- 
lipped ; the teeth worn and very brittle, but 
white and well preserved. The moustache 
and beard are thin. They seem to have been 
kept shaven during life, but were probably 
allowed to grow during the king's last illness, 




MUMMY HEAD OF BAMESES II. 

or they may have grown after death. The 
hairs are white, like those of the head and 
eyebrows, but are harsh and bristly, and a 
tenth of an inch in length. The skin is of an 
earthy-brown, streaked with black. Tin- 
ally, it may be said the face of the mummy 
gives a fair idea of the face of the living 
king. The expression is unintellectual, per- 
haps slightly animal ; but even under the 
somewhat grotesque disguise of mummi- 
fication there is plainly to be seen an air of 
sovereign majesty, of resolve, and of pride." 
Both on his father's and mother's side it 
has been pretty clearly shown that Rameses 
had Chaldean or Mesopotamian blood in 
his veins to such a degree that he might be 



called an Assyrian. This fact is thought 
to throw light on Isa. 52 : 4. 

(5. ) The Pharaoh of the Exodus was pro- 
bably Menephtah I., the fourteenth and 
eldest surviving son of Rameses II. He 
resided at Zoan, where he had the various 
interviews with Moses and Aaron recorded 
in the book of Exodus. His mummy was 
not among those found at Deir-el-Bahari. 
It is still a question, however, whether 
Seti II. or his father Menephtah was the 
Pharaoh of the Exodus. Some think the 
balance of evidence to be in favour of the 
former, whose reign it is known began peace- 
fully, but came to a sudden and disastrous 
end. The "Harris papyrus," found at 
Medinet-Abou in Upper Egypt in 1856, a 
state document written by Rameses III., 
the second king of the twentieth dynasty, 
gives at length an account of a great exodus 
from Egypt, followed by widespread con- 
fusion and anarchy. This, there is great 
reason to believe, was the Hebrew exodus, 
with which the nineteenth dynasty of the 
Pharaohs came to an end. This period of 
anarchy was brought to a close by Setnekht, 
the founder of the twentieth dynasty. 

(6.) The Pharaoh mentioned in 1 Kings 
11 : 18-22. 

(7.) So, king of Egypt (2 Kings 17 : 4, 7). 

(8.) The Pharaoh of 1 Chr. 4 : 18. 

(9.) Pharaoh, whose daughter Solomon 
married (1 Kings 3:1; 7:8). 

(10.) Pharaoh, in whom Hezekiah put 
his trust in his war against Sennacherib 
(2 Kings 18 : 21). 

(11. ) The Pharaoh by whom Josiah was 
defeated and slain at the great battle of 
Megiddo (2 Chr. 35:20-24; 2 Kings 23: 
29,30). (SeeNECHO.) 

(12.) Pharaoh-hophra, who in vain sought 
to relieve Jerusalem when it was besieged 
by Nebuchadnezzar (g. v. ) — 2 Kings 25 : 
1-4; comp. Jer. 37:5-8; Ezek. 17 : 11-13. 
(See Zedekiah.) 

Pharaoh's daughters. Three princesses 
are thus mentioned in Scripture : — 

(1.) The princess who adopted the infant 
Moses [q.v. ) — Ex. 2 : 10. She is twice men- 
tioned in the New Testament (Acts 7 : 21 ; 
Heb. 11 : 24). It would seem that she was 
alive and in some position of influence about 



PHAREZ 



543 



PHENICE 



the court when Moses was compelled to flee 
from Egypt, and thus for forty years he 
had in some way been under her influence. 
She was in all probability the sister of 
Rameses, and the daughter of Seti I. Jo- 
Sephus calls her Thermuthis. It is sup- 
posed by some that she was Nefert-ari, the 
wife as well as sister of Rameses. The 
mummy of this queen was among the trea- 
sures found at Deir-el-Bahari. 



■«--y 




X- 



HEAD OF NEFERT-AEI. 

(Fror>i a SatlpUcre at Abji-Simbel.) 

(2.) "Bithiah the daughter of Pharaoh, 
which Mered took " (1 Chr. 4 : 18). 

(3.) The wife of Solomon (1 Kings 3:1). 
This is the first reference since the Exodus 
to any connection of Israel with Egypt. 

Pha''rez — breach — the elder of the twin 
sons of Judah (Gen. 38 : 29). From him 
the royal line of David sprang (Ruth 4 : 
18-22). "The chief of all the captains of 
the host'' was of the children of Perez 
(1 Chr. 27 : 3 ; Matt. 1 : 3). 

Phar^isees — separatists (Heb. persahin, 
ivora. parash, "to separate"). They were 
probably the successors of the Assideans 
{i.e., the "pious"), a party that originated 
in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes in re- 
volt against his heathenizing policy. The 



first mention of them is in a description by 
Josephus of the three sects or schools into 
which the Jews were divided (B.C. 145). 
The other two sects were the Essenes and 
the Sadducees. In the time of our Lord they 
were the popular party (John 7 : 48). They 
were extremely accurate and minute in all 
matters appertaining to the law of Moses 
(Matt. 9 : 14 ; 23 : 15 ; Luke 11 : 39 ; 18 : 12). 
Paul, when brought before the council of 
Jerusalem, professed himself a Pharisee 
(Acts 23 : 6-8 ; 26 : 4, 5). 

There was much that was sound in their 
creed, yet their system of religion was a 
form and nothing more. Theirs was a very 
lax morality (Matt. 5 : 20 ; 15 : 4, 8 ; 23 : 3, 
14, 23, 25 ; John 8 : 7). On the first notice 
of them in the New Testament (Matt. 3:7), 
they are ranked by our Lord with the 
Sadducees as a "generation of vipers." 
They were noted for their self -righteous- 
ness and their pride (Matt. 9 : 11 ; Luke 7 : 
44-46 ; 18 : 11). They were frequently re- 
buked by our Lord (Matt. 12 : 39 ; 16 : 1-4). 

Erom the very beginning of his ministry 
the Pharisees showed themselves bitter and 
persistent enemies of our Lord. They could 
not bear his doctrines, and they sought by 
every means to destroy his influence among 
the people. 

Phar'par — sioift — one of the rivers of 
Damascus (2 Kings 5 : 12). It has been 
identified with the ^Awaj, "a small lively 
river." The whole of the district watered 
by the 'Awaj is called the Wady el- 'A jam — 
i.e., "the valley of the Persians " — so called 
for some unknown reason. This river 
empties itself into the lake or marsh Bahret 
Hijaneh, on the east of Damascus. One 
of its branches bears the modern name of 
Wcidy Barbar, which is probably a corrup- 
tion of Pharpar. 

Phc'be, a "deaconess of the church at 
Cenchrea," the port of Corinth. She was 
probably the bearer of Paul's epistle to 
the Romans. Paul commended her to the 
Christians at Rome ; "for she hath been," 
says he, ' ' a succourer of many, and of my- 
self also " (Rom. 16 : 1, 2). 

Pheni^ce, properly Phoe'iiix — a palm- 
tree (as in the R.V.) — a town with a har- 
bour on the southern side of Crete (Acts 



PHENICIA 



544 



PHENICIA 



27 : 12), west of the Fair Havens. It is 
now called Lutro. 

Pheni'cia (Acts 21 : 2) = Pheni'ce (11 : 
19; 15:3; R.V., Phoenicia) — Gr. phoinix, 
"a palm" — the land of palm-trees ; a strip 
of land of an average breadth of about 20 
miles along the shores of the Mediterran- 
ean, from the river Eleutherus in the north 
to the promontory of Carmel in the south, 
about 120 miles in length. This name is 
not found in the Old Testament, and in the 
New Testament it is mentioned only in the 
passages above referred to. 

"In the Egyptian inscriptions Phoenicia 
is called Keft, the inhabitants being Kefa ; 
and since Keft-ur, or 'Greater Phoenicia,' 
was the name given to the delta of the Nile 
from the Phoenician colonies settled upon 
it, the Philistines who came from Caphtor 
or Keft-ur must have been of Phoenician 
origin " (comp. Deut. 2 : 23 ; Jer. 47 : 4 ; 
Amos 9 : 7). — Sayce's Bible and the Monu- 
ments. 

Phoenicia lay in the very centre of the 
old world, and was the natural entrepot for 
commerce with foreign nations. It was the 
"England of antiquity." "The trade 
routes from all Asia converged on the 
Phoenician coast ; the centres of commerce 
on the Euphrates and Tigris forwarding 
their goods by way of Tyre to the Nile, to 
Arabia, and to the west ; and, on the other 
hand, theproductionsof the vast regions bor- 
dering the Mediterranean passing through 
the Canaanite capital to the eastern world." 
It was "situate at the entry of the sea, a 
merchant of the people for many isles " 
(Ezek. 27:3, 4). The far-reaching com- 
mercial activity of the Phoenicians, especi- 
ally with Tarshish and the western world, 
enriched them with vast wealth, which in- 
troduced boundless luxury and developed 
among them a great activity in all manner 
of arts and manufactures. (See Tyke.) 

The Phoenicians were the most enter- 
prising merchants of the old world, estab- 
lishing colonies at various places, of which 
Carthage was the chief. They were a 
Canaanite branch of the race of Ham, and 
are frequently called Sidonians, from their 
principal city of Sid on. None could " skill 
to hew timber like unto the Sidonians" 



(1 Kings 5:6). They were "cunning to 
work in gold, and in silver, in brass, and 
in iron, and in purple, and in blue, and in 
crimson" (2 Chr. 2:7); they could "skill 
to grave images." King Hiram rendered 
important service to Solomon in connec- 
tion with the planning and building of the 
temple, casting for him all the vessels for 
the temple service, and the two pillars 
which stood in the front of the porch, 
and "the molten sea" (1 Kings 7:21-23). 
Singular marks have been found by recent 
exploration on the great stones that form 
the substructure of the temple. These 
marks, both painted and engraved, have 
been regarded as made by the workmen in 
the quarries, and as probably intended to 
indicate the place of these stones in the 
building. "The Biblical account (1 Kings 
5 : 17, 18) is accurately descriptive of the 
massive masonry now existing at the south- 
eastern angle (of the temple area), and 
standing on the native rock 80 feet below 
the present surface. The Royal Engineers 
found, buried deeply among the rubbish of 
many centuries, great stones, costly and 
hewed stones, forming the foundation of 
the sanctuary wall ; while Phoenician frag- 
ments of pottery and Phoenician marks 
painted on the massive blocks seem to pro- 
claim that the stones were prepared in the 
quarry by the cunning workmen of Hiram, 
the king of Tyre." (See Temple.) 

The Phoenicians are regarded as having 
been the inventors of alphabetic writing. 
The Egyptians expressed their thoughts by 
certain symbols, called "hieroglyphics" — 
i. e. , sacred carvings — so styled because used 
almost exclusively on sacred subjects. They 
invented also a system of phonetic writing, 
Avhich probably suggested the alphabet of 
the Phoenicians. The Hebrew alphabet, 
both in the form and name of its letters, 
was derived from the Phoenician, and was 
generally in use among the Jews for more 
than a thousand years. This alphabet, in 
its primitive form, is seen in the inscription 
on the Moabite Stone {q.v.). 

"The Phoenicians were renowned in an- 
cient times for the manufacture of glass, 
and some of the specimens of this work 
that have been preserved are still the won- 



PHICOL 



545 



PHILEMON 



der of mankind In the matter of ship- 
ping, whether ship-building be thought of 
or traffic upon the sea, the Phoenicians 
surpassed all other nations. Their ships 
went to aU parts of the world as then 
known ; and news of remote peoples, con- 
quests, and discoveries would be brought 
first to Phoenicia and disseminated among 
themselves and their immediate neigh- 
bours." 

Phi'col — great — the chief captain of the 
army of Abimelech, the Philistine king of 
Gerar. He entered into an alliance with 



Abraham with reference to a certain well 
which, from this circumstance, was called 
Beersheba {q.v.), "the well of the oath" 
(Gen. 21 : 22, 32 ; 26 : 26). 

Philadel'phia — trotherly love — a city of 
Lydia in Asia Minor, about 25 miles south- 
east of Sardis, It was the seat of one of 
the "seven churches" (Rev. 3:7-12). It 
came into the possession of the Turks in 
A.D. 1392. It has several times been nearly 
destroyed by earthquakes. It is still a 
toAvn of considerable size, called Allah- 
shehr, " the city of God. " 




PHILADELPHIA (aLLAH-SHEHr). 



Phile'mon, an inhabitant of Colosse, and 
apparently a person of some note among 
the citizens (Col. 4:9; Philemon 2). He 
was brought to a knowledge of the gos- 
pel through the instrumentality of Paul 
(19), and held a prominent place in the 
Christian community for his piety and 
beneficence (4-7). He is called in the 
epistle a "fellow-labourer," and therefore 
probably held some office in the church at 
Colosse ; at all events, the title denotes 
that he took part in the work of spreading 
a knowledge of the gospel. 

Phile^mon, Epistle to, was written from 
lipQlf^ at the same time as the epistles to 



the Colossians and Ephesians, and was sent 
also by Onesimus. It was addressed to 
Philemon and the members of his family. 

It was written for the purpose of inter- 
ceding for Onesimus {q. v. ), who had deserted 
his master Philemon and been "unprofit- 
able " to him. Paul had found Onesimus 
at Rome, and had there been instrumental 
in his conversion, and now he sends him 
back to his master with this letter. 

This epistle has the character of a strictly 
private letter, and is the only one of such 
epistles preserved to us. "It exhibits the 
apostle in a new light. He throws off as 
far as possible his apostolic dignity and hi§ 



PHILETUS 



546 



PHILIPPI 



fatherly authority over his converts. He 
speaks simply as Christian to Christian. 
He speaks, therefore, with that peculiar 
grace of humility and courtesy which has, 
under the reign of Christianity, developed 
the spirit of chivalry and what is called 
' the character of a gentleman,' certainly 
very little known in the old Greek and 
Roman civilization" (Dr. Barry). (See 
Slave.) 

Phile^tus — amiable — with Hy menseus, at 
Ephesus, said that the "resurrection was 
past already " (2 Tim. 2 : 17, 18). This was 
a Gnostic heresy held by the Nicolaitanes. 
(See Alexandek [4].) 

Phillip — lover of horses. (1. ) One of the 
twelve apostles ; a native of Bethsaida, 
"the city of Andrew and Peter " (John 1 : 
44). He readily responded to the call of 
Jesus when first addressed to him (43), and 
forthwith brought Nathanael also to Jesus 
(45, 46). He seems to have held a prominent 
place among the apostles (Matt. 10 : 3 ; 
Mark 3 : 18 ; John 6:5-7; 12 : 21, 22 ; 14 : 
8, 9 ; Acts 1 : 13). Of his later life nothing 
is certainly known. He is said to have 
preached in Phrygia, and to have met his 
death at Hierapohs. 

(2.) One of the "seven" (Acts 6:5), called 
also "the evangelist" (21:8, 9). He was 
one of those who were "scattered abroad " 
by the persecution that arose on the death 
of Stephen. He went first to Samaria, 
where he laboured as an evangelist with 
much success (8 : 5-13). While he was there 
he received a divine command to proceed 
toward the south, along the road leading 
from Jerusalem to Gaza. These towns 
were connected by two roads. The one 
Philip was directed to take was that which 
led through Hebron, and thence through a 
district little inhabited, and hence called 
"desert." As he travelled along this road 
he Avas overtaken by a chariot in which sat 
a man of Ethiopia, the eunuch or chief 
officer of Queen Candace, who was at that 
moment reading— probably from the Septua- 
gint version — a portion of the prophecies of 
Isaiah (53 : 6, 7). Philip entered into con- 
versation wdth him, and expounded these 
verses, preaching to hini the glad tidings 
of the Saviour. The eunuch received the 



message and believed, and was forthwith 
baptized, and then "went on his way re- 
joicing, " Philip was instantly caught away 
by the Spirit after the baptism, and the 
eunuch saw him no more. He was next 
found at Azotus, whence he went forth in 
his evangelistic work till he came to Cae- 
sarea. He is not mentioned again for about 
twenty years, when he is still found at Cae- 
sarea (Acts 21 : 8) when Paul and his com- 
panions were on the way to Jerusalem. 
He then finally disappears from the page 
of history. 

(3.) Mentioned only in connection with 
the imprisonment of John the Baptist 
(Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19). 
He was the son of Herod the Great, and 
the first husband of Herodias, and the 
father of Salome. (See Hekod Philip I.) 

(4.) The "tetrarch of Ituraea" (Luke 3: 
1) ; a son of Herod the Great, and brother 
of Herod Antipas. The city of Caesarea- 
Philippi was named partly after him (Matt. 
16 : 13 ; Mark 8 : 27). (See Herod Philip 11. ) 

Philip'pi. (1.) Formerly Crentdes," the 
fountain," the capital of the province of 
Macedonia. It stood near the head of the 
-^gean Sea, about 8 miles north-west of 
Kavalla. It is now a ruined village, called 
PhiUhcdjiTc. Philip of Macedonia fortified 
the old Thracian town of Crenides, and 
called it after his own name Philippi 
(B.C. 359-336). In the time of the Emperor 
Augustus this city became a Roman colony 
— i.e., a military settlement of Roman sol- 
diers, there planted for the purpose of con- 
trolling the district recently conquered. It 
was a "miniature Rome," under the muni- 
cipal law of Rome, and governed by mili- 
tary officers, called duumviri, who were ap- 
pointed directly from Rome. Having been 
providentially guided thither, here Paul 
and his companion Silas preached the gos- 
pel and formed the first church in Europe. 
(See Lydia.) This success stirred up the 
enmity of the people, and they were ' ' shame- 
fully entreated " (Acts 16 : 9-40 ; 1 Thess. 
2 : 2). Paul and Silas at length left this 
city and proceeded to Amphipolis {q.v.). 

(2.) When Philip the tetrarch, the son of 
Herod, succeeded to the government of the 
northern portion of his kingdom, he en- 



PHILIPPIANS 



547 



PHILISTINES 



larged the city of Paneas, and called it 
Csesarea, in honour of the emperor. But in 
order to distinguish it from the Caesarea on 
the sea coast, he added to it subsequently 
his own name, and called it Csesarea- 
Philippi iq.v.). 

Philip ^pians. Epistle to, was written 
by Paul during the two years when he was 
"in bonds " in Rome (Phil. 1 : 7-13), prob- 
ably early in the year a.d. 62 or in the end 
of 61. 

The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, 
their messenger, with contributions to meet 
the necessities of the apostle ; and on his 
return Paul sent back with him this letter. 
With this precious communication Epaph- 
roditus sets out on his homeward journey. 
"The joy caused by his return, and the 
effect of this wonderful letter when first 
read in the church of Philippi, are hidden 
from us. And we may almost say that with 
this letter the church itself passes from our 
view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet 
cattle browse among the ruins which mark 
the site of what was once the flourishing Ro- 
man colony of Philippi, the home of the most 
attractive church of the apostolic age. But 
the name and fame and spiritual influence 
of that church will never pass. To myriads 
of men and women in every age and nation 
the letter written in a dungeon at Rome, 
and carried along the Egnatian Way by an 
obscure Christian messenger, has been a 
light divine and a cheerful guide along the 
most rugged paths of life " (Professor Beet). 

The church at Philippi was the first- 
fruits of European Christianity. Their 
attachment to the apostle was very fervent, 
and so also was his affection for them. 
They alone of all the churches helped him 
by their contributions, which he gratefully 
acknowledges (Acts 20 : 33-35 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 
7-12 ; 2 Thess. 3 : 8). The pecuniary liber- 
ality of the Philippians comes out very 
conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a 
characteristic of the Macedonian missions, 
as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully 
prove. It is remarkable that the Mace- 
donian converts were, as a class, very poor 
(2 Cor. 8:2); and the parallel facts — their 
poverty and their open-handed support of 
the great missionary and his work — are 



deeply harmonious. At the present day 
the missionary liberality of poor Christians 
is, in proportion, really greater than that 
of the rich " (Moule's Philippians, Introd. ). 

The contents of this epistle give an in- 
teresting insight into the condition of the 
church at Rome at the time it was written. 
Paul's imprisonment, we are informed, was 
no hindrance to his preaching the gospel, 
but rather "turned out to the furtherance 
of the gospel." The gospel spread very 
extensively among the Roman soldiers, with 
whom he was in constant contact, and the 
Christians grew into a "vast multitude." 
It is plain that Christianity was at this 
time making rapid advancement in Rome. 

The doctrinal statements of this epistle 
bear a close relation to those of the Epistle to 
the Romans. Compare also Phil. 3 : 20 with 
Eph. 2 : 12, 19, where the church is presented 
under the idea of a city or commonwealth 
for the first time in Paul's writings. The 
personal glory of Christ is also set forth in 
almost parallel forms of expression in Phil. 
2 : 5-11 , compared with Eph. 1 : 17-23 ; 2 : 8 ; 
and Col. 1 : 15-20. " This exposition of the 
grace and w^onder of His personal m^ajesty, 
personal self-abasement, and personal ex- 
altation after it," found in these epistles, 
"is, in a great measure, a new development 
in the revelations given through St. Paul " 
(Moule). Other minuter analogies in forms 
of expression and of thought are also found 
in these epistles of the Captivity. 

Philis'tia = Palestine (g.r.), "the land 
of the Philistines " (Ps. 60 : 8 ; 87 : 4 ; 108 : 9). 
The word is supposed to mean "the land 
of wanderers" or "of strangers." 

PhiUs^ines (Gen. 10 : 14, R. V. ; but in 
A. v., " Philistim "), a tribe allied to the 
Phoenicians. They were a branch of the 
primitive race which spread over the whole 
district of the Lebanon and the valley of 
the Jordan, and Crete and other Mediter- 
ranean islands. Some suppose them to 
have been a branch of the Rephaim (2 Sam. 
21 : 16-22). In the time of Abraham they 
inherited the south-west of Judea, Abime- 
lech of Gerar being their king (Gen. 21 : 
32, 34; 26:1). They are, however, not 
noticed among the Canaanitish tribes men- 
tioned in the Pentateuch. They are spoken 



PHILOLOGUS 



548 



PHRYGIA 



of by Amos (9 : 7) and Jeremiah (47 : 4) as 
from Caphtor — i.e., probably Crete, or, as 
some think, the Delta of Egypt. In the 
whole record from Exodus to Samuel they 
are represented as inhabiting the tract of 
country which lay between Judea and 
Egypt (Ex. 13 : 17; 15 : 14, 15 ; Josh. 13 : 3 ; 
1 Sam. 4). 

This powerful tribe made frequent in- 
cursions against the Hebrews. There was 
almost perpetual war between them. They 
sometimes held the tribes, especially the 
southern tribes, in degrading servitude 
( Judg. 15 : 11 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 19-22) ; at other 
times they were defeated with great slaugh- 
ter (1 Sam. 14 : 1-47 ; 17). These hostilities 
did not cease till the time of Hezekiah 
(2 Kings 18 : 8), when they were entirely 
subdued. They still, however, occupied 
their territory, and always showed their 
old hatred to Israel (Ezek. 25 : 15-17). They 
were finally conquered by the Romans. 

Little is known of their language. It is 
supposed to have been Semitic, and accord- 
ingly akin to the language of the Hebrews. 

They had five principal cities, with their 
surrounding districts — Ekron, Ashdod, 
Gath, Ashkelon, and Gaza — which were so 
many centres of government, under the 
sway of separate kings, who in time of 
war, however, acted in concert. They are 
said to have been tall and strong men, 
lighter in complexion than the Egyptians. 
They shaved all the hair entirely off their 
faces. Some think that they were of the 
same stock as the Hittites — the Mongolian. 

Philol'ogus — fond of learning — a Roman 
Christian to whom Paul sent salutations 
(Rom. 16 : 15). 

Philos^ophy — the love of tvisdom — the 
pursuit of wisdom, or sometimes science in 
general. The word is found only once in 
Scripture (Col. 2:8, 18-23), where the 
apostle warns the Colossians against false 
philosophy. Here the warning may be — 
( 1. ) Against regarding Christianity as a mere 
philosophy — i. e. , as only a speculative search 
after truth. It is, indeed, in the highest 
sense a philosophy. But it is the "wisdom 
of God ; " it is not the result of human 
thoTight or speculation ; it is a direct revela- 
tion from God. (2.) Or the warninf*- may 



be against that form of philosophy which 
then began to influence society, known by 
the name of Gnosticism, with its many 
forms, some of them having a leaven of 
Judaism. 

Phin'ehas. (1.) The son of Eleazar, the 
high priest (Ex. 6 : 25). While yet a youth 
he distinguished himself at Shittim by his 
zeal against the immorality into which the 
Moabites had tempted the people (Num. 
25 : 1-9), and thus " stayed the plague " that 
had broken out among the people, and 
by which twenty -four thousand of them 
perished. Eor his faithfulness on that occa- 
sion he received the divine approbation 
(10-13). He afterwards commanded the 
army that went out against the Midianites 
(31 : 6-8). When representatives of the 
people were sent to expostulate with the 
two and a half tribes who, just after cross- 
ing Jordan, built an altar and departed 
without giving any explanation, Phinehas 
was their leader, and addressed them in the 
words recorded in Josh. 22 : 16-20. Their 
explanation follows. This great altar was 
intended to be to all ages only a witness 
that they still formed a part of Israel. 
Phinehas was afterwards the chief adviser 
in the war with the Benjamites. He is com- 
memorated in Ps. 106 : 30, 31. (See Ed.) 

(2.) One of the sons of Eli, the high priest 
(1 Sam. 1:3; 2 : 12). He and his brother 
Hophni were guilty of great crimes, for 
which destruction came on tho house of 
Eli (31). He died in battle with the Phil- 
istines (1 Sam. 4 : 4, 11) ; and his wife, on 
hearing of his death, gave birth to a son, 
whom she called "Ichabod," and then she 
died (19-22). 

Phle'gon — burning — a Roman Christian 
to whom Paul sent salutations (Rom. 16 : 
14). 

Phoeni^cia (Acts 21 : 2). (See Phenice.) 

Phry'gia — drif — an irregular and ill- 
defined district in Asia Minor. It was 
divided into two parts— the Greater Phrygia 
on the south, and the Lesser Phrygia on 
the west. It is the Greater Phrygia that 
is spoken of in the New Testament. The 
towns of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13 : 14), 
Colosse, Hierapolis, Iconium, and Laodicea 
were situated in it, 



PHURAH 



549 



PIGEON. 



There were Phrygians at Jerusalem on 
the day of Pentecost, and Paul twice trav- 
elled through their country, preaching the 
gospel (Acts 2 : 10 ; 16 : 6 ; 18 : 23). 

Phu''rah — loine-press — Gideon's armour- 
bearer, who accompanied him when he 
visited the camp of the Midianites (Judg. 
7 : 10, 11). 

Phygel'lus— /wr/iYu-e — a Christian of 
Asia, who ' ' turned away " from Paul dur- 
ing his second imprisonment at Rome 
(2 Tim. 1 : 15). Nothing more is known of 
him. 

Phylac'teries (Gr. phulakteria ; i.e., 
"defences" or "protections"), called by 
modern Jews tephillin [i.e., "prayers") 
are mentioned only in Matt. 23 : 5. They 
consisted of strips of parchment on which 
were inscribed these four texts : — (1. ) Ex. 
13 : 1-10 ; (2. ) 11-16 ; (3. ) Deut. 6:4-9; 
(4.) 11 : 18-21 — and which were enclosed in 
a square leather case, on one side of which 
was inscribed the Hebrew letter shin, to 
which the rabbis attached some signifi- 
cance. This case was fastened by certain 
straps to the forehead just between the 
eyes. The "making broad the phylac- 
teries" refers to the enlarging of the case 
so as to make it conspicuous. (See Fkont- 

LETS.) 

Another form of the phylactery con- 
sisted of two rolls of parchment, on which 




TEPHILLAH ON THE AKM. 

the same texts were written, enclosed in a 
case of black calfskin. This was worn on 
the left arm near the elbow, to which it 
was bound by a thong. It was called the 
" Tephillah on the arm.''' 
Physi'cian. Asa, afflicted Avith some 



bodily malady, " sought not unto the Lord 
but unto the physicians " (2 Chr. 16 : 12). 
The " physicians" were those who "prac- 
tised heathen arts of magic, disavowing 
recognized methods of cure, and dissociat- 
ing the healing art from dependence on 
the God of Israel. The sin of Asa was not, 
therefore, in seeking medical advice, as we 
understand the phrase, but in forgetting 
Jehovah. " 

Pi-be^seth (Ezek. 30 : 17), supposed to 
mean " a cat," or a deity in the form of a 
cat, worshipped by the Egyptians. It was 
called by the Greeks Bubastis. The hiero- 
glyphic name is "Pe-bast" — i.e., the house 
of Bast, the Artemis of the Egyptians. 
The town of Bubastis was situated on the 
Pelusian branch — i.e., the easternmost 
branch — of the Delta. It was the seat of 
one of the chief annual festivals of the 
Egj^ptians. Its ruins bear the modern 
name of Tel-Basta. 

Pieces (1) of silver. In Ps. 68 : 30 de- 
notes "fragments," and not properly 
money. In 1 Sam. 2:36 (Heb. agorah), 
properly a " small sum " as wages, weighed 
rather than coined. Josh. 24 : 32 (Heb. 
kesitdh — q.v.), supposed by some to have 
been a piece of money bearing the figiire of 
a lamb, but rather simply a certain amount. 
(Comp. Gen. 33 : 19). 

(2. ) The word pieces is omitted in many 
passages, as Gen. 20 : 16 ; 37 : 28 ; 45 : 22, etc. 
The passage in Zech. 11 : 12, 13 is quoted 
in the Gospel (Matt. 26 : 15), and from this 
Ave knoAv that the word to be supplied is 
" shekels." In all these omissions we may 
thus warrantably supply this word. 

(3.) The " piece of money" mentioned in 
Matt. 17 : 27 is a stater = a, Hebrew shekel, 
or four Greek drachmae ; and that in Luke 
15 : 8, 9, Acts 19 : 19, a Greek drachma =& 
denarius. (See Penny.) 

Pi'ety=Lat. pietas, properly honour and 
respect toward parents (1 Tim. 5:4). In 
Acts 17 : 23 the Greek verb is rendered 
" ye worship," as applicable to God. 

Pi'geon. Pigeons are mentioned as 
among the offerings which, by divine ap- 
pointment, Abram presented unto the Lord 
(Gen. 15 : 9). They were afterwards en- 
umerated among the sin-oflferings (Lev. 

36 



PI-HAHIROTH 



550 



PILATE 



1 : 14 ; 12 : 6), and the law provided that 
those who could not offer a lamb might 
offer two young pigeons (5:7; comp. Luke 
2:24). (See Dove.) 

Pi-hahi''roth — place of reservoirs, or en- 
trance of caverns — the name of a place in 
Egypt where the children of Israel en- 
camped (Ex. 14 : 2, 9), how long is uncer- 
tain. Some have identified it with AjrHd, 
a fortress between Etham and Suez. The 
condition of the Isthmus of Suez at the 
time of the Exodus is not exactly known, 
and hence this, with the other places men- 
tioned as encampments of Israel in Egypt, 
cannot be definitely ascertained. The 
isthmus has been formed by the Nile de- 
posits. This increase of deposit still goes 
on, and so rapidly that within the last fifty 
years the mouth of the Nile has advanced 
northward about four geographical miles. 
In the maps of Ptolemy (of the second and 
third centuries a.d.) the mouths of the 
Nile are forty miles further south than at 
present. (See Exodus.) 

Filiate, Pon^tius, probably connected 
with the Roman family of the Pontii, and 
called " Pilate " from the Latin pileatus — 
i.e., "wearing the pileus " — which was the 
" cap or badge of a manumitted slave," as 
indicating that he was a "freedman," or 
the descendant of one. He was the sixth 
in the order of the Roman procurators of 
Judea (a.d. 26-36). His headquarters 
were at Caesarea, but he frequently went 
up to Jerusalem. His reign extended over 
the period of the ministry of John the 
Baptist and of Jesus Christ, in connection 
with whose trial his name comes into 
prominent notice. Pilate was a "typical 
Roman, not of the antique, simple stamp, 
but of the imperial period, a man not with- 
out some remains of the ancient Roman 
justice in his soul, yet pleasure-loving, 
imperious, and corrupt. He hated the 
Jews whom he ruled, and in times of irri- 
tation freely shed their blood. They re- 
turned his hatred with cordiality, and ac- 
cused him of every crime — maladministra- 
tion, cruelty, and robbery. He visited 
Jerusalem as seldom as possible ; for, in- 
deed, to one accustomed to the pleasures 
of Rome, with its theatres, baths, games, 



and gay society, Jerusalem, with its re- 
ligiousness and ever-smouldering revolt, 
was a dreary residence. When he did 
visit it he stayed in the palace of Herod 
the Great, it being common for the officers 
sent by Rome into conquered countries to 
occupy the palaces of the displaced sove- 
reigns." 

After his trial before the Sanhedrin, 
Jesus was brought to the Roman procura- 
tor, Pilate, who had come up to Jerusalem 
as usual to preserve order during the Pass- 
over, and was now residing, perhaps, in 
the castle of Antonia, or it may be in 
Herod's palace. Pilate came forth from 
his palace and met the deputation from the 
Sanhedrin, who, in answer to his inquiry 
as to the nature of the accusation they had 
to prefer against Jesus, accused him of 
being a "malefactor." Pilate was not 
satisfied with this, and they further ac- 
cused him (1) of sedition, (2) preventing 
the payment of the tribute to Caesar, and 
(3) of assuming the title of king (Luke 23 : 
2). Pilate now withdrew with Jesus into 
the palace (John 18 : 33) and examined him 
in private (37, 38) ; and then going out to 
the deputation still standing before the 
gate, he declared that he could find no 
fault in Jesus (Luke 23 : 4). This only 
aroused them to more furious clamour, and 
they cried that he excited the populace 
' ' throughout all Jewry, beginning from 
Galilee." When Pilate heard of Galilee, 
he sent the accused to Herod Antipas, 
who had jurisdiction over that pi'ovince, 
thus hoping to escape the difficulty in 
which he found himself. But Herod, with 
his men of war, set Jesus at nought, and 
sent him back again to Pilate, clad in a 
purple robe of mockery (23 : 11, 12). 

Pilate now proposed that as he and 
Herod had found no fault in him, they 
should release Jesus ; and anticipating that 
they would consent to this proposal, he 
ascended the judgment-seat as if ready to 
ratify the decision (Matt. 27 : 19). But at 
this moment his wife (Claudia Procula) 
sent a message to him imploring him to 
have nothing to do with the " just person." 
Pilate's feelings of perplexity and awe 
were deepened by this incident, while the 



PILATE 



551 



PINNACLE 



I 



crowd vehemently cried out, " Not this 
man, bxit Barabbas." Pilate answered, 
" What then shall I do with Jesus?" The 
fierce cry immediately followed, " Let him 
be crucified." Pilate, apparently vexed, 
and not knowing what to do, said, " Why, 
what evil hath he done ? " but with yet 
fiercer fanaticism the crowd yelled out, 
"Away with him! crucify him, crucify 
him ! " Pilate yielded, and sent Jesus 
away to be scourged. This scourging was 
usually inflicted by lictors ; but as Pilate 
was only a procurator he had no lictor, 
and hence his soldiers inflicted this terrible 
punishment. This done, the soldiers be- 
gan to deride the sufferer, and they threw 
around him a purple robe, probably some 
old cast-off robe of state (Matt. 27 : 28 ; 
John 19 : 2), and putting a reed in his right 
hand, and a crown of thorns on his head, 
bowed the knee before him in mockery, 
and saluted him, saying, ' ' Hail, King of 
the Jews ! " They took also the reed and 
smote him with it on the head and face, 
and spat in his face, heaping upon him 
every indignity. 

Pilate then led forth Jesus from within 
the Praetorium (Matt. 27 : 27) before the 
people, wearing the crown of thorns and 
the purple robe, saying, "Behold the man \" 
But the sight of Jesus, noAV scourged and 
crowned and bleeding, only stirred their 
hatred the more, and again they cried out, 
"Crucify him, crucify him ! " and brought 
forth this additional charge against him, 
that he professed to be " the Son of God." 
Pilate heard this accxisation with a super- 
stitious awe, and taking him once more 
within the Prsetorivim, asked him, "Whence 
art thou?" Jesus gave him no answer. 
Pilate was irritated by his continued 
silence, and said, "Knowest thou not that 
I have power to crucify thee?" Jesus, 
with calm dignity, answered the Roman, 
"Thou couldest have no power at all against 
me, except it were given thee from above. " 

After this Pilate seemed more resolved 
than ever to let Jesus go. The crowd per- 
ceiving this cried out, "If thou let this 
man go, thou art not Caesar's friend." This 
settled the matter. He was afraid of being 
accused to the emperor. Calling for water, 



he washed his hands in the sight of the 
people, saying, ' ' I am innocent of the 
blood of this just person." The mob, again 
scorning his scruples, cried, " His blood be 
on us, and on our children." Pilate was 
stung to the heart by their insults, and 
putting forth Jesus before them, said, 
"Shall I crucify your King?" The fatal 
moment had now come. They madly ex- 
claimed, "We have no king but Caesar ; " 
and now Jesus is given up to them, and led 
away to be crucified. 

By the direction of Pilate an inscription 
was placed, according to the Roman cus- 
tom, over the cross, stating the crime for 
which he was crucified. Having ascer- 
tained from the centurion that he was 
dead, he gave up the body to Joseph of 
Arimathea to be buried. Pilate's name 
now disappears from the Gospel history. 
References to him, however, are found in 
the Acts of the Apostles (3 : 13 ; 4 : 27 ; 
13 : 28), and in 1 Tim. 6 : 13. In a.d. 36 the 
governor of Syria brought serious accusa- 
tions against Pilate, and he was banished 
to Vienne in Gaul, where, according to 
tradition, he committed suicide. 

Pil''lar, used to support a building ( Judg. 
16 : 26, 29) ; as a trophy or memorial (Gen. 
28 : 18 ; 35 : 20 ; Ex. 24 : 4 ; 1 Sam. 15 : 12— 
A. v., "place," more correctly "monu- 
ment," or " trophy of victory," as in 2 Sam. 
18 : 18) ; of fire, by which the Divine Pres- 
ence was manifested (Ex. 13 : 2). The 
" plain of the pillar " in Judg. 9 : 6 ought 
to be, as in the Revised Version, the "oak 
of the pillar" — i.e., of the monument or 
stone set up by Joshua (24 : 26). 

Pine tree — Heb. tidhdr — mentioned 
along with the fir-tree in Isa. 41 : 19 ; 60 : 
13. This is probably the cypress; or it 
may be the stone-pine, which is common on 
the northern slopes of Lebanon. Some sup- 
pose that the elm, others that the oak, or 
holm, or ilex, is meant by the Hebrew word. 
In Nell. 8 : 15 the Revised Version has 
"wild olive" instead of "pine." (See 
Fir.) 

Pin^nacle — a little ^ving — (Matt. 4:5; 
Luke 4 : 9), On the southern side of the 
temple court was a range of porches or 
cloisters forming three arcades. At the 



PIPE 



552 



PLAGUE 



south-eastern corner the roof of this cloister 
was some 300 feet above the Kidron valley. 
The pinnacle — some parapet or wing-like 
projection — was above this roof, and hence 
at a great height — probably 350 feet or 
more above the valley. 

Pipe (1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 1 Kings 1 : 40 ; Isa. 
5:12; 30:29). The Hebrew word Mill, 
so rendered, means "bored through," and 
is the name given to various kinds of wind 
instruments, as the fife, flute, Pan-pipes, 
etc. In Amos 6 : 5 this word is rendered 
"instrument of music." This instrument 
is mentioned also in the New Testament 
(Matt. 11 : 17 ; 1 Cor. 14 : 7). It is still 
used in Palestine, and is, as in ancient 
times, made of different materials, as reed, 
copper, bronze, etc. 

Pir'am — like a wild ass — a king of Jar- 
muth, a royal city of the Canaanites, who 
was conquered and put to death by Joshua 
(10 : 3, 23, 26). 

Pir'athon — 2:)rince, or summit — a place 
"in the land of Ephraim" (Judg. 12 :15), 
now Fer'on, some 10 miles south-west of 
Shechem. This was the home of Abdon 
the judge. 

Pir^athonite. (1.) Abdon, the son of 
Hillel, so called, Judg. 12 : 13, 15. 

(2.) Benaiah the Ej^hraimite (2 Sam. 
23 : 30), one of David's thirty heroes. 

PiS''gah — a peak — a mountain summit 
in the land of Moab, in the territory of 
Reuben, where Balak offered up sacrifices 
(Num. 21:20; 23:14), and from which 
Moses viewed the promised land (Deut. 
3 : 27). It is probably the modern Jehel 
Sidghali. (SeeNEBO.) 

Pisid^ia, a district in Asia Minor, to the 
north of Pamphylia. The Taurus range of 
mountains extends through it. Antioch, 
one of its chief cities, was twice visited by 
Paul (Acts 13 : 14 ; 14 : 21-24). 

Pi'son, a Babylonian word meaning 
canal, one of the " four heads " into which 
the river which watered the garden of 
Eden was divided (Gen. 2 : 11). Some 
identify it with the modern Phasis, others 
with the Halys, others the Jorak or 
Acampis, others the Jaab, the Indus, the 
Ganges, etc. 

Pit, a hole in the ground (Ex. 21 :S3, 34), 



a cistern for water (Gen. 37 : 24 ; Jer. 14 : 
3), a vault (41 : 9), a grave (Ps. 30 : 3). It is 
used as a figure for mischief (Ps. 9 : 15), and 
is the name given to the unseen place of 
woe (Rev. 20 : 1, 3). The slime-pits in the 
vale of Siddira were wells which yielded 
asphalt (Gen. 14 : 10). 

Pitch (Gen. 6 : 14), asphalt or bitumen 
in its soft state, called "slime" (Gen. 11 : 3 : 
14 : 10 ; Ex. 2 : 3), found in pits near the Dead 
Sea [q. v. ). It was used for various purposes, 
as the coating of the outside of vessels and 
in building. Allusion is made in Isa. 34 : 
to its inflammable character. (See Slime.) 

Pitch''er, a vessel for containing liquids. 
In the East pitchers were usually carried 
on the head or shoulders (Gen. 24 : 15-20 ; 
Judg. 7 : 16, 19 ; Mark 14 : 13). 

Pi^thom — Egyptian, Pa- Turn — one of 
the "treasure" (R.V., "store") cities 
built for Pharaoh Rameses II. by the 
Israelites (Ex. 1 : 11). It was probably the 
Patumos of the Greek historian Herodotus. 
It has now been satisfactorily identified 
with Tell-el-Maskhuta, about 12 miles west 
of Ismailia, and 20 east of Tell-el-Kebir, 
on the southern bank of the present Suez 
Canal. Here have recently (1883) been dis- 
covered the ruins of supposed grain -cham- 
bers, and other evidences to show that this 
was a great ' ' store city. " Its immense ruin- 
heaps show that it was built of bricks, and 
partly also of bricks without straw. Suc- 
coth (Ex. 12 : 37) is supposed by some to be 
the secular name of this city, Pithom being 
its sacred name. This was the first halt- 
ing-place of the Israelites in their exodus. 
It has been argued (Dr. Lansing) that 
these "store" cities "were residence cities, 
royal dwellings, such as the Pharaohs of 
old, the Kings of Israel, and our modern 
Khedives have ever loved to build, thus 
giving employment to the superabundant 
muscle of their enslaved peoples, and mak- 
ing a name for themselves. " 

Plague, a "stroke" of affliction, or 
disease. Sent as a divine chastisement 
(Num. 11:33; 14:37; 16:46-49; 2 Sam. 
24 : 21). Painful afflictions or diseases, 
(Lev. 13 : 3, 5, 30 ; 1 Kings 8 : 37), or severe 
calamity (Mark 5 : 29 ; Luke 7 : 21), or the 
judgment of God, so called (Ex. 9 : 14). 



PLAGUES 



553 



PLAIN 



Plagues of Egyj)t were ten in number. 
(1.) The river Nile was turned into blood, 
and the fish died, and the river stank, so 
that the Egj^ptians loathed to drink of the 
river (Ex. 7 : 14-25). 

(2.) The plague of frogs (Ex. 8 : 1-15). 

(3.) The plague of lice (Heb. kinntm, 
properly gnats or mosquitoes; comp. Ps. 
78:45; 105:31), "out of the dust of the 
land " (Ex. 8 : 16-19). 

(4.) The plague of flies (Heb. 'aroh, ren- 
dered by the LXX. dog-fly)— ^x. 8 : 21-24. 

(5.) The murrain (Ex, 9:1-7), or epi- 
demic pestilence which carried off vast 
numbers of cattle in the field. Warning 
was given of its coming. 

(6.) The sixth plague, of "boils and 
blains," like the third, was sent without 
warning (Ex. 9 : 8-12). It is called (Deut. 
28 : 27) " the botch of Egypt," A.V. ; but 
in R.V., "the boil of Egypt."' "The 
magicians could not stand before Moses" 
because of it. 

(7.) The plague of hail, mth fire and 
thunder (Ex. 9:13-33). Warning was 
given of its coming. (Comp. Ps, 18 : 13 ; 
105 : 33). 

(8.) The plague of locusts, which cov- 
ered the whole face of the earth, so that 
the land was darkened with them (Ex. 10 : 
12-15). The Hebrew name of this insect, 
arbeh, points to the "multitudinous" char- 
acter of this visitation. Warning was given 
before this plague came, 

(9.) After a short interval the plague of 
darkness succeeded that of the locusts ; 
and it came without any special warning 
(Ex. 10:21-29). The darkness covered 
"all the land of 'Egj'pf to such an ex- 
tent that " they saw not one another." It 
did not, however, extend to the land of 
Goshen. 

(10.) The last and most fearful of these 
plagues was the death of the first-bom of 
man and of beast (Ex. 11 : 4, 5 ; 12 : 29, 30). 
The exact time of the visitation was an- 
nounced — "about midnight " — which woiild 
add to the horror of the infliction. Its 
extent also is specified — from the first-bom 
of the king to the first-born of the humblest 
slave, and all the first-born of beasts. But 
from this plague the Hebrews were com- 



pletely exempted. The Lord " put a dif 
ference " between them and the Egyptians. 
(See Passover,) 

Plain. (1,) Heb, kibel (Judg. 11:33), a 
" grassy plain " or "meadow," Instead of 
"plains of the vineyards," as in the 
Authorized Version, the Revised Version 
has " Abel-cheramim " {q.v.) — comp, Judg. 
11 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 4. 

(2.) Heb. 'elan (Gen. 12:6; 13:18; 14: 
13 ; 18 : 1 ; Deut. 11 : 30; Judg, 9 : 6), more 
correctly "oak," as in the Revised Ver- 
sion; margin, "terebinth," 

(3.) Heb. bik'dh (Gen. 11 : 2 ; Neh. 6:2; 
Ezek. 3 : 23 ; Dan. 3 : 1), ijroperly a valley, 
as rendered in Isa. 40 : 4, a broad plain 
between mountains. In Amos 1 : 5 the 
margin of Authorized Version has "Bikath- 
aven." 

(4.) Heb. kikar, "the circle," used only 
of the Ghor, or the low ground along the 
Jordan (Gen. 13 : 10-12 ; 19 : 17, 25, 28, 29 ; 
Deut. 34 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 18 : 23 ; 1 Kings 7 : 
46 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 17 ; Neh. 3 : 22 ; 12 : 28), the 
floor of the valley through which it flows. 
This name is applied to the Jordan valley 
as far north as Succoth. 

(5,) Heh. jaishor, "level ground, "smooth, 
gi'assy table-land (Deut. 3 : 10 ; 4 : 43 ; Josh. 
13:9, 16, 17, 21; 20:8; Jer. 48:21), an 
expanse of rolling downs without rock or 
stone. In these passages, with the article 
prefixed, it denotes the plain in the tribe 
of Reuben. In 2 Chr. 26 : 10 the plain of 
Judah is meant. Jerusalem is called " the 
rock of the plain " in Jer. 21 : 13, because 
the hills on which it is built rise high 
above the plain. 

(6.) Heb. ^ardbcih, the valley from the 
Sea of Galilee southward to the Dead Sea 
(the "sea of the plain," 2 Kings 14:25; 
Deut. 1:1; 2:8), a distance of about 70 
miles. It is called by the modem Arabs 
the Ghor. This Hebrew name is found in 
Authorized Version (Josh. 18 : 18), and is 
uniformly used in the Revised Version. 
Down through the centre of this plain is a 
ravine, from 200 to 300 yards wide, and 
from 50 to 100 feet deep, through which 
the Jordan flows in a winding course. This 
ravine is called the "lower plain." 

The name Arahah is also applied to the 



PLAIN 



554 



POETRY 



whole Jordan valley from Mount Hermon 
to the eastern branch of the Red Sea, a 
distance of about 200 miles, as well as to 
that portion of the valley which stretches 
from the Sea of Galilee to the same branch 
of the Red Sea — i.e., to the Gulf of Akabah 
— about 100 miles in all. 

(7.) Heb. shepheldh, "low ground," "low 
hill-land," rendered "vale" or "valley" 
in Authorized Version (Josh. 9:1; 10 : 40 ; 
11 : 2; 12 : 8 ; Judg. 1 : 9 ; 1 Kings 10 : 27). 
In Authorized Version (1 Chr. 27:28; 2 
Chr. 26 : 10) it is also rendered "low coun- 
try." In Jer. 17:26, Obad. 19, Zech. 7:7, 
"plain." The Revised Version renders it 
uniformly "low land." When it is pre- 
ceded by the article, as in Deut. 1 : 7, Josh. 
11 : 16 ; 15 : 33, Jer. 32 : 44 ; 33 : 13, Zech. 
7:7, " the shephelah," it denotes the plain 
along the Mediterranean from Joppa to 
Gaza, " the plain of the Philistines." (See 
Valley.) 

Plain of Mamre (Gen. 13 : 18 ; 14 : 13 ; 
R.V., "oaks of Mamre;" marg., "tere- 
binths"). (See Mamre; Teil-tree.) 

Plane tree. Heb. "armon (Gen. 30 : 37 ; 
Ezek. 31 : 8), rendered " chesnut " in the 
Authorized Version, but correctly " i^lane 
tree " in the Revised Version and the LXX. 
This tree is frequently found in Palestine, 
both on the coast and in the north. It 
usually sheds its outer bark, and hence 
its Hebrew name, which means ' ' naked. " 
(See Chestnut.) 

Pledge. See Loan. 

Plei^ades — Heb. kividh, "a cluster" 
(Job 9:9; 38 : 31 ; Amos 5:8 — A.V., 
" seven stars ; " R.V., " Pleiades ") — a 
name given to the cluster of stars seen in 
the shoulder of the constellation Taurus. 

Plough, first referred to in Gen. 45 : 6, 
where the Authorized Version has "earing," 
but the Revised Version ' ' ploughing ; " 
next in Ex. 34 : 21 and Deut. 21 : 4. The 
plough was originally drawn by oxen, but 
sometimes also by asses and by men. (See 
Agriculture.) 

Po'etry has been well defined as " the 
measured language of emotion. " Hebrew 
poetry deals almost exclusively with the 
great question of man's relation to God. 
"Guilt, condemnation, punishment, par- 



don, redemption, repentance are the awful 
themes of this heaven-born poetry. " 

In the Hebrew scriptures there are found 
three distinct kinds of poetry — (1) that of 
the Book of Job and the Song of Solo- 
mon, which is dramatic; (2) that of the 
Book of Psalms, which is lyrical ; and (3) 
that of the Book of Ecclesiastes, which irf 
didactic and sententious. 

Hebrew poetry has nothing akin to that 
of Western nations. It has neither metre 
nor rhyme. Its great peculiarity consists 
in the mutual correspondence of sentences 
or clauses, called parallelism, or " thought- 
rhyme. " Various kinds of this parallelism 
have been pointed out : — 

(1. ) Synonymous or cognate parallelism, 
where the same idea is repeated in the 
same words (Ps. 93 : 3 ; 94 : 1 ; Prov. 6 : 2), 
or in different words (Ps. 22, 23, 28, 114, 
etc. ) ; or where it is expressed in a positive 
form in the one clause and in a negative in 
the other (Ps. 40 : 12 ; Prov. 6 : 26) ; or where 
the same idea is expressed in three succes- 
sive clauses (Ps. 40 : 15, 16) ; or in a double 
parallelism, the first and second clauses 
corresponding to the third and fourth 
(Isa. 9:1; 61:10, 11). 

(2.) Antithetic parallelism, where the 
idea of the second clause is the converse of 
that of the first (Ps. 20 : 9 ; 27 : 6, 7 ; 34 : 
11 ; 37 : 9, 17, 21, 22). This is the common 
form of gnomic or proverbial poetry. (See 
Prov. 10-15.) 

(3.) Synthetic or constructive or com- 
pound parallelism, where each clause or 
sentence contains some accessory idea en- 
forcing the main idea (Ps. 19:7-10; 85: 
]2; Job 3: 3-9; Isa. 1:5-9). 

(4.) Introverted parallelism, in which of 
four clauses the first answers to the fourth 
and the second to the third (Ps. 135 : IS- 
IS ; Prov. 23 : 15, 16), or where the second 
line reverses the order of words m the first 
(Ps. 86 : 2). 

Hebrew poetry sometmies assumes other 
forms than these. (1.) An alphabetical 
arrangement is sometimes adopted for the 
purpose of connecting clauses or sentences. 
Thus in the following the initial words of 
the respective verses begin with the letters 
of the alphabet in regular succession : — 



POISON 



555 



PONTUS 



Prov. 31 : 10-31 ; Lam. 1, 2, 3, 4 ; Ps. 25, 
34, 37, 145. Ps. 119 has a letter of the 
alphabet in regular order beginning every 
eighth verse. 

(2. ) The repetition of the same verse or 
of some emphatic expression at intervals 
(Ps. 42, 107, where the refrain is in verses 
8, 15, 21, 31). (Comp. also Isa. 9:8-10: 
4 ; Amos 1 : 3, 6, 9, 11, 13 ; 2 : 1, 4, 6.) 

(3.) Gradation, in which the thought of 
one verse is resumed in another (Ps. 121). 

Several odes of great poetical beautj' are 
found in the historical books of 
the Old Testament, such as the 
song of Moses (Ex. 15), the song 
of Deborah (Judg. 5), of Hannah 
(1 Sam. 2), of Hezekiah (Isa. 38: 
9-20), of Habakkuk (Hab. 3), and 
David's "song of the bow" (2 Sam. 
1 : 19-27). 

Poi^'son. (1.) Heb. hemdh, 
" heat," the iDoison of certain ven- 
omous reptiles (Deut. 32 : 24, 33 ; 
Job 6:4; Ps. 58 : 4), causing in- 
flammation. 

(2.) Heb. rosh, "a head," a 
poisonous plant (Deut. 29 : 18) 
growing luxuriantly (Hos. 10 : 4) 
of a bitter taste (Ps. 69 : 21 ; Lam 
3 : 5), and coupled wdth worm 
wood ; probably the poppy. This 
word is rendered " gall " — g.v. — 
(Deut. 29 : 18 ; 32 : 33 ; Ps. 69 : 21 ; 
Jer. 8 : 14, etc,), "hemlock" (Hos. 
10 : 4 ; Amos 6 : 12), and " poison " 
(Job 20:16), "the poison of asps," 
showing that the rosh was not 
exclusively a vegetable poison. 

(3.) In Rom. 3:13 (comp. Job 
20:16; Ps. 140:3), James 3:8, 
as the rendering of the Greek ios. 

Pome'granate — i.e., "grained 
ajDple" {pomum granatum) — Heb. rimmon. 
Common in Egypt (Num. 20 : 5) and Pales- 
tine (13 : 23 ; Deut. 8 : 8). The Romans called 
it Punicum malum — i.e., Carthaginian 
apple — because they received it from Car- 
thage. It belongs to the myrtle family of 
trees. The withering of the pomegranate 
tree is mentioned among the judgments of 
God (Joel 1:12). It is frequently men- 
tioned in the Song of Solomon (Cant, 4: 



3, 13, etc.). The skirt of the high priest's 
blue robe and ephod was adorned with the 
representation of pomegranates, alternat- 
ing with golden bells (Ex. 28:33, 34), as 
also were the "chapiters upon the two 
pillars " (1 Kings 7 : 20) which " stood be- 
fore the house. " 

Pom'mels (2 Chr. 4 : 12, 13), or bowls 
(1 Kings 7:41), were balls or "rounded 
knobs " on the top of the chapiters {q.v.). 

Pontius Pilate. See Pilate. 

Pon^tus, a province of Asia Minor, 




"POMEGRANATE BRANCH AND FRUIT. 

stretching along the southern coast of the 
Euxine Sea, corresponding nearly to the 
modern province of Trebizond. In the 
time of the apostles it was a Roman pro- 
vince. Strangers from this province were 
at Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2 : 9), and 
to "strangers scattered throughout Pon- 
tus," among others, Peter addresses his 
first epistle (1 Pet. 1 : 1). It was evidently 
the resort of many Jews of the Disper- 



POOL 



556 



POOLS 



sion. Aquila was a native of Pontus (Acts 
18:2). 

Pool, a pond, or reservoir, for holding 
vi^ater(Heb. berekhdh ; modern Arabic, bir- 
ket), an artificial cistern or tank. Men- 
tion is made of the pool of Gibeon (2 Sam. 
2:13); the pool of Hebron (4:12); the 
\ipper pool at Jerusalem (2 Kings 18 : 17 ; 
20 : 20) ; the pool of Samaria (1 Kings 22 : 
38) ; the king's pool (Neh. 2 : 14) ; the pool 
of Siloah (Neh. 3 : 15 ; Eccles. 2:6); the fish- 
pools of Heshbon (Cant. 7:4); the "lower 
pool," and the " old pool " (Isa. 22 : 9, 11). 

The "pool of Bethesda" (John 5:2, 4, 



7) and the " pool of Siloam " (John 9 : 
7, 11) are also mentioned, Isaiah (35 : 7) 
says, ' ' The parched ground shall become a 
pool. " This is rendered in the Revised Ver- 
sion "the thirsty ground, "etc. (marg. "the 
mirage," etc.). The Arabs call the mirage 
"sera&," plainly the same as the Hebrew 
word sarab, here rendered "parched 
ground." "The mirage shall become a 
pool" — i.e., the mock-lake of the burning 
desert shall become a real lake, "the pledge 
of refreshment and' joy." The "pools" 
spoken of in Isa. 14 : 23 are the marshes 
caused by the ruin of the canals of the 




POOLS OF SOLOMON. 



Euphrates in the neighbourhood of Baby- 
lon. 

The cisterns or jdooIs of the Holy City 
are for the most part excavations beneath 
the surface. Such are the vast cisterns in 
the temple hill that have recently been dis- 
covered by the engineers of the Palestine 
Exploration Eund. These underground 
caverns are about thirty-five in number, 
and are capable of storing abovit ten million 
gallons of water. They are connected 
with one another by passages and titnnels. 

Pools of Solomon, the name given to 
three large open cisterns at Etam, at the 



head of the Wady Urtas, having an average 
length of 400 feet by 220 in breadth, and 
20 to 30 in depth. These pools derive 
their chief supply of water from a spring 
called "the sealed fountain," about 200 
yards to the north-west of the upper pool, 
to which it is conveyed by a large subter- 
ranean passage. They are 150 feet distant 
from each other, and each pool is 20 feet 
lower than that above it, the conduits being 
so arranged that the lowest, which is the 
largest and finest of the three, is filled 
first, and then in succession the others. It 
has been estimated tliat these pools cover 



POOR 



557 



POST 



in all a space of about 7 acres, and are 
capable of containing three million gallons 
of water. They were, as is generally sup- 
posed, constructed in the days of Solomon. 
They are probably referred to in Eccles. 
2 : 6. On the fourth day after his victory 
over the Ammonites, etc., in the wilder- 
ness of Tekoa, Jehoshaphat assembled his 
army in the valley of Berachah ("bless- 
ing "), and there blessed the Lord. Bera- 
chah has been identified with the modern 
BereikUt, some 5 miles south of Wady 
Urtas, and hence the " valley of Bera- 
chah" may be this valley of pools, for 
the word means both " blessing " and 
" pools ; " and it has been supposed, there- 
fore, that this victory was celebrated be- 
side Solomon's pools (2 Chr. 20 : 26). 

These pools were primarily designed to 
supply Jerusalem with water. From the 
lower pool an aqueduct has been traced 
conveying the water through Bethlehem 
and across the valley of Gihon, and along 
the west slope of the Tyropoeon valley, til? 
it finds its way into the great cisterns un- 
derneath the temple hill. The water, how- 
ever, from the pools reaches now only to 
Bethlehem. The aquediict beyond this 
has been destroyed. 

Poor. The Mosaic legislation regarding 
the poor is specially imj:)ortant. 

(1. ) They had the right of gleaning the 
fields (Lev. 19 : 9, 10 ; Deut. 24 : 19, 21). 

(2.) In the sabbatical year they were 
to have their share of the produce of the 
fields and the vineyards (Ex. 23 : 11 ; Lev. 
25 : 6). 

(3.) In the year of jubilee they recovered 
their property (Lev. 25 : 25-30). 

(4. ) Usury was forbidden, and the pledged 
raiment was to be returned before the sun 
went down (Ex. 22 : 25-27 ; Deut. 24 : 10- 
13). The rich were to be generous to the 
poor (Deut. 15 : 7-11). 

(5.) In the sabbatical and jubilee years 
the bond-servant was to go free (Deut. 15 : 
12-15 ; Lev. 25 : 39-42, 47-54). 

(6.) Certain portions from the tithes were 
assigned to the poor (Deut. 14 : 28, 29 ; 
26 : 12, 13). 

(7.) They shared in the feasts (Deut. 16 : 
11, 14 ; Neh. 8 : 10). 



(8.) Wages were to be paid at the close 
of each day (Lev. 19 : 13). 

In the New Testament (Luke 3 : 11 ; 14 : 
13 ; Acts 6:1; Gal. 2 : 10 ; James 2 : 15, 16) 
we have similar injunctions given with re- 
ference to the poor. Begging was not 
common under the Old Testament, while 
it was so in the New Testament times 
(Luke 16:20, 21, etc.). But begging in 
the case of those who are able to work is 
forbidden, and all such are enjoined to 
"work with their own hands" as a Chris- 
tian duty (1 Thess. 4 : 11 ; 2 Thess. 3 : 7-13 ; 
Eph. 4 : 28). 

This word is used figuratively in Matt. 
5:3; Luke 6 : 20 ; 2 Cor. 8:9; Rev. 3 : 17. 

Popular — Heb. libneh, " white "—(Gen. 
30:37; Hos. 4:13), in all probability the 
storax tree [Sty rax officinalis) or white pop- 
lar, distinguished by its white blossoms and 
pale leaves. It is common in the Anti- 
Libanus. Other species of the poplar are 
found in Palestine, such as the white pop- 
lar (P. alba) of our own country, the black 
poplar (P. nigra), and the aspen (P. tremula). 
(See Willow. ) 

Porch, Solomon's, a colonnade on the 
east of the temple, so called from a tradi- 
tion that it was a relic of Solomon's temple 
left standing after the destriiction of Jeru- 
salem by the Babylonians. (Comp. 1 Kings 
7:6.) The word " porch " is in the New 
Testament the rendering of three different 
Greek words : — 

(1.) Stoa, meaning a portico or veranda 
(John 5:2; 10 : 23 ; Acts 3 :11 ; 5 : 12). 

(2.) Pulon, a gateway (Matt. 26 : 71). 

(3. ) Froaulion, the entrance to the inner 
court (Mark 14 : 68). 

Porcius Festus. See Festus. 

Por'ter, a gate-keeper (2 Sam. 18 : 26 ; 
2 Kings 7 : 10 ; 1 Chr. 9 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 14). 
Of the Levites, 4,000 were appointed as 
porters by David (1 Chr. 23 : 5), who were 
arranged according to their families (26 : 
1-19) to take charge of the doors and gates 
of the temple. They were sometimes em- 
ployed as musicians (1 Chr. 15 : 18). 

Post. (1.) A runner, or courier, for the 
rapid transmission of letters, etc. (2 Chr. 
30:6; Esther 3:13, 15; 8:10, 14; Job 
9 : 25 ; Jer. 51 : 31). Such messengers were 



POTIPHAR 



558 



PRAYER 



used from very early times. Those em- 
ployed by the Hebrew kings had a mili- 
tary character (1 Sam. 22 : 17 ; 2 Kings 
10 : 25, " guard," marg. " runners "). 

The modern system of postal communi- 
cation was first established by Louis XI. 
of Erance in a.d. 1464. 

(2. ) This word sometimes also is used for 
lintel or threshold (Isa. 6 : 4). 

Pot^iphar — dedicated to Ra; i.e., to the 
sun-god — the Egyptian to whom the Ish- 
maelites sold Joseph (Gen. 39 : 1). He was 
"captain of the guard" — i.e., chief, prob- 
ably, of the state police, who, while they 
formed part of the Egyptian army, were 
also largely employed in civil duties (37 : 
36; marg., "chief of the executioners"). 
Joseph, though a foreigner, gradually 
gained his confidence, and became over- 
seer over all his possessions. Believing the 
false accusation which his profligate wife 
brought against Joseph, Potiphar cast him 
into prison, where he remained for some 
years. (See Joseph.) 

Potiphe'rah, a priest of On, whose 
daughter Asenath became Joseph's wife 
(Gen. 41 : 45). 

Pot^sherd, a "sherd" — i.e., anything 
severed, as a fragment of earthenware 
(Job 2:8; Prov. 26 : 23; Isa. 45 : 9). 

Pot''tage — Heb. nazid, " boiled " — a dish 
of boiled food, as of lentils (Gen. 25 : 29 ; 
2 Kings 4 : 38). 

Pointers' field, the name given to the 
piece of ground which was afterwards 
bought with the money that had been 
given to Judas. It was called the "field 
of blood" (Matt. 27:7-10). Tradition 
places it in the valley of Hinnom. (See 
Aceldama. ) 

Pot''tery, the art of, was early practised 
among all nations. Various materials 
seem to have been employed by the potter. 
Earthenware is mentioned in connection 
with the history of Melchizedek (Gen. 14 : 
18), of Abraham (18 : 4-8), of Rebekah (27 : 
14), of Rachel (29 : 2, 3, 8, 10). The pot- 
ter's wheel is mentioned by Jeremiah (18 : 
3). See also 1 Chr. 4 : 23 ; Ps. 2 : 9 ; Isa. 
45 : 9 ; 64 : 8 ; Jer. 19 : 1 ; Lam. 4:2; Zech. 
11 : 13 ; Rom. 9 : 21. 

Pound. (1.) A weight. Heb. maneh, 



equal to 100 shekels (1 Kings 10 : 17 ; Ezra 
2 : 69 ; Neh. 7 : 71, 72). Gr. litra, equal to 
about 12 oz. avoirdupois (John 12 : 3 ; 19 : 
39). 

(2. ) A sum of money ; the Gr. mna or 
mina (Luke 19 : 13, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25). It 
was equal to 100 drachmas, and was of the 
value of about £3, 6s. 8d. of our money. 
(See Money.) 

Praeto^rium. The Greek word {prai- 
torion) thus rendered in Mark 15 : 16 is 
rendered "common hall" (Matt. 27:27 — 
marg., "governor's house"), "judgment 
hall," (John 18:28, 33— marg., "Pilate's 
house "—19 : 9 ; Acts 23 : 35), ' ' palace " (Phil. 
1 : 13). This is properly a military word. 
It denotes (1) the general's tent or head- 
quarters ; (2) the governor's residence, as 
in Acts 23:35 (R.V., "palace"); and (3) 
the praetorian guard (see Palace), or the 
camp or quarters of the praetorian cohorts 
(Acts 28 : 16), the imperial guards in im- 
mediate attendance on the emperor, who 
was " praetor " or commander-in-chief. 

Pray'er is converse with God ; the in- 
tercourse of the soul with God, not in con- 
templation or meditation, but in direct 
address to him. Prayer may be oral or 
mental, occasional or constant, ejaculatory 
or formal. It is a " beseeching the Lord " 
(Ex. 32 : 11) ; " pouring out the soul before 
the Lord" (1 Sam. 1:15); "praying and 
crying to heaven" (2 Chr. 32 : 20) ; "seek- 
ing unto God and making supi^lication " 
(Job 8:5); " drawing near to God " (Ps. 
73 : 28) ; "bowing the knees " (Eph. 3 : 14). 

Prayer presupxDOses a belief in the per- 
sonality of God, his ability and willingness 
to hold intercoiirse with us, his personal 
control of all things and of all his crea- 
tures and all their actions. 

Acceiotable prayer must be sincere (Heb.' 
10 : 22), offered with reverence and godly 
fear, with a humble sense of our own in- 
significance as creatures and of our own 
unworthiness as sinners, with earnest im- 
portunity, and with unhesitating submis- 
sion to the divine will. Prayer must also be 
offered in the faith that God is, and is the 
hearer and answerer of prayer, and that he 
will fulfil his word, "Ask, and ye shall 
receive "(Matt. 7: 7, 8; 21:22; Mark 11: 24; 



PRAYER 



559 



PREDESTINATION 



John 14 : 13, 14), and in the name of Christ 
(16:23,24; 15:16; Eph. 2:18; 5:20; Col. 
3 : 17 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 5). 

Prayer is of different kinds — secret (Matt. 
6:6); social, as family prayers, and in 
social worship; and public, in the service 
of the sanctuary. 

Intercessory prayer is enjoined (Num. 
6:23; Job 42:8; Isa. 62:6; Ps. 122:6; 
1 Tim. 2:1; James 5 : 14), and there are 
many instances on record of answers hav- 
ing been given to such prayers — e.g., of 
Abraham (Gen. 17 : 18, 20 ; 18 : 23-32 ; 20 : 
7, 17, 18), of Moses for Pharaoh (Ex. 8 : 
12, 13, 30, 31 ; Ex. 9 : 33), for the Israelites 
(Ex. 17:11, 13; 32:11-14, 31-34; Num. 
21 : 7, 8 ; Deut. 9 : 18, 19, 25), for Miriam 
(Num. 12 : 13), for Aaron (Deut. 9 : 20), of 
Samuel (1 Sam. 7 : 5-12), of Solomon (1 
Kings 8 ; 2 Chr. 6), Elijah (1 Kings 17 : 
20-23), EHsha (2 Kings 4:33-36), Isaiah 
(2 Kmgs 19), Jeremiah (42:2-10), Peter 
(Acts 9:40), the church (12:5-12), Paul 
(28 : 8). 

No rules are anywhere in Scripture laid 
down for the manner of prayer or the at- 
titude to be assumed by the suppliant. 
There is mention made of kneeling in 
prayer (1 Kings 8 : 54 ; 2 Chr. 6 : 13 ; Ps. 
95 : 6 ; Isa. 45 : 23 ; Luke 22 : 41 ; Acts 7 : 
60 ; 9 : 40 ; Eph. 3 : 14, etc. ) ; of bowing and 
falling prostrate (Gen, 24 : 26, 52 ; Ex. 4 : 
31; 12:27; Matt. 26:39; Mark 14:35, 
etc.); of spreading out the hands (1 Kings 
8:22, 38, 54; Ps. 28:2; 63:4; 88:9; 1 
Tim. 2 : 8, etc. ) ; and of standing (1 Sam. 
1 : 26 ; 1 Kings 8 : 14, 55 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 9 ; 
Mark 11 : 25 ; Luke 18 : 11, 13). 

If we except the " Lord's Prayer " (Matt. 
6 : 9-13), which is, however, rather a model 
or pattern of prayer than a set prayer to 
be offered up, we have no special form of 
praj'er for general use given us in Scrip- 
ture. 

Prayer is frequently enjoined in Scrip- 
ture (Ex. 22 : 23, 27 ; 1 Kings 3 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 
7:14; Ps. 37:4; Isa. 55:6; Joel 2 : 32 ; 
Ezek. 36 : 37, etc.), and we have very many 
testimonies that it has been answered (Ps. 
3:4; 4:1; 6:8; 18:6; 28:6; 30:2; 34: 
4 ; 118 : 5 ; James 5 : 16-18, etc. ). 

" Abraham's servant prayed to God, and 



God directed him to the person who should 
be wife to his master's son and heir (Gen. 
24 : 10-20). 

" Jacob prayed to God, and God inclined 
the heart of his irritated brother, so that 
they met in peace and friendship (Gen. 32: 
24-30; 33:1-4). 

"Samson prayed to God, and God showed 
him a well wliere he quenched his burning 
thirst, and so lived to judge Israel (Judg. 
15 : 18-20). 

"David prayed, and God defeated the 
counsel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15 : 31 ; 16 : 
20-23; 17:14-23). 

"Daniel prayed, and God enabled him 
both to tell Nebuchadnezzar his dream and 
to give the interpretation of it (Dan. 2 : 
16-23). 

" Nehemiah prayed, and God inclined the 
heart of the king of Persia to grant him 
leave of absence to visit and rebuild Jeru- 
salem (Neh. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 1-6). 

"Esther and Mordecai prayed, and God 
defeated the purpose of Haman, and saved 
the Jews from destruction (Esther 4 : 15- 
17 ; 6 : 7, 8). 

' ' The believers in Jerusalem praj^ed, and 
God opened the prison doors and set Peter 
at liberty, when Herod had resolved upon 
his death (Acts 12 : 1-12). 

" Paul prayed that the thorn in the flesh 
might be removed, and his prayer brought 
a large increase of spiritual strength, while 
the thorn perhaps remained (2 Cor. 12 : 7- 
10). 

' ' Prayer is like the dove that Noah sent 
forth, which blessed him not only when it 
returned with an olive-leaf in its mouth, 
but when it never returned at all." — Robin- 
son's Job. 

Predestina'tion. This word is pro- 
perly used only with reference to God's 
plan or purpose of salvation. The Greek 
word rendered "predestinate" is found 
only in these six passages. Acts 4 : 28 ; 
Rom. 8 : 29, 30; 1 Cor. 2:7 ; Eph. 1:5, 11 ; 
and in all of them it has the same mean- 
ing. They teach that the eternal, sover- 
eign, immutable, and unconditional decree 
or "determinate purpose" of God governs 
all events. 

This doctrine of predestination or elco- 



PRESIDENTS 



560 



PRIEST 



tion is beset with many difficulties. It 
belongs to the "secret things" of God. 
But if we take the revealed word of God 
as our guide, we must accept this doctrine 
with all its mysteriousness, and settle all 
our questionings in the humble, devout 
acknowledgment, "Even so. Father: for 
so it seemed good in thy sight.*' 

Eor the teaching of Scripture on this 
subject let the following passages be exa- 
mined in addition to those referred to 
above:— Gen. 21:12; Ex. 9:16; 33:19; 
Deut. 10 : 15 ; 32 : 8 ; Josh. 11 : 20 ; 1 Sam. 
12 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 6 : 6 ; Ps. 33 : 12 ; 65 : 4 ; 78 : 
68 ; 135 : 4 ; Isa. 41 : 1-10 ; Jer. 1:5; Mark 
13 : 20 ; Luke 22 : 22 ; John 6 : 37 ; 15 : 16 ; 
17 : 2, 6, 9 ; Acts 2 : 28 ; 3 : 18 ; 4 : 28 ; 13 : 
48; 17:26; Rom. 9:11, 18, 21; 11:5; 
Eph. 3 : 11 ; 1 Thess. 1 : 4 ; 2 Thess. 2:13; 
2 Tim. 1:9; Titus 1 : 2 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 2. (See 
Decrees of God ; Election.) 

Hodge has well remarked that, "rightly 
understood, this doctrine (1) exalts the 
majesty and absolute sovereignty of God, 
while it illustrates the riches of his free 
grace and his just displeasure with sin. 
(2. ) It enforces upon us the essential truth 
that salvation is entirely of grace. That 
no one can either complain if passed over, 
or boast himself if saved. (3.) It brings 
the inquirer to absolute self -despair and 
the cordial embrace of the free offer of 
Christ. (4.) In the case of the believer 
who has the witness in himself, this doc- 
trine at once deepens his humility and 
elevates his confidence to the full assurance 
of hope" {Outlines). 

Pre'^sidents. Three presidents are men- 
tioned, of whom Daniel was the first 
(Dan. 6 : 2-7). The name in the original 
is sdrkhin, probably a Persian word mean- 
ing prefects or ministers. 

Priest. The Heb. kohen, Gr. hierus, 
Lat. sacerdos, always denote one who 
offers sacrifices. 

At first every man was his own priest, 
and presented his own sacrifices before 
God. Afterwards that office devolved on 
the head of the family, as in the cases of 
Noah (Gen. 8 : 20), Abraham (12 : 7 ; 13 : 4), 
Isaac (26 : 25), Jacob (31 : 54), and Job (Job 
1:5), 



The name first occurs as applied to Mel- 
chizedek (Gen. 14 : 18). Under the Levit- 
ical arrangements the office of the priest- 
hood was limited to the tribe of Levi, and 
to only one family of that tribe, the family 
of Aaron. Certain laws respecting the 
qualifications of priests are given in Lev. 
21 : 16-23. There are ordinances also re- 
garding the priests' dress (Ex. 28 : 40-43) 
and the manner of their consecration to 
the office (29 : 1-37). 

Their duties were manifold (Ex. 27 : 20, 
21 ; 29 : 38-44 ; Lev. 6 : 12 ; 10 : 11 ; 24 : 8 ; 
Num. 10:1-10; Deut. 17:8-13; 33:10; 
Mai. 2 : 7). They represented the people 
before God, and offered the various sacri- 
fices prescribed in the law. 

In the time of David the priests were 
divided into twenty-four courses or classes 
(1 Chr. 24:7-18). This number was re- 
tained after the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 36-39 ; 
Neh. 7 : 39-42). 

"The priests were not distributed over 
the country, but lived together in certain 
cities, which, with the lands in the neigh- 
bourhood, had been assigned to their use. 
From thence they went up by turns to 
minister in the temple at Jerusalem. Thus 
the religious instruction of the people in 
the country generally was left to the heads 
of families, until the establishment of 
synagogues — an event which did not take 
place till the return from the Captivity, and 
which was the main source of the freedom 
from idolatry that became as marked a 
feature of the Jewish people thenceforward 
as its practice had been hitherto their great 
national sin." 

The whole priestly system of the Jews 
was typical. It was a shadow of which 
the body is Christ. The priests all pre- 
figured the great Priest who offered " one 
sacrifice for sins" "once for all" (Heb. 10: 
10, 12). There is now no human priesthood. 
(See Epistle to the Hebrews throughout.) 
The term "priest" is indeed applied to 
believers (1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 1:6), bnt in 
these cases it implies no sacerdotal func- 
tions. All true believers are now "kings 
and priests unto God." As priests they 
have free access into the holiest of all, 
and offer up the sacrifices of praise and 



PRINCE 



561 



PROPHECY 



thanksgiving, and the sacrifices of grateful 
service from day to day. 

Prince, the title generally applied to 
the chief men of the state. The "princes 
of the provinces " (1 Kings 20 : 14) were the 
governors or lord-lieutenants of the prov- 
inces. So also the "princes" mentioned 
in Dan. 6:1, 3, 4, 6. 7 were the officers 
who administered the affairs of the prov- 
inces ; the "satraps " (as rendered in R. V. ). 
These are also called " lieutenants "' (Esther 
3 : 12 ; 8 : 9 ; R.V., " satraps "). The pro- 
mised Saviour is called by Daniel (9:25) 
" Messiah the Prince " (Heb. nagid) : com- 
pare Acts 3 : 1.0 ; 5 : 31. The angel Michael 
is called (Dan. 12:1) a "prince" (Heb. 
sar, whence "Sarah," the "princess"). 

Priscilla, the wife of Aquila (Acts 
18 : 2), who is never mentioned without 
her. Her name sometimes takes the pre- 
cedence of his (Rom. 16 : 3 ; 2 Tim. 4:19). 
She took part with Aquila {q.v.) in in- 
structing Apollos (Acts 18 : 26). 

Pri'son. The first occasion on which we 
read of a prison is in the history of Joseph 
in Egypt. Then Potiphar, "Joseph's 
master, took him, and put him into the 
prison, a place where the king's prisoners 
were bound " (Gen. 39 : 20-23). The Heb. 
word here used {sohar) means properly a 
round tower or fortress. It seems to have 
been a part of Potiphar's house, a place in 
which state prisoners were kept. 

The Mosaic law made no provision for 
imprisonment as a punishment. In the 
wilderness two persons were "put in ward " 
(Lev. 24:12; Num. 15:34), but it was 
only till the mind of God concerning them 
should be ascertained. Prisons and prison- 
ers are mentioned in the book of Psalms 
(69 : 33 ; 79 : 11 ; 142 : 7). Samson was con- 
fined in a Philistine prison ( Judg. 16 : 21, 
25). In the subsequent history of Israel 
frequent references are made to prisons 
(1 Kings 22 : 27 ; 2 Kings 17 : 4 ; 25 : 27, 29 ; 
2 Chr. 16:10; Isa. 42:7; Jer. 32:2). 
Prisons seem to have been common in New 
Testament times (Matt. 11 : 2 ; 25 : 36, 43). 
The apostles were put into the "common 
prison" at the instance of the Jewish 
council (Acts 5 : 18, 23 ; 8:3); and at 
Philippi Paul and Silas were thrust into 



the "inner prison" (16:24; comp. 4:3; 
12 : 4, 5). 

Pro'phecy, or prediction, was a leading 
function of the prophet. It has been de- 
fined as a "miracle of knowledge, a de- 
claration or description or representation 
of something future, beyond the power of 
human sagacity to foresee, discern, or con- 
jecture." 

The great prediction which runs like a 
golden thread through the whole contents 
of the Old Testament is that regarding the 
coming and work of the Messiah ; and the 
great use of prophecy was to perpetuate 
faith in his coming, and to prepare the 
world for that event. But there are many 
subordinate and intermediate prophecies 
also which hold an important place in the 
great chain of events which illustrate the 
sovereignty and all-wise overruling provi- 
dence of God. 

Then there are many prophecies regard- 
ing the Jewish nation, its founder Abra- 
ham (Gen. 12:1-3; 13:16; 15:5; 17:2, 
4-6, etc.), and his posterity, Isaac and 
Jacob and their descendants (12 : 7 ; 13 : 
14, 15, 17; 15:18-21; Ex. 3:8, 17), which 
have all been fulfilled. The twenty-eighth 
chapter of Deuteronomy contains a series 
of predictions which are even now in the 
present day being fulfilled. In the writings 
of the prophets Isaiah (2 : 18-21), Jeremiah 
(27:3-7; 29:11-14), Ezekiel (5:12; 8), 
Daniel (8 ; 9 : 26, 27), Hosea (9 : 17), there 
are also many prophecies regarding the 
events which were to befall that people. 

There is in like manner a large number 
of prophecies relating to those nations 
with which the Jews came into contact — as 
Tyre (Ezek. 26 : 3-5, 14-21), Egypt (Ezek. 
29 : 10, 15 ; 30 : 6, 12, 13), Ethiopia (Nahum 
3:8-10), Nineveh (Nahum 1:10; 2:8-13; 
3 : 17-19), Babylon (Isa. 13 : 4 ; Jer. 51 : 7 ; 
Isa. 44:27; Jer. 50:38; 51:36, 39, 57), 
the land of the Philistines (Jer. 47 : 4-7 ; 
Ezek. 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; Zeph. 2: 
4-7 ; Zech. 9 : 5-8), and of the four great 
monarchies (Dan. 2 : 39, 40 ; 7-17 : 24 ; 
8; 9). 

But the great body of Old Testament 
prophecy relates directly to the advent of 
the Messiah, beginning with Gen. 3:15 — 



J / 



PROPHET 



562 



PROPHET 



the first great promise — and extending in 
ever - increasing fulness and clearness all 
through to the very close of the canon. 
The Messianic prophecies are too numer- 
ous to be quoted. "To him gave all the 
prophets witness." (Comp. Micah 5:2; 
Hag. 2:6-9; Isa. 7 : 14 ; 9 : 6, 7 ; 11 : 1, 2 ; 
53 ; 60 : 10, 13 ; Ps. 16 : 11 ; 68 : 18.) 

Many predictions also were delivered by 
Jesus and his apostles. Those of Christ 
were very numerous. (Comp. Matt. 10 
23 : 24 ; 11 : 23 ; 19 : 28 ; 21 : 43, 44 ; 24 ; 25 
31-46 ; 26 : 17-35, 46, 64 ; Mark 9:1; 10 
30 ; 13 ; 11 : 1-6, 14 ; 14 : 12-31, 42, 62 ; 16 
17, etc.) 

Pro^phet (Heb. ndbi\ from a root mean- 
ing " to bubble forth, as from a fountain," 
hence "to utter " — comp. Ps. 45 : 1). This 
Hebrew word is the first and the most 
generally used for a prophet. In the time 
of Samuel another word — ro'eh, "seer" — 
began to be used (1 Sam. 9:9). It occurs 
seven times in reference to Samuel. After- 
wards another word — hozeh, " seer " (2 Sam. 
24 : 11) — was employed. It is used of the 
king's "seer" in 1 Chr. 21:9; 2 Chr. 9: 
29; 12:15; 29:25. In 1 Chr. 29:29 all 
these three words are used: "Samuel the 
seer {ro^eh), Nathan the prophet (na6i'), Gad 
the seer " (hozeh). 

The "prophet" proclaimed the message 
given to him, as the "seer" beheld the 
vision of God. (See Num. 12 : 6, 8.) Thus 
a prophet was a spokesman for God ; he 
spake in God's name and by his authority 
(Ex. 7 : 1). He is the mouth by which 
God speaks to men (Jer. 1:9; Isa. 51 : 16), 
and hence what the prophet says is not of 
man but of God (2 Pet. 1 : 20, 21 ; comp. 
Heb. 3:7; Acts 4 : 25 ; 28 : 25). Prophets 
were the immediate organs of God for the 
communication of his mind and will to men 
(Deut. 18:18, 19). The whole Word of 
God may in this general sense be spoken 
of as prophetic, inasmuch as it was written 
by men who received the revelation they 
communicated from God, no matter what 
its nature might be. The foretelling of 
future events was not a necessary but only 
an incidental part of the prophetic office. 
The great task assigned to the prophets 
whom God raised up among the people was 



' ' to correct moral and religious abuses, to 
proclaim the great moral and religious 
truths which are connected with the char- 
acter of God, and which lie at the founda- 
tion of his government." 

Any one being a spokesman for God to 
man might thus be called a prophet. Thus 
Enoch, Abraham, and the patriarchs, as 
bearers of God's message (Gen. 20 : 7; Ex. 
7:1; Ps. 105 : 15), as also Moses (Deut. 18 : 
15 ; 34 : 10 ; Hos. 12 : 13), are ranked among 
the prophets. The seventy elders of Israel 
(Num. 11:16-29), "when the spirit rested 
upon them, prophesied ; " Asaph and Jed- 
uthun "prophesied with the harp " (1 Chr. 
25 : 3). Miriam and Deborah were pro- 
phetesses (Ex. 15 : 20 ; Judg. 4 : 4). The 
title thus has a general application to all 
who have messages from God to men. 

But while the prophetic gift was thus 
exercised from the beginning, the prophet- 
ical order as such began with Samuel. Col- 
leges — " schools of the prophets '' — were in- 
stituted for the training of prophets, Avho 
were constituted a distinct order (1 Sam, 
19 : 18-24 ; 2 Kings 2 : 3, 15 ; 4 : 38), which 
continued to the close of the Old Testa- 
ment. Such "schools" were established 
at Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, Gibeah, and 
Jericho. The "sons" or "disciples" of 
the prophets were young men (2 Kings 5 : 
22 ; 9 : 1; 4) who lived together at these dif- 
ferent "schools " (4 : 38-41). These young 
men were taught not only the rudiments of 
secular knowledge, but they were brought 
up to exercise the office of prophet, "to 
preach pure morality and the heart -felt 
worship of Jehovah, and to act along and 
co-ordinately with the priesthood and mon- 
archy in guiding the state aright and check- 
ing all attempts at illegality and tyranny." 

In New Testament times the prophet- 
ical office was continued. Our Lord is 
frequently spoken of as a prophet (Luke 
13 : 33 ; 24 : 19). He was and is the great 
Prophet of the Church. There was also in 
the Church a distinct order of prophets 
(1 Cor. 12 : 28 ; Eph. 2 : 20 ; 3:5), who made 
new revelations from God. They differed 
from the " teacher," whose office it was to 
impart truths already revealed. 

Of the Old Testament prophets there are 



PROPITIATION 



563 



PROSELYTE 



sixteen, whose prophecies form part of the 
inspired canon. These are divided into 
fovir groups : — 

(1.) The prophets of the northern king- 
dom (Israel) — viz., Hosea, Amos, Joel, 
Jonah. 

(2.) The prophets of Judah — viz., Isaiah, 
Jeremiah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Ha- 
bakkuk, Zephaniah. 

(3.) The prophets of the Captivity — viz., 
Ezekiel and Daniel. 

(4.) The prophets of the Restoration— 
viz., Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 

Propitia^tion, that by which God is ren- 
dered propitious — i. e. , by which it becomes 
consistent with his character and govern- 
ment to pardon and bless the sinner. The 
propitiation does not procure his love or 
make him loving ; it only renders it con- 
sistent for him to exercise his love towards 
sinners. 

In Rom. 3:25 and Heb. 9:5 (A.V., 
* 'mercy- seat ") the Greek word hilasterion 
is used. It is the word employed by the 
LXX. translators in Ex. 25 : 17 and else- 
where as the equivalent for the Hebrew 
kapporeth, which means "covering," and is 
used of the lid of the ark of the covenant 
(Ex. 25:21; 30:6). This Greek word 
(hilasterion) came to denote not only the 
mercy-seat or lid of the ark, but also pro- 
pitiation or reconciliation by blood. On 
the great day of atonement the high priest 
carried the blood of the sacrifice he offered 
for all the people within the veil and 
sprinkled with it the "mercy-seat," and so 
made propitiation. 

In 1 John 2:2; 4 : 10, Christ is called the 
" propitiation for our sins." Here a differ- 
ent Greek word is used (hilasmos). Christ 
is "the propitiation," because by his be- 
coming our substitute and assuming our 
obligations he expiated our guilt, covered it, 
by the vicarious punishment which he en- 
dured. (Comp. Heb. 2 : 17, where the ex- 
pression " make reconciliation " of the A. V. 
is more correctly in the R.V. "make pro- 
pitiation. ") 

Proportion of faith (Rom. 12 : 6). Paul 
says here that each one was to exercise his 
gift of prophecy — i.e., of teaching — "ac- 
cording to the proportion of faith." The 



meaning is, that the utterances of the 
"prophet" were not to fluctuate accord- 
ing to his own impulses or independent 
thoughts, but were to be adjusted to the 
truth revealed to him as a believer — i.e., 
were to be in accordance with it. 

In post - Reformation times this phrase 
was used as meaning that all Scripture was 
to be interpreted with reference to all other 
Scripture — i.e., that no words or expressions 
were to be isolated or interpreted in a way 
contrary to its general teaching. This was 
also called the "analogy of faith." 

Pro'selyte is used in the LXX. for 
"stranger" (1 Chr. 22:2) — i.e., a comer to 
Palestine ; a sojourner in the land (Ex. 12 : 
48 ; 20 : 10 ; 22 : 21)— and in the New Testa- 
ment for a convert to Judaism. There were 
such converts from early times (Isa. 56 : 3 ; 
Neh. 10:28; Esther 8:17). The law of 
Moses made specific regulations regarding 
the admission into the Jewish church of 
such as were not born Israelites (Ex. 20 : 
10; 23:12; 12:19, 48; Deut. 5:14; 16: 
11, 14, etc.). The Kenites, the Gibeon- 
ites, the Cherethites, and the Pelethites 
were thus admitted to the privileges of 
Israelites. Thus also we hear of individual 
proselytes who rose to positions of promi- 
nence in Israel — as of Doeg the Edomite, 
Uriah the Hittite, Araunah the Jebusite, 
Zelek the Ammonite, Ithmah and Ebed- 
melech the Ethiopians. 

In the time of Solomon there were one 
hundred and fifty-three thousand six hun- 
dred strangers in the land of Israel (1 Chr. 
22 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 17, 18). And the prophets 
speak of the time as coming when the 
strangers shall share in all the privileges of 
Israel (Ezek. 47 : 22 ; Isa. 2 : 2 ; 11 : 10 ; 56 : 
3-6 ; Micah 4 : 1). Accordingly, in New 
Testament times, we read of proselytes in 
the synagogues (Acts 10 : 2, 7 ; 13 : 42, 43, 
50; 17:4; 18:7; Luke 7:5). The "re- 
ligious proselytes " here spoken of were 
proselytes of righteousness, as distinguished 
from proselytes of the gate. 

The distinction between "proselytes of 
the gate" (Ex. 20:10) and "joroselytes of 
righteousness " originated only with the 
rabbi s. Accordi ng to them, the ' ' proselytes 
of the gate " (half proselytes) were not re- 



PROVERB 



564 



PROVIDENCE 



quired to be circumcised nor to comply with 
tiie Mosaic ceremonial law. They were 
boimd only to conform to the so-called 
seven precepts of Noah — viz., to abstain 
from idolatry, blasphemy, bloodshed, un- 
cleanness, the eating of blood, theft, and to 
yield obedience to the authorities. Besides 
these laws, however, they were required to 
abstain from work on the Sabbath, and to 
refrain from the use of leavened bread dur- 
ing the time of the Passover. 

The *' proselytes of righteousness " — re- 
ligious or devotit proselytes (Acts 13 : 43) — 
were bound to all the doctrines and precepts 
of the Jewish economy, and were members 
of the synagogue in full communion. 

The name " proselyte " occurs in the New 
Testament only in Matt. 23:15; Acts 2: 
10; 6:5; 13:43. The name by which 
they are commonly designated is that of 
"devout men," or men "fearing God" 
or * ' worshipping God. " 

Pro'verb, a trite maxim ; a similitude ; 
a parable. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered {mashdl) has a wide signification. It 
comes from a root meaning "to be like," 
and is sometimes rendered "by - word, " 
"parable." Rendered "proverb" in Isa. 
14:4, Hab. 2:6; "dark saying" in Ps. 
49 : 4, Num. 12 : 8. Ahab's defiant words 
in answer to the insolent demands of Ben- 
hadad, "Let not him that girdeth on his 
harness boast himself as he that putteth 
it off," is a well-known instance of a pro- 
verbial saying (1 Kings 20 : 11). 

Proverbs, Book of, a collection of moral 
and philosophical maxims of a wide range 
of subjects presented in a poetic form. 
This book sets forth the "philosophy of 
practical life. It is the sign to us that the 
Bible does not despise common sense and 
discretion. It impresses upon us in the 
most forcible manner the value of intel- 
ligence and prudence and of a good educa- 
tion. The whole strength of the Hebrew 
language and of the sacred authority of the 
book is thrown upon these homely truths. 
It deals, too, in that refined, discriminating, 
careful view of the finer shades of human 
character so often overlooked by theologians, 
but so necessary to any true estimate of 
human life " (Stanley's Jeivish Church). 



As to the origin of this book, " it is prob- 
able that Solomon gathered and recast 
many proverbs which sprang from human 
experience in preceding ages and were 
floating past him on the tide of time, and 
that he also elaborated many new ones 
from the material of his own experience. 
Towards the close of the book, indeed, are 
preserved some of Solomon's own sayings 
that seem to have fallen from his lips in 
later life and been gathered by other hands " 
(Arnot's Laws from Heaven, etc.). 

This book is usually divided into three 
parts : — 

(1. ) Consisting of ch. 1-9, which contain 
an exhibition of wisdom as the highest 
good. 

(2.) Consisting of ch. 10-24. 

(3.) Containing proverbs of Solomon 
"which the men of Hezekiah, the king of 
Judah, collected " (ch. 25-29). 

These are followed by two supplements — 

(1) "The words of Agur'' (ch. 30); and 

(2) " The words of Lemuel " (ch. 31). 
Solomon is said to have written three 

thousand proverbs, and those contained in 
this book may be a selection from these 
(1 Kings 4 r 32). In the New Testament 
there are thirty-five direct quotations from 
this book or allusions to it, 

Pro'vidence literally means foresight, 
but is generally used to denote God's pre- 
serving and governing all things by means 
of second causes (Ps. 18:35; 63:8; Acts 
17:28; Col. 1:17; Heb. 1:3). God's 
providence extends to the natural world 
(Ps. 104:14; 135:5-7; Acts 14:17), the 
brute creation (Ps. 104:21-29; Matt. 6:26 
10 : 29), and the affairs of men (1 Chr. 16 
31; Ps. 47:7; Prov. 21:1; Job 12:23 
Dan. 2 : 21 ; 4 : 25), and of individuals (1 Sam 
2:6; Ps. 18:30; Luke 1:53; James 4 
13-15). It extends also to the free actions 
of men (Ex. 12 : 36 ; 1 Sam. 24 : 9-15 ; Ps. 
33:14, 15; Prov. 16:1; 19:21; 20:24; 
21:1), and things sinful (2 Sam. 16:10; 
24 : 1 ; Rom. 11 : 32 ; Acts 4 : 27, 28), as well 
as to their good actions (Phil. 2 : 13 ; 4 : 13 ; 
2 Cor. 12:9, 10; Eph. 2:10; Gal. 5: 
22-25). 

As regards sinful actions of men, they 
are represented as occurring by God's per- 



PSALMS 



565 



PSALMS 



mission (Gen. 45 : 5 ; 50 : 20. Comp. 1 Sam. 
6:6; Ex. 7 : 13 ; 14 : 17 ; Acts 2 : 3 ; 3 : 18 ; 
4:27, 28), and as controlled (Ps. 76:10) 
and overruled for good (Gen. 50 : 20 ; Acts 
3 : 13). God does not cause or approve of 
sin, but only limits, restrains, overrules it 
for good. 

The mode of God's providential govern- 
ment is altogether unexplained. We only 
know that it is a fact that God does govern 
all his creatures and all their actions ; that 
this government is universal (Ps. 103 : 17- 
19), particular (Matt. 10 : 29-31), efficacious 
(Ps. 33 : 11 ; Job 23 : 13), embraces events 
apparently contingent (Pro v. 16 : 9, 33 ; 19 : 
21 ; 21 : 1), is consistent with his own per- 
fection (2 Tim. 2 : 13), and to his own glory 
(Rom. 9 : 17 ; 11 : 36). 

Psalms. The psalms are the produc- 
tion of various authors. " Only a portion 
of the Book of Psalms claims David as its 
author. Other inspired poets in successive 
generations added now one now another 
contribution to the sacred collection, and 
thus in the wisdom of Providence it more 
completely reflects every phase of human 
emotion and circumstances than it other- 
wise could." But it is specially to David 
and his contemporaries that we owe this 
precious book. In the " titles " of the 
psalms, which there is every reason for re- 
garding as authentic, 73 are directly as- 
cribed to David. Peter and John (Acts 
4 : 25) ascribe to him also the second psalm, 
which is one of the 50 that are anonymous. 
About two-thirds of the whole collection 
have been ascribed to David. 

Psalms 29, 62, and 77 are addressed to 
Jeduthun, to be sung after his manner or 
in his choir. Psalms 50 and 73-84 are ad- 
dressed to Asaph, as the master of his choir, 
to be sung in the worship of God. The 
''sons of Korah," who formed a leading 
part of the Kohathite singers (2 Chr. 20 : 
19), were intrusted with the arranging and 
singing of Ps. 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, and 88. 

In Luke 24:44 the word "psalms" 
means the Hagiographa — i.e., the holy 
writings, one of the sections into which the 
Jews divided the Old Testament. (See 
Bible.) 

None of the psalms can be proved to 



have been of a later date than the time of 
Ezra and Nehemiah, hence the whole col- 
lection extends over a period of about 1,000 
years — from Moses to the return from the 
Captivity. 

The Psalter is divided, after the analogy 
of the Pentateuch, into five books, each 
closing with a doxology or benediction : — 

(1. ) The first book comprises the first 41 
psalms, all of which are ascribed to David 
except 1, 2, and 33, which, though anony- 
mous, may also be ascribed to him. 

(2.) Book second consists of the next 31 
psalms (42-72), 18 of which are ascribed to 
David and 1 to Solomon (the 72nd). The 
rest are anonymous. 

(3.) The third book contains 17 psalms 
(73-89), of which the 86th is ascribed to 
David, the 88th to Heman the Ezrahite, 
and the 89th to Ethan the Ezrahite. 

(4.) The fourth book also contains 17 
psalms (90-106), of which the 90th is as- 
cribed to Moses, and the 101st and 103rd 
to David. 

(5. ) The fifth book contains the remain- 
ing psalms, 44 in number. Of these, 15 are 
ascribed to David, and the 127th to Solo- 
mon. 

Ps. 136 is generally called "the great 
hallel." But the Talmud includes also 
Ps. 120-135. Ps. 113-118, inclusive, con- 
stitute the "hallel" recited at the three 
great feasts, at the new moon, and on the 
eight days of the feast of dedication. 

" It is presumed that these several collec- 
tions were made at times of high religious 
life : the first, probably, near the close of 
David's life ; the second in the days of 
Solomon ; the third by the singers of Je- 
hoshaphat (2 Chr. 20 : 19) ; the fourth by the 
men of Hezekiah (29, 30, 31); and the 
fifth in the days of Ezra." 

The Mosaic ritual makes no provision 
for the service of song in the worship of 
God. David first taught the Church to sing 
the praises of the Lord. He first intro- 
duced into the ritual of the tabernacle 
music and song. 

Divers names are given to the psalms. 
(1.) Some bear the Hebrew designation 
shir (Gr. odM, a song). Thirteen have this 
title. It means the flow of speech, as it 

37 



PSALTERY 



566 



PUL 



were, in a straight line or in a regular 
strain. This title includes secular as well 
as sacred song. 

(2. ) Fifty-seven psalms bear the designa- 
tion (Heb.) mitsmor (Gr. psalmos, a psalm), 
a lyric ode, or a song set to music ; a sacred 
song accompanied with a musical instru- 
ment. 

(3.) Ps. 145, and many others, have the 
designation (Heb.) tehtlldh (Gr. hymnos, a 
hymn), meaning a song of praise ; a song 
the prominent thought of which is the 
praise of God. 

(4.) Six psalms (16, 56-60) have the title 
(Heb.) michtam [q.v.]. 

(5.) Ps. 7 and Hab. 3 bear the title 
(Heb.) shiggaion {q.v.). 

Psal''tery, a musical instrument, sup- 
posed to have been a kind of lyre, or a harp 
with twelve strings. The Hebrew word 
nebhel, so rendered, is translated "viol" 
in Isa. 5:12 (P.V., "lute"); 14:11. In 
Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word thus ren- 
dered is Chaldaic, pesanterin, which is sup- 
posed to be a word of Greek origin denot- 
ing an instrument of the harp kind. 

Ptoleina''is, a maritime city of Galilee 
(Acts 21 : 7). It was originally called 
"Accho" (q.v.), and received the name 
Ptolemais from Ptolemy Soter when he 
was in possession of Coele-Syria. 

Pu'ah — splendid. (1.) One of the two 
midwives who feared God, and refused to 
kill the Hebrew male children at their 
birth (Ex. 1 : 15-21). 

(2.) A descendant of Issachar (Judg. 
10 : 1). 

Pub'lican, one who farmed the taxes 
{e.g., Zacchseus, Luke 19:2) to be levied 
from a town or district, and thus under- 
took to pay to the supreme government a 
certain amovmt. In order to collect the 
taxes, the publicans employed subordin- 
ates (5 : 27 ; 15 : 1 ; 18 : 10), who, for their 
own ends, were often guilty of extortion 
and peculation. In New Testament times 
these taxes were paid to the Romans, and 
hence were regarded by the Jews as a very 
heavy burden, and hence also the collec- 
tors of taxes, who were frequently Jews, 
were hated, and were usually spoken of in 
very opprobrious terms. Jesus was ac- 



cused of being a ' ' friend of piiblicans and 
sinners " (Luke 7 : 34). 

Pub^lius, " the chief man of the island " 
of Malta (Acts 28 : 7), who courteously en- 
tertained Paul and his shipwrecked com- 
panions for three days, till they found a 
more permanent place of residence ; for 
they remained on the island for three 
months, till the stormy season had passed. 
The word here rendered "chief man" 
{protos) is supposed by some to be properly 
a Maltese term, the official title of the 
governor. 

Pu'^dens — bashful— a, Christian at Rome, 
who sent his greetings to Timothy (2 Tim. 
4:21). (See Claudia.) 

Pul. (1.) An Assyrian king. It has 
been a question whether he was identical 
with Tiglath-pileser III. {q.v.), or was his 
predecessor. The weight of evidence is cer- 
tainly in favour of their identity. Pul was 
the throne -name he bore in Babylonia as 
king of Babylon, ahd Tiglath-pileser the 
throne -name he bore as king of Assyria. 
He was the founder of what is called the 
second Assyrian empire. He consolidated 
and organized his conquests on a large 
scale. He subdued Northern Syria and 
Hamath, and the kings of Syria rendered 
him homage and paid him tribute. His 
ambition was to found in Western Asia a 
kingdom which should embrace the whole 
civilized world, having Nineveh as its 
centre. Menahem, king of Israel, gave 
him the enormous tribute of a thousand 
talents of silver, " that his hand might be 
with him " (2 Kings 15 : 19 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 26). 
The fact that this tribute could be paid 
showed the wealthy condition of the little 
kingdom of Israel even in this age of dis- 
order and misgovernment. Having re- 
duced Syria, he turned his arms against 
Babylon, which he subdued. The Baby- 
lonian king was slain, and Babylon and 
other Chaldean cities were taken, and Pul 
assumed the title of "King of Sumer [i.e., 
Shinar] and Accad. " He was succeeded by 
Shalmanezer IV. 

(2. ) A geographical name occurring only 
in Isa. 66 : 19. It is supposed to be a 
various reading for Phiit (Gen. 10 : 6 : Jer. 
46 : 9, R. V. " Put ; " Ezek. 27 : 10). 



PULPIT 



567 



PURIFICATION 



Purpit (Neh. 8:4), an elevated plat- 
form. (SeeEzKA.) 

Pun'ishment. The New Testament lays 
down the general principles of good gov- 
ernment, but contains no code of laws 
for the punishment of offenders. Punish- 
ment proceeds on the principle that there 
is an eternal distinction between right and 
wrong, and that this distinction must be 
maintained for its own sake. It is not 
primarily intended for the reformation of 
criminals, nor for the purpose of deterring 



others from sin. These results may be 
gained by the punishment of offenders; 
but crime in itself, and as crime, demands 
punishment — the criminal must suffer. 
(See MuEDEE ; Theft.) 

Fu'non — darkness— (Num. 33:43), one 
of the stations of the Israelites in the wil- 
derness. 

Pur, Pu'rim— a lot, lots—& festival in- 
stituted by the Jews (Esther 9 : 24-32) in 
ironical commemoration of Haman's con- 
sultation of the Pur (a Persian word), for 




-J: wtip ■^%^ '^ -^ 



THE QUAY AT PUTEOLI. 



the purpose of ascertaining the auspicious 
day for executing his cruel plot against 
their nation. It became a national insti- 
tution by the common consent of the Jews, 
and is observed by them to the present 
day, on the 14th and 15th of the month 
Adar, a month before the Passover. 

Purifica^tion, the process by which a 
person unclean, according to the Levitical 
law, and thereby cut off from the sanctuary 
and the festivals, was restored to the en- 
joyment of all these privileges. 

The great annual purification of the 



people was on the Day of Atonement 

(q.v.). _ 

But in the details of daily life there were 
special causes of ceremonial uncleanness 
which were severally provided for by cere- 
monial laws enacted for each separate case. 
Eor example, the case of the leper (Lev. 13, 
14), and of the house defiled by leprosy 
(14:49-53; see also Matt. 8:2-4). Un- 
cleanness from touching a dead body 
(Num. 19 : 11 ; Hos. 9:4; Hag. 2 : 13 ; 
Matt. 23 : 27 ; Luke 11 : 44). The case of 
the high priest and of the Ndizarite (Lev. 



PUESE 



568 



QUARRIES 



21 : 1-4, 10, 11 ; Num. 6:6, 7 ; Ezek. 44 : 
25). Purification was effected by bathing 
and washing the clothes (Lev. 14 : 8, 9) ; 
by washing the hands (Deut. 21 : 6 ; Matt. 
27 : 24) ; washing the hands and feet (Ex. 
30:18-21; Heb. 6:2, "baptisms"— R.V. 
marg., "washings;" 9:10); sprinkling with 
blood and water (Ex. 24 : 5-8 ; Heb. 9 : 19), 
etc. Allusions to this rite are found in Ps. 
26 : 6 ; 51 : 7 ; Ezek. 36 : 25 ; Heb. 10 : 22. 

Purse. (1.) Gr. balantion, a bag (Luke 
10 : 4 ; 22 : 35, 36). 

(2.) Gr. zone, properly a girdle (Matt. 
10:9; Mark 6:8), a money-belt. As to 
our Lord's sending forth his disciples with- 
out money in their purses, the remark has 
been made that in this "there was no de- 
parture from the simple manners of the 
country. At this day the farmer sets out 
on excursions quite as extensive without a 
para in his purse ; and a modern Moslem 
jjrophet of Tarshisha thus sends forth his 
apostles over this identical region. No 
traveller in the East would hesitate to 
throw himself on the hospitality of any 
village." — Thomson's Land and the Book. 
(See ScKiP.) 

Put, Phut. (1.) One of the sons of 
Ham (Gen. 10 : 6). 



(2.) A land or people from among whom 
came a portion of the mercenary troops of 
Egypt— Jer. 46:9 (A.V., "Libyans," but 
correctly, R.V., "Put"); Ezek. 27:10; 
30:5 (A. v., "Libya;" R.V., "Put"); 
38 : 5 ; Nahum 3:9. 

Pute'oli, a city on the coast of Cam- 
pania, on the north shore of a bay running 
north from the Bay of Naples, at which 
Paul landed on his way to Rome, from 
which it was distant 170 miles. Here he 
tarried for seven days (Acts 28 : 13, 14). 
This was the great emporium for the Alex- 
andrian corn ships. Here Paul and his 
companions began their journey, by the 
"Appian Way," to Rome. It is now 
called Pozzuoli. The remains of the quay, 
at which Paul landed, may still be seen 
here. 

Py'garg — Heb. dtshSn — (Deut. 14:5), 
one of the animals that were permitted for 
food. It is supposed to be the Antelope 
addax. It is described as "a large animal, 
over 3^ feet high at the shoulder, and, with 
its gently-twisted horns, 2^ feet long. Its 
colour is pure white, with the exception of 
a short black mane, and a tinge of tawny 
on the shoulders and back." — Tristram's 
Natural History. 



Quails. The Israelites were twice re- 
lieved in their privation by a miraculous 
supply of quails — (1) in the wilderness of 
sin (Ex. 16 : 13), and (2) again at Kibroth- 
hattaavah {q.v.) — Num. 11:31. God 
"rained flesh upon them as dust, and 
feathered fowls like as the sand of the sea " 
(Ps. 78 : 27). The words in Num. 11 : 31, 
according to the Authorized Version, ap- 
pear to denote that the quails lay one above 
another to the thickness of two cubits 
above the ground. The Revised Version, 
however, reads, "about two cubits above 
the face of the earth" — i.e., the quails 
flew at this height, and were easily killed 
or caught by the hand. Being thus se- 
cured in vast numbers by the people, they 



"spread them all abroad " (11 : 32) in order 
to salt and dry them. 

These birds (the Coturnix vulgaris of 
naturalists) are found in countless numbers 
on the shores of tlie Mediterranean, and 
their annual migration is an event causing 
great excitement. 

Quaranta^nia, a mountain some 1,200 
feet high, about 7 miles north-west of 
Jericho, the traditional scene of our Lord's 
temptation (Matt. 4 : 8). 

Quar'^ries. (1.) The "Royal Quarries" 
(not found in Scripture) is the name given 
to the vast caverns stretching far under- 
neath the northern hill, Bezetha, on which 
Jerusalem is built. Out of these mammoth 
caverns stones — a hard lime-stone — have 



QUARRIES 



569 



QUIVER 



been quarried in ancient times for the 
buildings in the city, and for the temples 
of Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod. Huge 




QUAIL (COTUKNIX VULGARIS). 

blocks of stone are still found in these 
caves bearing the marks of pick and chisel. 
The general appearance of the whole sug- 
gests to the explorer the idea that the 
Phoenician quarrymen have just suspended 
their work. The supposition that the 
polished blocks of stone for Solomon's 
temple were sent by Hiram from Lebanon 
or Tyre is not supported by any evidence 
(comp. 1 Kings 5 : 8). Hiram sent masons 
and stone-squarers to Jerusalem to assist 
Solomon's workmen in their great under- 
taking, but did not send stones to Jeru- 
salem, where, indeed, they were not needed, 
as these royal quarries abundantly testify. 
(2.) The "quarries" (Heb. pesilim) by 
Gilgal (Judg. 3:19), from which Ehud 
turned back for the purpose of carrying 
out his design to put Eglon king of Moab 
to death, were probably the " graven 
images" (as the word is rendered by the 
LXX. and the Vulgate and in the marg. 
A.V. and R.V.), or the idol temples the 
Moabites had erected at Gilgal, where the 
children of Israel first encamped after 
crossing the Jordan. The Hebrew word 



is rendered "graven images" in Deut. 
7 : 25, and is not elsewhere translated 
"quarries." 

Quar^tus — fourth — a Corinthian Chris- 
tian who sent by Paul his salutations to 
friends at Rome (Rom. 16 : 23). 

Quater^nion, a band of four soldiers. 
Peter was committed by Herod to the cus- 
tody of four quaternions — i.e., one quater- 
nion for each watch of the night (Acts 
12 : 4). Thus every precaution was taken 
against his escape from prison. Two of 
each quaternion were in turn stationed at 
the door (12 : 6), and to two the apostle 
was chained according to Roman custom. 

Queen. No explicit mention of queens 
is made till we read of the "queen of 
Sheba." The wives of the kings of Israel 
are not so designated. In Ps. 45 : 9, the 
Hebrew for "queen" is not malkdh, one 
actually ruling like the Queen of Sheba, 
but shegdl, which simply means the king's 
wife. In 1 Kings 11 : 19, Pharaoh's wife is 
called "the queen," but the Hebrew word 
so rendered {cfhtrdh) is simply a title of 
honour, denoting a royal lady, used some- 
times for "queen-mother " (1 Kings 15 : 13 ; 
2 Chron. 15:16). In Cant. 6:8, 9, the 
king's wives are styled "queens" (Heb. 
meldkhdth). 

In the New Testament we read of the 
"queen of the south" — i.e., Southern 
Arabia, Sheba (Matt. 12 : 42 ; Luke 11 : 31) 
— and the " queen of the Ethiopians " (Acts 
8 : 27), Candace. 

aueen of heaven (Jer. 7:18; 44:17, 
25), the moon, worshipped by the Assy- 
rians as the receptive power in nature. 

Quick^sands, found only in Acts 27 : 17, 
the rendering of the Greek Syrtis. On the 
north coast of Africa were two localities 
dangerous to sailors, called the Greater 
and Lesser Syrtis. The former of these is 
probably here meant. It lies between 
Tripoli and Barca, and near Cyrene. The 
Lesser Syrtis lay farther to the west. 

QuiVer, the sheath for arrow^s. The 
Hebrew word (ashpdh) thus commonly 
rendered is found in Job 39 : 23 ; Ps. 127 : 
5 ; Isa. 22 : 6 ; 49 : 2 ; Jer. 5 : 16 ; Lam. 3 : 
13. In Gen. 27 : 3 this word is the render- 
ing of the Hebrew teli, which is supposed 



QUOTATIONS 



570 



KABBAH 



rather to mean a suspended weapon, liter- 
ally "that which hangs from one " — i.e., is 
suspended from the shoulder or girdle. 

QiUOta^tions from the Old Testament in 
the New, which are very numerous, are not 
made according to any uniform method. 

When the New Testament was written, 
the Old was not divided, as it now is, into 
chapters and verses, and hence such pecu- 
liarities as these : — When Luke (20 : 37) 
refers to Ex. 3:6, he quotes from " Moses 
at the bush " — i. e. , the section containing 
the record of Moses at the bush. So also 
Mfirk (2:26) refers to 1 Sam. 21:1-6, in 
the words, "in the days of Abiathar;" 
and Paul (K,om. 11 : 2) refers to 1 Kings 
eh. 17-19, in the words, "in Elias"— 
i.e., in the portion of the history regard- 
ing Elias. 

In general, the New Testament writers 
quote from the Septuagint {q.v.) version of 
the Old Testament, as it was then in com- 
mon use among the Jews. But it is notice- 
able that these quotations are not made in 
any uniform manner. Sometimes, e.g., the 
quotation does not agree literally either 



with the LXX. or the Hebrew text. This 
occurs in about one hundred instances. 
Sometimes the LXX. is literally quoted 
(in about ninety instances), and sometimes 
it is corrected or altered in the quotations 
(in over eighty instances). 

Quotations are sometimes made also 
directly from the Hebrew text (Matt. 4 : 
15, 16 ; John 19 : 37 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 54). 

Besides the quotations made directly, 
there are found numberless allusions, more 
or less distinct, showing that the minds 
of the New Testament writers were filled 
with the expressions and ideas as well as 
historical facts recorded in the Old. 

This whole subject is beset with diffi- 
culties. The precise relation of the New 
Testament quotations to the LXX. and 
the Hebrew text has given rise to much 
discussion. 

Besides quotations in the New from the 
Old Testament, there are in Paul's writings 
three quotations from certain Greek poets — 
Acts 17:28; 1 Cor. 15:33; Titus 1:12. 
These quotations are memorials of his early 
classical education. 



R 



Ra'amali — thunder. (1.) One of the 
sons of Cush (Gen. 10 : 7). 

(2.) A country which traded with Tyre 
(Ezek. 27 : 22). 

Raami^ah — thunder of the Lord — one of 
the princes who returned from the Exile 
(Neh. 7:7); called also Reelaiah (Ezra 
2:2). 

Raam^ses (Ex. 1 : 11). (See Rameses.) 

Rab'bah or Rab'bath — great. (1.) 
"Rabbath of the children of Ammon," 
the chief city of the Ammonites, among 
the eastern hills, some 20 miles east of 
the Jordan, on the southern of the two 
streams which united with the Jabbok. 
Here the bedstead of Og was preserved 
(Deut. 3 : 11), perhaps as a trophy of some 
victory gained by the Ammonites over the 
king of Bashan. After David had sub- 
dued all their allies in a great war, he sent 



Joab with a strong force to take their city. 
For two years it held out against its as- 
sailants. It was while his army was en- 
gaged in this protracted siege that David 
was guilty of that deed of shame which 
left a blot on his character and cast a 
gloom over the rest of his life. At length, 
having taken the "royal city" (or the 
"city of waters," 2 Sam. 12:27 — i.e., the 
lower city on the river, as distinguished 
from the citadel), Joab sent for David to 
direct the final assault (11 : 1 ; 12 : 26-31). 
The city was given up to plunder, and the 
people were ruthlessly put to death, and 
" thus did he with all the cities of the chil- 
dren of Ammon." The destruction of Rab- 
bath was the last of David's conquests. 
His kingdom now reached its farthest 
limits (2 Sam. 8 : 1-15 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 1-15). 
The capture of this city is referred to by 



RABBI 



571 



RAHAB 



Amos (1 : 14), Jeremiah (49 : 2, 3), and 
Ezekiel (21 : 20 ; 25 : 5). 

(2. ) A city in the hill country of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 60), possibly the ruin Ruhba, 
six miles north-east of Beit- Jibrin. 

Rab^bi — my master — a title of dignity 
given by the Jews to their doctors of the 
law and their distinguished teachers. It 
is sometimes applied to Christ (Matt. 23 : 
7, 8 ; Mark 9 : 5 (R.V.) ; John 1 : 38, 49 ; 
3:2; 6 : 25, etc. ) ; also to John (3 : 26). 

Rabbo^ni {id.) occurs only twice in the 
New Testament (Mark 10:51 — A. V., 
"Lord," R.V., "Rabboni;" John 20: 
16). It was the most honourable of all 
the titles. 

Rab^mag — chief of the priests, chief of the 
'princes or cup-hearers ( Jer. 39 : 3, 13) — an 
Assyrian word ; the title of one of Senna- 
cherib's officers sent with messages to 
Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem (2 
Kings 18 : 17-19 : 13 ; Isa. 36 : 12-37 : 13) de- 
manding the surrender of the city. He was 
accompanied by a "great army;" but his 
mission w^as unsuccessful. 

Rab^saris — chief eunuch — one of the 
three officers whom Sennacherib sent from 
Lachish with a threatening message to 
Jerusalem (2 Kings 18 : 17 ; Jer. 39 : 3, 13). 

Rab^shakeh (Assyr. Bab-saki), the 
name given to the chief cup-bearer or the 
\T.zier of the Assyrian court ; one of Sen- 
nacherib's messengers to Hezekiah. See 
the speech he delivered, in the Hebrew 
language, in the hearing of all the people, 
as he stood near the wall on the north side 
of the city (2 Kings 18 : 17-37). He and 
the other envoys returned to their master 
and reported that Hezekiah and his people 
were obdurate, and would not submit. 

Ra''ca — vain, empty, worthless — only 
found in Matt. 5 : 22. The Jews used it 
as a word of contempt. It is derived from 
a root meaning " to spit." 

Ra''chab=Rahab, a name found in the 
genealogy of our Lord (Matt. 1 : 5). 

Rsi^chal— traffic — a town in the tribe of 
Judah, to which David sent presents from 
the spoils of his enemies (1 Sam. 30 : 29). 

Ra'chel — ewe, "the daughter" — "the 
somewhat petulant, peevish, and self-willed 
though beautiful younger daughter" of 



Laban, and one of Jacob's wives (Gen. 29 : 
6, 28). He served Laban fourteen years 
for her, so deep was Jacob's affection for 
her. She was the mother of Joseph (Gen. 
30:22-24). Afterwards, on Jacob's de- 
parture from Mesopotamia, she took with 
her her father's teraphim (31 : 34, 35). As 
they journeyed on from Bethel, Rachel 
died in giving birth to Benjamin (35 : 18, 
19), and was buried "in the way to Eph- 
rath, which is Bethlehem. And Jacob set 
up a pillar upon her grave." Her sepvJ- 
chre is still regarded with great venera- 
tion by the Jews. Its traditional site is 
about half a mile from Jerusalem. 

This name is used poetically by Jere- 
miah (31 : 15-17) to denote God's people 
mourning under their calamities. This 
IDassage is also quoted by Matthew as ful- 
filled in the lamentation at Bethlehem on 
account of the slaughter of the infants 
there at the command of Herod (Matt. 2 : 
17, 18). 

Kagvi'el— friend of God— (Num. 10 : 29)== 
Reuel(g.f.) — Ex. 2:18— the father-in-law 
of Moses, and probably identical with 
Jethro {q.v.). 

Ra''hab — insolence; pride — a poetical 
name applied to Egypt in Ps. 87:4; 89: 
10 ; Isa. 51 : 9, as "the proud one." 

Ra^hab (Heb. RdMh ; i.e., "broad," 
"large"). "When the Hebrews were en- 
camped at Shittim, in the " Arabah " or 
Jordan valley opposite Jericho, ready to 
cross the river, Joshua, as a final pre- 
paration, sent out two spies to "spy the 
land." After five days they returned, 
having swum across the river, which at 
this season — the month Abib — overflowed 
its banks from the melting of the snow on 
Lebanon. The spies reported how it had 
fared with them (Josh. 2 : 1-7). They had 
been exposed to danger in Jericho, and 
had been saved by the fidelity of Rahab 
the harlot, to whose house they had gone 
for protection. When the city of Jericho 
fell (6:17-25), Rahab and her whole 
family were preserved according to the 
promise of the spies, and were incorpor- 
ated among the Jewish people. She after- 
wards became the wife of Salmon, a prince 
of the tribe of Judah (Ruth 4 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 



RAHAM 



672 



RAMA 



2 : 11 ; Matt. 1 : 5). " Rahab's being asked 
to bring out the spies to the soldiers (Josh. 
2 : 3) sent for^theni, is in strict keeping with 
Eastern manners, which would not permit 
any man to enter a woman's house without 
her permission. The fact of her covering 
the spies with bundles of flax which lay on 
her house-roof (2 : 6) is an ' undesigned co- 
mcidence ' which strictly corroborates the 
narrative. It was the time of the barley 
harvest, and flax and barley are ripe at the 
same time in the Jordan valley, so that the 
bundles of flax stalks might have been 
expected to be drying just then " (Geikie's 
Hours, etc., ii,, 390). 

Ra''ham — merciful — one of the descend- 
ants of Caleb,- the son of Hezron (1 Chr. 
2:44). 

Rain. There are three Hebrew words 
used to denote the rains of different sea- 
sons — (1.) Yoreh (Hos. 6 : 3), or moreh (Joel 
2 : 23), denoting the former or the early rain. 
(2. ) Melqosh, the ' ' latter rain " (Pro v. 16 : 15). 
(3.) Geshem, the winter rain, "the rains." 
The heavy winter rain is mentioned in 
Gen. 7 : 12 ; Ezra 10 : 9 ; Cant. 2 : 11. The 
"early" or "former" rains commence in 
autumn in the latter part of October or be- 
ginning of November (Deut, 11 : 14 ; Joel 
2 : 23 ; comp. Jer. 3 : 3), and continue to 
fall heavily for two months. Then the 
heavy "winter rains " fall from the middle 
of December to March. There is no pro- 
longed fair weather in Palestine between 
October and March. The "latter" or 
spring rains fall in March and April, and 
serve to swell the grain then coming to 
maturity (Deut. 11 : 14 ; Hos. 6 : 3). After 
this there is ordinarily no rain, the sky 
being bright and cloudless till October or 
November. 

Rain is referred to symbolically in Deut. 
32 : 2 ; Ps. 72 : 6 ; Isa. 44 : 3, 4; Hos. 10:12. 

Rain^bow, caused by the reflection and 
refraction of the rays of the sun shining on 
falling rain. It was appointed as a witness 
of the divine faithfulness (Gen. 9 : 12-17). 
It existed indeed before, but it was then 
constituted as a sign of the covenant. 
Others, however (as Delitzsch, Commentary 
on Pentateuch), think that it "appeared 
then for the first time in the vault and 



clouds of heaven. " It is argued by those 
holding this opinion that the atmosphere 
was differently constituted before the 
Elood. It is referred to three other times 
in Scripture (Ezek. 1 : 27, 28 ; Rev. 4:1-3; 
10 : 1). 

Rai^sins, dried grapes; mentioned 1 
Sam. 25 : 18 ; 30 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 
12 : 40. 

Rak''kath — shore-town — a "fenced city" 
of the tribe of Naphtali (Josh. 19:35). 
The old name of Tiberias, according to the 
Rabbins. 

Rak'kon — a place upon the shore — a 
town belonging to Dan (Josh. 19 : 46). It 
is now Tell er-Rakkeit, 6 miles north of 
Joppa, on the sea-shore, near the mouth 
of the river 'Aujeh — i.e., "yellow water." 
(See Kanah.) 

Ram — exalted. (1.) The son of Hezron, 
and one of the ancestors of the royal line 
(Ruth 4 : 19). The margin of 1 Chr. 2 : 9, 
also Matt. 1 : 3, 4 and Luke 3:33, have 
"Aram." 

(2. ) One of the sons of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 
2 : 25, 27). 

(3.) A person mentioned in Job 32 : 2 as 
founder of a clan to which Elihu belonged. 
The same as Aram of Gen. 22 : 21. 

Ra'ma (Matt. 2 : 18), the Greek form of 
Ra^mah. (1.) A city first mentioned in 
Josh. 18 : 25, near Gibeah of Benjamin, 
It was fortified by Baasha, king of Israel 
(1 Kings 15 : 17-22 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 1-6). Asa, 
king of Judah, employed Benhadad the 
Syrian king to drive Baasha from this city 
(1 Kings 15 : 18, 20). Isaiah (10 : 29) refers 
to it, and also Jeremiah, who was once a 
prisoner there among the other captives of 
Jerusalem when it was taken by Nebu- 
chadnezzar (Jer. 39 : 8-12 ; 40 : 1). Rachel, 
whose tomb lies close to Bethlehem, is re- 
presented as weeping in Ramah (Jer. 31 : 
15) for her slaughtered children. This 
prophecy is illustrated and fulfilled in the 
re -awakening of Rachel's grief at the 
slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem 
(Matt. 2:18). It is identified with the 
modern village of cr-Rdm, between Gibeon 
and Beeroth, about 5 miles due north of 
Jerusalem. (See Samuel.) 

(2. ) A town identified with Rdmeh, on the 



RAMATHAIM 



573 



RAMOTH 



border of Asher, about 13 miles south-east 
of Tyre, "on a solitary hill in the midst of 
a basin of green fields " (Josh. 19 : 29). 

(3.) One of the " fenced cities" of Naph- 
tali (Josh. 19 : 36), on a mountain slope, 
about seven and a half miles west-south- 
west of Safed, and 15 miles west of the 
north end of the Sea of Galilee, the present 
large and well-built village of Rdvieh. 

(4.) The same as Ramathaim-zophim 
{q. V. ), a town of Mount Ephraim (1 Sam. 
1:1,19). 

(5.) The same as Ramoth-gilead {q.v.) — 
2 Kings 8 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 22 : 6. 

Ramatha^im-zo^phim — the tioo heights 
of the Zophites or of the watchers (only in 1 
Sam. 1 : 1)—" in the land of Zuph " (9 : 5). 
Ramathaim is another name for Ramah (4), 

One of the Levitical families descended 
from Kohath, that of Zuph or Zophai (1 
Chr. 6 : 26, 35), had a district assigned to 
them in Ephraim, which from this circum- 
stance was called "the land of Zuph," and 
hence the name of the town, "Zophim." 
It was the birth-place of Samuel and the 
seat of his authority (1 Sam. 2 : 11 ; 7 : 17). 
It is frequently mentioned in the history 
of that prophet and of David (15 : 34 ; 16 : 
13 ; 19 : 18-23). Here Samuel died and was 
buried (25 : 1). 

This town has been identified with the 
modern Neby Samwil ( " the prophet 
Samuel"), about 4 or 5 miles north-west 
of Jerusalem. But there is no certainty 
as to its precise locality. Some have sup- 
posed that it may be identical with Arima- 
thea of the New Testament. (See Mizpah.) 

Ra^math-le'hi — elevation of Lehi, or the 
jawbone height; i.e., the Ramah of Lehi 
(Judg. 15:15-17). The phrase "in the 
jaw," ver. 19, Authorized Version, is in 
the margin, also in the Revised Version, 
" in Lehi." Here Samson slew a thousand 
Philistines with a jawbone. 

Ra'math-miz'peh — the height of Mizpeh 
or of the xoatch-toioer (Josh. 13 : 26) — a place 
mentioned as one of the limits of Gad. 
There were two Mizpehs on the east of 
the Jordan. This was the Mizpeh where 
Jacob and Laban made a covenant, "Miz- 
peh of Gilead," called also Galeed and 
Jegar-sahadutha. It has been identified 



with the modern es-Salt, where the roads 
from Jericho and from Shechem to Damas- 
cus unite, about 25 miles east of the Jordan 
and 13 south of the Jabbok. 

Ra^math of the south (Heb. Ramath- 
negeb). The Heb. negeh is the general de- 
signation for the south or south-west of 
Judah. This was one of the towns of 
Simeon (Josh. 19 : 8). It is the same as 
"south Ramoth" (1 Sam. 30:27; R.V., 
" Ramoth of the south "). Its site is 
doubtful. Some have thought it another 
name for Baalath-beer. 

Ra^mathite, the designation given to 
Shimei, the manager of David's vineyard 
(1 Chr. 27 : 27). 

Rame^ses, " the land of " (Gen. 47 : 11), 
was probably "the land of Goshen" {q.v.) 
—45 : 10. After the Hebrews had built 
Rameses, one of the "treasure cities," it 
came to be known as the "land" in which 
that city was built. 

The city beaxing this name (Ex. 12 : 37) 
was probably identical with Zoan, which 
Rameses II. almost wholly rebuilt. It 
became his special residence, and ranked 
next in import- 
ance and magnifi- 
cence to Thebes. 
Huge masses of 
bricks, made of 
Nile mud, sun- 
dried, some of 
them mixed with 
stubble, possibly 
moulded by Jew- 
ish hands, still 
mark the site of 
Rameses. This 
was the general 
rendezvous of the 
Israelites before 
they began their 
march out of E- 
gypt. Called also 
Raamses (Ex. 1 : 

Ra'moth — heights. A Levitical city in 
the tribe of Issachar (1 Sam. 30:27; 1 Chr. 
6 : 73), the same as Jarmuth (Josh. 21 : 29) 
and Remeth {q.v.)—l^ : 21. 

lia^xaoth-giV ead— heights of Gilead — a 




BRICK OF SUN - DRIED 
CLAy AND STRAW, -WITH 
CARTOUCHE OV RAMESES II. 



RANGES 



574 



REBEKAH 



city of refuge on the east of Jordan ; called 
"Eamoth in Gilead " (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 
20:8; 21:38). Here Ahab, who joined 
Jehoshaphat in an endeavour to rescue it 
from the hands of the king of Syria, was 
mortally wounded (1 Kings 22 : 1-36). A 
similar attempt was afterwards made by 
Ahaziah and Joram, when the latter was 
wounded (2 Kings 8 : 28). In this city 
Jehu, the son of Jehoshaphat, was anointed 
by one of the sons of the prophets (9 : 1, 4). 
It has with probability been identified 
with Beimun, on the northern slope of the 
Jabbok, about 5 miles west of Jerash or 
Gerasa, one of the cities of Decapolis. 
Others identify it with Gerosh, about 25 
miles north-east of es-Salt, with which 
also many have identified it. (See Ramath- 

MlZPEH.) 

Ran^ges. (1.) Lev. 11:35. Probably a 
cooking furnace for two or more pots, as 
the Hebrew word here is in the dual num- 
ber; or perhaps a fire-place fitted to re- 
ceive a pair of ovens. 

(2.) 2 Kings 11:8. A Hebrew word is 
here used different from the preceding, 
meaning "ranks of soldiers." The Levites 
were appointed to guard the king's person 
within the temple (2 Chr. 23 : 7), while the 
soldiers were his guard in the court, and in 
going from the temple to the palace. The 
soldiers are here commanded to slay any 
one who should break through the "ranks " 
(as rendered in the R.V.) to come near the 
king. In 2 Kings 11 : 15 the expression, 
" Have her forth without the ranges," is in 
the Revised Version, ' ' Have her forth be- 
tween the ranks ; " i.e., Jehoiada orders that 
Athaliah should be kept surrounded by 
his own guards, and at the same time con- 
veyed beyond the precincts of the temple. 

Ran^som, the price or payment made for 
our redemption, as when it is said that the 
Son of man "gave his life a ransom for 
many " (Matt. 20 : 28 ; comp. Acts 20 : 28 
Rom. 3 : 23, 24 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 19, 20 ; Gal. 3 : 13 
4:4, 5: Eph. 1:7; Col. 1:14; 1 Tim. 2 
6; Titus 2: 14; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19. In all 
these passages the same idea is expressed). 
This word is derived from the Er. rangon ; 
Lat. redemptio. The debt is represented 
not as cancelled but as fully paid. The 



slave or captive is not liberated by a mere 
gratuitous favour, but a ransom price has 
been paid, in consideration of which he is 
set free. The original owner receives back 
his alienated and lost possession because 
he has bought it back "with a price." 
This price or ransom (Gr. lutron) is always 
said to be Christ, his blood, his death. 
He secures our redemption by the pay- 
ment of a ransom. (See Redemption.) 

Ra^pha — tall. (1.) A Benjamite, the 
son of Binea (1 Chr. 8 : 2, 37), a descendant 
of Saul. 

(2.) Margin of 1 Chr. 20:4, 6, where 
"giant " is given in the text. 

Ra'^phu — healed — a Benjamite, whose 
son Palti was one of the twelve spies 
(Num. 13 : 9). 

Ra^'ven. Heb. ^orehli, from a root mean- 
ing "to be black" (comp. Cant. 5:11); 
first mentioned as "sent forth" by Noah 
from the ark (Gen. 8:7). "Every raven 
after his kind" was forbidden as food 
(Lev. 11:15; Deut. 14:14), Ravens feed 
mostly on carrion, and hence their food is 
procured with difficulty (Job 38 : 41 ; Ps. 
147 : 9). When they attack kids or lambs or 
Aveak animals, it is said that they first pick 
out the eyes of their victims (Prov. 30 : 17). 
When Elijah was concealed by the brook 
Cherith, God commanded the ravens to 
bring him "bread and flesh in the morn- 
ing, and bread and flesh in the evening " 
(1 Kings 17 : 3-6). (See Elijah. ) 

There are eight species of ravens in 
Palestine, and they are everywhere very 
numerous in that land. 

Ra^zor. The Nazarites were forbidden 
to make use of the razor (Num. 6:5; Judg. 
13 : 5). At their consecration the Levites 
were shaved all over with a razor (Num. 
8:7; comp. Ps. 52 : 2; Ezek. 5 : 1). 

"Re'losk— fourth — one of the Midianite 
chiefs slain by the Israelites in the wilder- 
ness (Num. 31 : 8; Josh. 13 : 21). 

Rebek'ah — the enchainer — the daughter 
of Bethuel, and the wife of Isaac (Gen. 
22 : 23 ; 24 : 67). The circumstances under 
which Abraham's "steward" found her at 
the "city of Nahor,"in Padan-aram, are 
narrated in Gen. 24-27. "She can hardly 
be regarded as an amiable woman. When 



RECHAB 



575 



RED 



we first see her she is ready to leave her 
father's house for ever at an hour's notice ; 
and her future life showed not only a full 
share of her brother Laban's duplicity, but 
the grave fault of partiality in her relations 
to her children, and a strong will, which 
soon controlled the gentler nature of her 
husband." The time and circumstances of 
her death are not recorded, but it is said 
that she was buried in the cave of Mach- 
pelah (Gen. 49 : 31). 

Re^chab — horseman, or chariot. (1.) 
One of Ishbosheth's "captains of bands" 
or leaders of predatory troops (2 Sam. 4 : 2). 

(2.) The father of Jehonadab, who Avas 
the father of the Rechabites (2 Kings 10 : 
15, 23; Jer. 35:6-19). 

Re^chabites, the descendants of Rechab 
through Jonadab or Jehonadab, They be- 
longed to the Kenites, who accompanied 
the children of Israel into Palestine, and 
dwelt among them. Moses married a 
Kenite wife ( Judg. 1 : 16), and Jael was the 
wife of " Heber the Kenite " (4 : 17). Saul 
also showed kindness to the Kenites (1 
Sam. 15 : 6). The main body of the Ken- 
ites dwelt in cities, and adopted settled 
habits of life (30 : 29) ; but Jehonadab for- 
bade his descendants to drink wine or to 
live in cities. They were commanded to 
lead always a nomad life. They adhered 
to the law laid down by Jonadab, and 
were noted for their fidelity to the old- 
established custom of their family in the 
days of Jeremiah (35) ; and this feature of 
their character is referred to by the prophet 
for the purpose of giving point to his own 
exhortation. They are referred to in Neh. 
3 : 14 and 1 Chr. 2 : 55. Dr. Wolff (1839) 
found in Arabia, near Mecca, a tribe claim- 
ing to be descendants of Jehonadab; and 
recently a Bedouin tribe has been found 
near the Dead Sea who also profess to be 
descendants of the same Kenite chief. 

Reconcilia''tion, a change from enmity 
to friendship. It is mutual — i.e., it is a 
change wrought in both parties who have 
been at enmity. 

(1.) In Col. 1 : 21, 22, the word there used 
refers to a change wrought in the personal 
character of the sinner who ceases to be 
an enemy to God by wicked works, and 



yields up to him his full confidence and 
love. In 2 Cor. 5 : 20 the apostle beseeches 
the Corinthians to be "reconciled to God " 
— i.e., to lay aside their enmity. 

(2. ) Rom. 5 : 10 refers not to any change 
in our disposition toward God, but to God 
himself, as the party reconciled. Romans 
5 : 11 teaches the same truth. From God 
we have received "the reconciliation" 
(R.V.) — i.e., he has conferred on us the 
token of his friendship. So also 2 Cor. 5 : 
18, 19 speaks of a reconciliation origin- 
ating with God, and consisting in the re- 
moval of his merited wrath. In Eph, 2 : 
16 it is clear that the apostle does not refer 
to the winning back of the sinner in love 
and loyalty to God, but to the restoration 
of God's forfeited favour. This is effected 
by his justice being satisfied, so that he can, 
in consistency with his own nature, be 
favourable toward sinners. Justice de- 
mands the punishment of sinners. The 
death of Christ satisfies justice, and so 
reconciles God to us. This reconciliation 
makes God our friend, and enables him to 
pardon and save us. (See Atonement.) 

Record'er (Heb. mazkir — i.e., "the 
mentioner," "remembrancer"), the office 
first held by Jehoshaphat in the court of 
David (2 Sam. 8 : 16), also in the court of 
Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 3). The next recorder 
mentioned is Joah, in the reign of Heze- 
kiah (2 Kings 18 : 18, 37 ; Isa. 36 : 11, 22). 
In the reign of Josiah another of the name 
of Joah filled this office (2 Chr. 34:8). 
The "recorder" was the chancellor or 
vizier of the kingdom. He brought all 
weighty matters under the notice of the 
king, "such as complaints, petitions, and 
wishes of subjects or foreigners. He also 
drew up papers for the king's guidance, 
and prepared drafts of the royal will for 
the scribes. All treaties came under his 
oversight ; and he had the care of the 
national archives or records, to which, as 
royal historiographer, like the same state 
officer in Assyria and Egypt, he added the 
cvirrent annals of the kingdom." 

Red Sea. The sea so called extends 
along the west coast of Arabia for about 
1,400 miles, and separates Asia from 
Africa. It is connected with the Indian 



RED 



576 



REDEMPTION 



Ocean, of which it is an arm, by the Strait 
of Bab-el-Mandeb. At a point (Ras Mo- 
hammed) about 200 miles from its northern 
extremity it is divided into two arms — 
that on the east called the ^lanitic Gulf, 
now the Bahr el-'Akabah, about 100 miles 
long by 15 broad, and that on the west the 
Gulf of Suez, about 150 miles long by about 
20 broad. This branch is now connected 
with the Mediterranean by the Suez Canal. 
Between these two arms lies the Sinaitic 
Peninsula. 

The Hebrew name generally given to this 
sea is Yam SUph. This word sUph means 
a woolly kind of sea-weed, which the sea 
casts up in great abundance on its shores. 
In these passages, Ex. 10 : 19 ; 13 : 18 ; 15 : 
4, 22; 23:31; Num. 14:25, etc., the He- 
brew name is always translated "Red 
Sea," which was the name given to it by 
the Greeks. The origin of this name (Red 
Sea) is vmcertain. Some think it is de- 
rived from the red colour of the mountains 
on the western shore ; others from the red 
coral found in the sea, or the red appear- 
ance sometimes given to the water by cer- 
tain zoophytes floating in it. In the New 
Testament (Acts 7:36; Heb. 11:29) this 
name is given to the Gulf of Suez. 

This sea was also called by the Hebrews 
Yam-mitsraim, i.e., "the Egyptian sea" 
(Isa. 11:15), and simply Ha-yam, "the 
sea" (Ex. 14:2, 9, 16, 21, 28; Josh. 24: 
6, 7; Isa. 10:26, etc.). 

The great historical event connected 
with the Red Sea is the passage of the 
children of Israel, and the overthrow of the 
Egyptians, to which there is frequent re- 
ference in Scripture (Ex. 14-16; Num. 33: 
8 ; Deut. 11 : 4 ; Josh. 2 : 10 ; Judg. 11 : 16 ; 
2 Sam. 22:16; Neh. 9:9-11; Ps. 66:6; 
Isa. 10 : 26; Acts 7 : 36, etc.). 

Red Sea, Passage of. The account of 
the march of the Israelites through the 
Red Sea is given in Ex. 14 : 22-31. There 
has been great diversity of opinion as to the 
precise place where this occurred. The diffi- 
culty of arriving at any definite conclusion 
on the matter is much increased by the 
consideration that the head of the Gulf of 
Suez, which was the branch of the sea 
that was crossed, must have extended at 



the time of the Exodus probably 50 miles 
farther north than it does at present. 
Some have argued that the crossing took 
place opposite the WMy Taw^rik, where 
the sea is at present some 7 miles broad. 
But the opinion that seems to be best sup- 
ported is that which points to the neigh- 
bourhood of Suez. This position perfectly 
satisfies all the conditions of the stupendous 
miracle as recorded in the sacred narrative. 
(See Exodus.) 

Redeem'^er — Heb. goel; i.e., one charged 
with the duty of restoring the rights of 
another and avenging his wrongs (Lev. 25 : 
48, 49; Num. 5:8; Ruth 4 : 1; Job 19 : 25; 
Ps. 19:14; 78:35, etc.). This title is pe- 
culiarly applied to Christ. He redeems us 
from all evil by the payment of a ransom 
[q.v.). (See Redemption.) 

Redemp^tion, the purchase back of 
something that had been lost, by the pay- 
ment of a ransom. The Greek word so 
rendered is apolutrosis, a word occurring 
nine times in Scripture, and always with 
the idea of a ransom or price paid — i.e., 
redemption by a lutron (see Matt. 20 : 28 ; 
Mark 10 : 45). There are instances in the 
LXX. Version of the Old Testament of 
the use of lutron in man's relation to man 
(Lev. 19 : 20; 25 : 51 ; Ex. 21 : 30; Num. 35 : 
31, 32; Isa. 45:13; Prov. 6:35), and in 
the same sense of man's relation to God 
(Num. 3:49; 18:15). 

There are many passages in the Ncav 
Testament which represent Christ's suffer- 
ings under the idea of a ransom or price, 
and the result thereby secured is a pur- 
chase or redemption (comp. Acts 20 : 28 ; 1 
Cor. 6 : 19, 20; Gal. 3 : 13; 4 : 4, 5; Eph. 1 : 
7; Col. 1:14; 1 Tim. 2:5, 6; Titus 2:14; 
Heb. 9:12; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19; Rev. 5:9). 
The idea running through all these texts, 
however various their reference, is that of 
payment made for our redemption. The 
debt against us is not viewed as simply 
cancelled, but is fully paid. Christ's blood 
or life, which he surrendered for them, is 
the "ransom" by which the deliverance 
of his people from the servitude of sin and 
from its penal consequences is secured. It 
is the plain doctrine of Scripture that 
"Christ saves us neither by the mere 



REED 



577 



REGENERATION 



exercise of power, nor by his doctrine, nor 
by his example, nor by the moral influence 
which he exerted, nor by any subjective 
influence on his people, whether natural 
or mystical, but as a satisfaction to divine 
justice, as an expiation for sin, and as a 
ransom frona the curse and authority of 
the law, thus reconciling us to God by 
making it consistent with his perfection to 
exercise mercy toward sinners " (Hodge's 
Systematic Theology). 

Reed. (1.) "Paper reeds" (Isa. 19:7; 
R.V., "reeds"). Heb. ''aroih, properly 
green herbage growing in marshy places. 

(2.) Heb. kdneh (1 Kings 14:15; Job 
40 : 21 ; Isa. 19 : 6), whence the Gr. Icanna, 
a "cane," a generic name for a reed of any 
kind. 

The reed of Egypt and Palestine is the 
Arundo donax, which grows to the height 
of 12 feet, its stalk jointed like the bam- 
boo, "with a magnificent panicle of blos- 
som at the top, and so slender and yielding 
that it will lie perfectly flat tinder a gust 
of wind, and immediately resume its up- 
right position." It is used to illustrate 
weakness (2 Kings 18:21; Ezek. 19:6), 
also fickleness or instability (Matt. 11:7; 
comp. Eph. 4 : 14). 

A " bruised reed " (Isa. 42 : 3 ; Matt. 12 : 
20) is an emblem of a believer weak in grace. 
A reed was put into our Lord's hands in 
derision (Matt. 27:29); and "they took 
the reed and smote him on the head " (30). 
The "reed " on which they put the sponge 
■filled with vinegar (Matt. 27 : 48) was, ac- 
cording to John (19 : 29), a hyssop stalk, 
which must have been of some length, or 
perhaps a bunch of hyssop twigs fastened 
to a rod with the sponge. (See Cane.) 

Refin^er. The process of refining metals 
is referred to by way of illustration in Isa. 
1:25; Jer. 6:29; Zech. 13:9; Mai. 3:2, 3. 

Re^fuge, Cities of, were six in number 
(Num. 35). 1. On the west of Jordan were 
— (1) Kadesh, in Naphtali; (2) Shechem, in 
Mount Ephraim; (3) Hebron, in Judah. 
2. On the east of Jordan were — (1) Golan, 
in Bashan ; (2) Ramoth-Gilead, in Gad ; 
and (3) Bezer, in Reuben. (See under each 
of these names.) 

Rc'gein-inel'eoh— /rime? of the king — 



one of the two messengers sent by the 
exiled Jews to Jerusalem in the time of 
Darius (Zech. 7:2) to make inquiries at 
the temple. 

Regenera''tion, only found in Matt. 19 : 
28 and Titus 3:5. This word hterally 
means a "new birth." The Greek word 
so rendered {palingenesia) is used by class- 
ical writers with reference to the changes 
produced by the return of spring. In 
Matt. 19 : 28 the word is equivalent to the 
"restitution of all things" (Acts 3:21). 
In Titus 3 : 5 it denotes that change of 
heart elsewhere spoken of as a passing 
from death to life (1 John 3 : 14) ; becoming 
a new creature in Christ Jesus (2 Cor. 5 : 
17) ; being born again (John 3:5); a re- 
newal of the mind (Rom. 12 : 2) ; a resur- 
rection from the dead (Eph. 2:6); a being 
quickened (2 : 1, 5). 

This change is ascribed to the Holy Spirit. 
It originates not with man but with God 
(John 1 : 12, 13; 1 John 2 : 29; 5 : 1, 4). 

As to the nature of the change, it con- 
sists in the implanting of a new principle 
or disposition in the soul. When God 
created Adam, the disposition of his heart 
was created holy. Regeneration is the 
recreating of the governing disposition ; 
the impartation of spiritual life to those 
who are by nature "dead in trespasses and 
sins. " 

The necessity of such a change is em- 
phatically affirmed in Scripture (John 3 : 
3 ; Rom. 7 : 18; 8 : 7-9; 1 Cor. 2 : 14; Eph. 
2:1; 4:21-24). 

It is distinguished from conversion, as 
the implantation of the gracious principle 
is different from its exercise. The former, 
regeneration, is the act of God ; the latter, 
conversion, is the consequent act of man in 
his turning under the guidance of this new 
principle from sin to God through Jesus 
Christ. Conversion is the beginning of a 
h.o\y living. The first and instant act of 
the regenerated man is faith in the person 
and work of Christ, and hence there is a 
change of relation to God, in that the be- 
liever is instantly justified. Sanctification 
is the progressive growth of the new spirit- 
ual life in the heart implanted in regenera- 
tion. 



EEHABIAH 



578 



REHOBOTH 



Rehabi''ah — enlargement of the Lord — 
the son of Eliezer, and grandson of Moses 
(IChr. 23:17; 24:21). 

"R&'lioh— street; broad place. (1.) The 
father of Hadadezer, king of Tobah (2 
Sam. 8 : 3, 12). 

(2.) Neh. 10:11. 

(3.) The same, probably, as Beth-rehob 
(2 Sam. 10:6,8; Jiidg. 18:28), a place in 
the north of Palestine (Num. 13 : 21). It is 
now supposed to be represented by the 
castle of HUnin, south-west of Dan, on the 
road from Hamath into Ccele-Syria. 

(4.) A town of Asher (Josh. 19:28), to 
the east of Zidon. 

(5. ) Another town of Asher (Josh. 19 : 
30), kept possession of by the Canaanites 
( Judg. 1 : 31). 

Rehobo^am — he enlarges the people — the 
successor of Solomon on the throne, and 
apparently his only son. He was the son 
of Naamah ^Hhe Ammonitess," some well- 
known Ammonitish princess (1 Kings 14 : 
21 ; 2 Chr. 12 : 13). He was forty-one years 
old when he ascended the throne, and he 
reigned seventeen years (b.c. 975-958). 
Although he was acknowledged at once as 
the rightful heir to the throne, yet there was 
a strongly felt desire to modify the char- 
acter of the government. The burden of 
taxation to which they had been subjected 
during Solomon's reign was very oppressive, 
and therefore the people assembled at 
Shechem and demanded from the king an 
alleviation of their burdens. He went to 
meet them at Shechem, and heard their 
demands for relief (1 Kings 12 : 4). After 
three days, having consulted with a younger 
generation of courtiers that had grown up 
around him, instead of following the ad- 
vice of the elders, he answered the people 
haughtily (9-11). "The king hearkened 
not ixnto the people; for the cause was 
from the Lord " (comp. 11 : 31). This 
brought matters speedily to a crisis. The 
terrible cry was heard (comp. 2 Sam. 20 : 1): 
" What portion have we in David ? 

Neither have we inheritance in the son 
of Jesse : 

To your tents, O Israel : 

Now see to thine own house, David " 
(1 Kings 12 : 16). 



And now at once the kingdom was rent in 
twain. Rehoboam was appalled, and tried 
concessions, but it was too late (18). The 
tribe of Judah, Rehoboam's own tribe, 
alone remained faithful to him. Benjamin 
was reckoned along with Judah, and these 
two tribes formed the southern kingdom, 
with Jerusalem as its capital ; while the 
northern ten tribes formed themselves into 
a separate kingdom, choosing Jeroboam as 
their king. Rehoboam tried to win back 
the revolted ten tribes by making war 
against them, but he was forbidden by the 
prophet Shemaiah (24; 2 Chr. 11:1-4) 
from carrying out his purpose. (See Jero- 
boam.) 

In the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign, 
Shishak [q.v.), one of the kings of Egypt 
of the Assyrian dynasty, stirred up no 
doubt by Jeroboam his son-in-law, made 
war against him. Jerusalem submitted to 
the invader, who plundered the temple and 
virtually reduced the kingdom to the posi- 
tion of a vassal of Egypt (1 Kings 14 : 25, 26 ; 
2 Chr. 12 : 8). A remarkable memorial of 
this invasion has been discovered at Kar- 
nac, in Upper Egypt, in certain sculptures 
on the walls of a small temple there. These 
sculptures represent the king, Shishak, 
holding in his hand a train of prisoners 
and other figures, with the names of the 
captured towns of Judah — the towns Avhich 
Rehoboam had fortified (2 Chr. 11 : 5-12). 

The kingdom of Judah, under Reho- 
boam, sank more and more in moral and 
spiritual decay. "There was war between 
Rehoboam and Jeroboam all their days." 
At length, in the fifty-eighth year of his 
age, Rehoboam "slept with his fathers, and 
was buried with his fathers in the city of 
David " (1 Kings 14 : 31). He was succeeded 
by his son Abijah. (See Egypt.) 

Reho^both — hroad places. (1.) A well 
in Gerar dug by Isaac (Gen. 26 : 22), sup- 
posed to be in WSdy er-Ruheibeh, about 20 
miles south of Beersheba. 

(2.) An ancient city on the Euphrates 
(Gen. 36 : 37; 1 Chr. 1 : 48), " Rehoboth by 
the river." 

(3.) Named among the cities of Asshur 
(Gen. 10 : 11). Probably, however, the 
words "rehoboth'^ir" are to be translated 



REHUM 



579 



REPENTANCE 



as in the Vulgate and the margin of the 
Authorized Version, "the streets of the 
city" — i.e., of Nineveh. 

Re'hum — merciful. (1.) One of "the 
children of the province " who returned 
from the Captivity (Ezra 2:2); the same 
as "Nehum"(Neh. 7:7). 

(2.) The "chancellor" of Artaxerxes, who 
sought to stir him up against the Jews 
(Ezra 4 : 8-24) and prevent the rebuilding 
of the walls and the temple of Jerusalem. 

(3.) ALevite(Neh. 3:17). 

(4.) Neh. 10:25. 

(5.) A priest (Neh. 12:3). 

Re''i — friendly — one who maintained true 
allegiance to king David (1 Kings 1 : 8) when 
Adonijah rebelled. 

Reins, the kidneys, the supposed seat of 
the desires and affections ; used metaphori- 
cally for "heart." The "reins" and the 
"heart" are often mentioned together, as 
denoting the whole moral constitution of 
man (Ps. 7 : 9 ; 16 : 7 ; 26 : 2 ; 139 : 13 ; Jer. 
17:10, etc.). 

Re''kein — embroidered; variegated. (1.) 
One of the five Midianite kings whom the 
Israelites destroyed (Num. 31 : 8). 

(2.) One of the sons of Hebron (1 Chr. 
2 : 43, 44). 

(3.) A town of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 27). 

Remali^ah — adored of the Lord — the 
father of Pekah, who conspired siiccessfully 
against Pekahiah (2 Kings 15:25, 27, 30, 
32, 37; Isa. 7:1, 4, 5, 9; 8:6). 

Re^meth, another form of Ramah [q.v.) 
or Ramoth (1 Chr. 6:73; Josh. 19:21), 
and probably also of Jarmuth (Josh. 21 : 
29). 

Rem'mon-metho^ar (Josh. 19 : 13), ren- 
dered correctly in the Revised Version, 
" Remmon, which is stretched unto Neah," 
a landmark of Zebulun ; called also Rim- 
mon (1 Chr. 6 : 77). 

Rem'phan (Acts 7:43; R.V., "Re- 
phan "). In Amos 5 : 26 the Heb. Chiun 
{q.v.) is rendered by the LXX. "Rephan," 
and this name is adopted by Luke in his 
narrative of the Acts. These names repre- 
sent the star-god Saturn or Moloch. 

Rent (Isa. 3 : 24), probably a rope, as 
rendered in the LXX. and Vulgate and 
Revised Version, or as some prefer inter- 



preting the phrase, "girdle and robe are 
torn [i.e., are 'a rent'] by the hand of 
violence." 

Repent^ance. There are three Greek 
words used in the New Testament to 
denote repentance. (1.) The verb meta- 
melomai is used of a change of mind, such 
as to produce regret or even remorse on 
account of sin, but not necessarily a change 
of heart. This word is used with reference 
to the repentance of Judas (Matt. 27 : 3). 

(2. ) Metanoeo, meaning to change one's 
mind and purpose, as the result of after 
knowledge. This verb, with (3) the cognate 
noun metanoia, is used of true repentance — 
a change of mind and purpose and life, to 
which remission of sin is promised. 

Evangelical repentance consists of (1) a 
true sense of one's own guilt and sinfulness ; 
(2) an apprehension of God's mercy in 
Christ; (3) an actual hatred of sin (Ps. 
119 : 128 ; Job 42 : 5, 6 ; 2 Cor. 7 : 10) and 
turning from it to God ; and (4) a persistent 
endeavour after a holy life in a walking 
with God in the way of his commandments. 

It differs from conversion in these par- 
ticulars — (1.) Conversion is the more gen- 
eral term, including the first exercise of 
faith, as well as the various results which 
flow from it ; while repentance is the more 
specific term, denoting that turning from 
sin to God which accompanies faith. (2. ) 
Conversion further properly denotes only 
the first turning to God, the first actings 
of the new nature implanted in regenera- 
tion; while repentance is that constant 
hatred of sin and turning from it which 
characterizes the whole Christian life 
(Ps. 19 : 12, 13 ; Luke 9 : 23 ; Gal. 6 : 14). 

The true penitent is conscious of guilt 
(Ps. 51 : 4, 9), of pollution (51 : 5, 7, 10), 
and of helplessness (51:11; 109:21, 22). 
Thus he apprehends himself to be just 
what God has always seen him to be and 
declares him to be. But repentance com- 
prehends not only such a sense of sin, but 
also an apprehension of mercy, without 
which there can be no true repentance 
(Ps. 51:1; 130:4). 

The evidences of genuine repentance are 
(1) such a sense of guilt and helplessness 
and sinfulness as leads to shame and self- 



REPHAEL 



580 



REPROBATE 



loathing in the presence of God ; (2) humble 
confession of sin (Ps. 32 : 5, 6 ; Prov. 28 : 
13 ; James 5 : 16 ; 1 John 1:9); and (3) an 
earnest and constant desire to be delivered 
from it — a hating and forsaking of all sin, 
secret as well as open. " True repentance 
is not only from, sin, but for sin. " The true 
penitent is self-convicted and self-con- 
demned. He acquiesces in the truth of 
every charge the law of God brings against 
him. He renounces every personal ground 
of acceptance in the sight of God, and looks 
for forgiveness only "for Christ's sake." 
Repentance is necessary, in that none who 
are impenitent are pardoned. But it is 
not to be rested in as in any sense the 
cause of pardon. It is necessary, as the 
natural result of regeneration and the fruit 
of faith. Like faith, it is a duty as well as 
a grace (Luke 24 : 47 ; Acts 20 : 21). 

Re^phael — healed of God — one of She- 
maiah's sons. He and his brethren, on 
account of their "strength for service," 
formed one of the divisions of the temple 
porters (1 Chr. 26 : 7, 8). 

Repha^im — lofty men; giants — (Gen. 
14:5; 2 Sam. 21:16, 18; Deut. 3:13, 
R.V.). The aborigines of Palestine, after- 
wards conquered and dispossessed by the 
Canaanite tribes, are classed under this 
general title. They were known to the 
Moabites as Emim — i.e., "fearful" — 
(Deut. 2 : 11), and to the Ammonites as 
Zamzummim. Some of them found refuge 
among the Philistines, and were still 
existing in the days of David (2 Sam. 21 : 
16, "sons of the giant," A.V. ; but R.V., 
" sons of Rephah "). We know nothing of 
their origin. They were not necessarily 
connected with the " giants" (R.V., " Ne- 
philim ") of Gen. 6 : 4. (See Giants.) 

Repha^im, Valley of (Josh. 15:8; 
18:16, R.V.). When David became king 
over all Israel, the Philistines, judging 
that he would now become their uncom- 
promising enemy, made a sudden attack 
upon Hebron, compelling David to retire 
from it. He sought refuge in " the hold " at 
AduUam (2 Sam. 5 : 17-22), and the Philis- 
tines took up their position in the valley 
of Rephaim, on the west and south-west of 
Jerusalem. Thus all communication be- 



tween Bethlehem and Jerusalem was inter- 
cepted. While David and his army were en- 
camped here there occurred that incident 
narrated in 2 Sam. 23 : 15-17. Having ob- 
tained divine direction, David led his army 
against the Philistines, and gained a com- 
plete victory over them. The scene of 
this victory was afterwards called Baal- 
perazim {q.v.). 

A second time, however, the Philistines 
rallied their forces in this valley (2 Sam. 
5 : 22). Again warned by a divine oracle, 
David led his army to Gibeon, and attacked 
the Philistines from the south, inflicting 
on them another severe defeat, and chasing 
them with great slaughter to Gezer {q.v.). 
There David kept in check these enemies 
of Israel. This valley is now called el- 
Bukefa. 

Reph^idim — resting-places — one of the 
stations of the Israelites, situated in the 
Wady Peiran, near its junction with the 
Wady esh-Sheikh. Here no water could be 
found for the people to drink, and in their 
impatience they were ready to stone Moses, 
as if he were the cause of their distress. 
At the command of God Moses smote ' ' the 
rock in Horeb," and a copious stream 
flowed forth, enough for all the people. 
After this the Amalekites attacked the 
Israelites while they were here encamped, 
but they were utterly defeated (Ex. 17 : 1, 
8-16). They were the "first of the na- 
tions " to make war against Israel (Num. 
24 : 20). 

Leaving Rephidim, the Israelites ad- 
vanced into the wilderness of Sinai (Ex. 
19 : 1, 2 ; Num. 33 : 14-16), marching prob- 
ably through the two passes of the Wsidy 
Solaf and the Wady esh-Sheikh, which con- 
verge at the entrance to the plain er-Rahah, 
the "desert of Sinai," which is two miles 
long and about half a mile broad. (See 
Sinai ; Meribah. ) 

Re'^probate, that which is rejected on 
account of its own worthlessness (Jer. 6 : 
30; Heb. 6:8; Gr. adokimos, "rejected"). 
This word is also used with reference to 
persons cast away or rejected because they 
have failed to make iise of opportunities 
offered them (1 Cor. 9:27; 2 Cor. 13: 
5-7). 



REREWARD 



581 



RESURRECTION 



Rere^ward (Josh. 6 : 9), the troops in 
the rear of an army on the inarch — the 
rear-guard. This word is a corruption of 
the French arriere-garde. During the 
wilderness march the tribe of Dan formed 
the rear-guard (Num. 10 : 25 ; comp. 1 Sam. 
29 : 2 ; Isa. 52 : 12 ; 58 : 8). 

Re^sen — head of the stream; hridle — one 
of Nimrod's cities (Gen. 10:12), "between 
Nineveh and Calah." It has been sup- 
posed that the four cities named in this 
verse were afterwards combined into one 
under the name of Nineveh {q.v.). Resen 
was on the east side of the Tigris. It is 
probably identified with the mound of ruins 
called Karamless. 

Rest. (1.) Gr. katapausis, equivalent 
to the Hebrew word noah (Heb. 4 : 1). 

(2.) Gr. anapausis, "rest from weari- 
ness " (Matt. 11 : 28). 

(3.) Gr. anesis, "relaxation" (2 Thess. 
1:7). 

(4.) Gr. sabhatismos, a Sabbath rest, a 
rest from all work (Heb. 4:9; R. V., " sab- 
bath "), a rest like that of God when he 
had finished the work of creation. 

Resurrec^tion of Christ, one of the 
cardinal facts and doctrines of the gospel. 
If Christ be not risen, our faith is vain 
(1 Cor. 15:14). The whole of the New 
Testament revelation rests on this as an 
historical fact. On the day of Pentecost 
Peter argued the necessity of Christ's re- 
surrection from the prediction in Ps. 16 
(Acts 2 : 22- 36). In his own discourses, 
also, our Lord clearly intimates his resur- 
rection (Matt. 20 : 19 ; Mark 9:9; 14 : 28 ; 
Luke 18 : 33 ; John 2 : 19-22). 

The evangelists give circumstantial ac- 
counts of the facts connected with that 
event, and the apostles, also, in their pub- 
lic teaching largely insist upon it. 

Ten different appearances of our risen 
Lord are recorded in the New Testament. 
They may be arranged as follows : — 

(1. ) To Mary Magdalene at the sepulchre 
alone. This is recorded at length only by 
John (20 : 11-18), and alluded to by Mark 
(16 : 9-11). 

(2. ) To certain women, ' ' the other 
Mary," Salome, Joanna, and others, as 
they returned from the sepulchre. Mat- 



thew (28 : 1-10) alone gives an account of 
this. (Comp. Mark 16 : 1-8, and Luke 
24:1-1L) 

(3. ) To Simon Peter alone on the day of 
the resurrection. (See Luke 24 : 34 ; 1 Cor. 
15:5.) 

. (4.) To the two disciples on the way to 
Emmaus on the day of the resurrection, 
recorded fully only by Luke (24 : 13-35. 
Comp. Mark 16 : 12, 13). 

(5.) To the ten disciples (Thomas being 
absent) and others "with them," at Jeru- 
salem on the evening of the resurrection 
day. Three of the evangelists give an 
account of this appearance — Mark (16 : 
14-18), Luke (24 : 36-40), John (20 : 19-23). 
(See also 1 Cor. 15 : 5. ) 

(6.) To the disciples again (Thomas being 
present) at Jerusalem. Of this appearance 
John alone (20 : 26-28) gives an account. 

(7. ) To the disciples when fishing at the 
Sea of Galilee. Of this appearance also 
John (21 : 1-23) alone gives an account. 

(8. ) To the eleven, and above 500 brethren 
at once, at an appointed place in Galilee 
(1 Cor. 15 : 6 ; comp. Matt. 28 : 16-20). 

(9.) To James, but under what circum- 
stances we are not informed (1 Cor. 15 : 7). 

(10.) To the apostles immediately before 
the ascension. They accompanied him 
from Jerusalem to Mount Olivet, and there 
they saw him ascend " till a cloud received 
him out of their sight " (Mark 16 : 19 : 
Luke 24 : 50-52 ; Acts 1 : 3-8). 

It is worthy of note that it is distinctly 
related that on most of these occasions our 
Lord afforded his disciples the amplest op- 
portunity of testing the fact of his resur- 
rection. He conversed with them face to 
face. They touched him (Matt. 28:9; 
Luke 24:39; John 20:27), and he ate 
bread with them (Luke 24 : 42, 43 ; John 
21 : 12, 13). 

(11.) In addition to the above, mention 
might be made of Christ's manifestation of 
himself to Paul at Damascus, who speaks 
of it as an appearance of the risen Saviour 
(Acts 9 : 3-9, 17 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 8 ; 9 : 1). 

It is implied in the words of Luke (Acts 
1 : 3) that there may have been other ap- 
pearances of which we have no record. 

The resurrection is spoken of as the act 

38 



RESURRECTION 



582 



RESURRECTION" 



(1) of God the Father (Ps. IG : 10 ; Acts 2 : 
24 ; 3 : 15 ; Rom. 8 : 11 ; Eph. 1 : 20 ; Col. 
2 : 12 ; Heb. 13 : 20) ; (2) of Christ himself 
(John 2 : 19 ; 10 : 18) ; and (3) of the Holy 
Spirit (1 Peter 3 : 18). 

The resurrection is a public testimony of 
Christ's release from his undertaking as 
surety, and an evidence of the Father's 
acceptance of his work of redemption. It 
is a victory over death and the grave for 
all his followers. 

The importance of Christ's resurrection 
will be seen when we consider that if he 
rose the gospel is true, and if he rose not it 
is false. His resurrection from the dead 
makes it manifest that his sacrifice was ac- 
cepted. Our justification was secured by 
his obedience to the death, and therefore he 
was raised from the dead (Rom. 4:25). 
His resurrection is a proof that he made a 
full atonement for our sins, that his sacri- 
fice was accepted as a satisfaction to di- 
vine justice, and his blood a ransom for 
sinners. It is also a pledge and an ear- 
nest of the resurrection of all believers 
(Rom. 8:11; 1 Cor. 6:14, 15; 15:49; 
Phil. 3:21; 1 John 3:2). As he lives, 
they shall live also. 

It proved him to be the Son of God, in- 
asmuch as it authenticated all his claims 
(John 2 : 19 ; 10 : 17). " If Christ did not 
rise, the whole scheme of redemption is a 
failure, and all the predictions and anti- 
cipations of its glorious results for time 
and for eternity, for men and for angels of 
every rank and order, are proved to be 
chimeras. ' But now is Christ risen from 
the dead, and become the first-fruits of 
them that slept.' Therefore the Bible is 
true from Genesis to Revelation. The 
kingdom of darkness has been overthrown, 
Satan has fallen as lightning from heaven, 
and the triumph of truth over error, of 
good over evil, of happiness over misery 
is for ever secured." — Hodge. 

With reference to the report which the 
Roman soldiers were bribed (Matt. 28 : 
12-14) to circulate concerning Christ's re- 
surrection, "his disciples came by night 
and stole him away while we slept," 
Matthew Henry in his "Commentary," 
under John 20 : 1-10, fittingly remarks, 



"The grave-clothes in which Christ had 
been buried were found in very good order, 
which serves for an evidence that his body 
was not ' stolen away while men slept. ' 
Robbers of tombs have been known to take 
away ' the clothes ' and leave the body ; 
but none ever took away ' the body ' and 
left the clothes, especially when they were 
' fine linen ' and new (Mark 15 : 46). Any 
one would rather choose to carry a dead 
body in its clothes than naked. Or if they 
that were supposed to have stolen it would 
have left the grave-clothes behind, yet it 
cannot be supposed they would find leisure 
to ' fold up the linen. ' " 

Resurrec'tion of the dead will be 
simultaneous both of the just and the un- 
just (Dan. 12:2; John 5:28, 29; Rom. 
2 : 6-16 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 6-10). The qualities 
of the resurrection body will be different 
from those of the body laid in the grave 
(1 Cor. 15:53, 54; Phil. 3:21); but its 
identity will nevertheless be preserved. It 
will still be the same body (1 Cor, 15 : 42- 
44) which rises again. 

As to the nature of the resurrection body, 
(1) it will be spiritual (1 Cor. 15 : 44) — i.e., 
a body adapted to the use of the soul in its 
glorified state, and to all the conditions of 
the heavenly state ; (2) glorious, incor- 
ruptible, and powerful (54) ; (3) like unto 
the glorified body of Christ (Phil. 3:21); 
and (4) immortal (Rev. 21 : 4). 

Christ's resurrection secures and illus- 
trates that of his people. "(1.) Because 
his resurrection seals and consummates 
his redemptive power ; and the redemption 
of our persons involves the redemption of 
our bodies (Rom. 8:23). (2.) Because of 
our federal and vital vinion with Christ 
(1 Cor. 15 : 21, 22 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 14). (3. ) Be- 
cause of his Spirit which dwells in us mak- 
ing our bodies his members (1 Cor. 6 : 15 ; 
Rom. 8:11). (4.) Because Christ by cov- 
enant is Lord both of the living and the 
dead (Rom. 14 : 9). This same federal and 
vital union of the Christian with Christ 
likewise causes the resurrection of the be- 
liever to be similar to as well as consequent 
upon that of Christ (1 Cor. 15 : 49 ; Phil. 
3 : 21 ; 1 John 3 : 2)."— Hodge's Outlines of 
Theology. 



REUBEN 



583 



REVELATION 



Reu''ben — behold a son / — the eldest son 
of Jacob and Leah (Gen. 29 : 32). His sin- 
ful conduct, referred to in Gen. 35 : 22, 
brought down upon him his dying father's 
malediction (49 : 4). He showed kindness to 
Joseph, and was the means of saving his 
life when his other brothers would have 
put him to death (37 : 21, 22). It was he 
also who pledged his life and the life of his 
sons when Jacob was unwilling to let Ben- 
jamin go down into Egypt. After Jacob 
and his family went down into Egypt (46 : 
8) no further mention is made of Reuben 
beyond what is recorded in ch. 49 : 3, 4. 

Reu^'ben, Tribe of, at the Exodus num- 
bered 46,500 male adults, from twenty years 
old and upwards (Num. 1 : 20, 21), and at 
the close of the wilderness wanderings 
they numbered only 43,730 (26:7). This 
tribe united with that of Gad in asking 
permission to settle in the " land of Gilead," 
"on the other side of Jordan" (32:1-5). 
The lot assigned to Reuben was the smallest 
of the lots given to the trans- Jordanic tribes. 
It extended from the Arnon, in the south, 
along the coast of the Dead Sea to its 
northern end, where the Jordan flows into 
it (Josh. 13 : 15-21, 23). It thus embraced 
the original kingdom of Sihon. Reuben is 
"to the eastern tribes what Simeon is to 
the western. 'Unstable as water,' he 
vanishes away into a mere Arabian tribe. 
' His men are few ; ' it is all he can do ' to 
live and not die.' We hear of nothing be- 
yond the multiplication of their cattle in 
the land of Gilead, their spoils of * camels 
fifty thousand, and of asses two thousand ' 
(1 Chr. 5:9, 10, 20, 21). In the great 
struggles of the nation he never took part. 
The complaint against him in the song of 
Deborah is the summary of his whole his- 
tory. 'By the streams of Reuben' — i.e., 
by the fresh streams w^hich descend from 
the eastern hills into the Jordan and the 
Dead Sea, on whose banks the Bedouin 
chiefs met then as now to debate — in the 
' streams ' of Reuben great were the ' de- 
sires ' " — i.e., resolutions which were never 
carried out, the people idly resting among 
their flocks as if it were a time of peace 
( Judg. 5 : 15, 16). — Stanley's Sinai and 
Palestine^ 



All the three tribes on the east of Jordan 
at length fell into complete apostasy, and 
the time of retribution came. God ' ' stirred 
up the spirit of Pul, king of Assyria, and 
the spirit of Tiglath-pileser, king of As- 
syria," to carry them away — the first of 
the tribes — into captivity (1 Chr. 5 : 25, 26). 

IRevL^el— friend of God. (1.) A son of 
Esau and Bashemath (Gen. 36 : 4, 10 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 35). 

(2.) "The priest of Midian," Moses' 
father-in-law (Ex. 2 : 18) = Raguel (Num. 
10 : 29). If he be identified with Jethro 
{q.v.), then this may be regarded as his 
proper name, and Jether or Jethro [i.e., 
"excellency ") as his official title. 

(3.) Num. 2 : 14, called also Deuel (1 : 14; 
7:42). 

Revela^tion, an uncovering, a bringing 
to light of that which had been previously 
wholly hidden, or only obscurely seen. 
God has been pleased in various ways and 
at different times (Heb. 1:1) to make a 
supernatural revelation of himself and his 
IDurposes and plans, which, under the guid- 
ance of his Spirit, has been committed to 
writing. That revelation we now have 
exclusively in the Scriptures of the Old and 
New Testament. 

Revelation and inspiration differ. Revela- 
tion is the supernatural communication of 
truth to the mind ; inspiration {q.v.) secures 
to the teacher or writer infallibility in com- 
municating that truth to others. It renders 
its subject the spokesman or jDrophet of God 
in such a sense that everything he asserts to 
be true, whether fact or doctrine or moral 
principle, is true — infallibly true. 

Revela^tion, Book of = The Apoca- 
lypse, the closing book and the only pro- 
phetical book of the New Testament canon. 

The author of this book was undoubtedly 
John the apostle. His name occurs four 
times in the book itself (1 : 1, 4, 9 ; 22 : 8), 
and there is every reason to conclude that 
the "John" here mentioned was the 
apostle. In a manuscript of about the 
twelfth century he is called "John the 
divine," but no reason can be assigned for 
this appellation. 

The date of the writing of this book has 
generally been fixed at A.D. 96, in the reign 



REVELATION 



584 



RIDDLE 



of Domitian. There are some, however, 
who contend for an earlier date, A.D. G8 or 
69, in the reign of Nero. Those who are 
in favour of the later date appeal to the 
testimony of the Christian father Irenseus, 
who received information relative to this 
book from those who had seen John face 
to face. He says that the Apocalypse 
"was seen no long time ago." 

As to the relation between this book and 
the Gospel of John, it has been well 
observed that "the leading ideas of both 
are the same. The one gives us in a mag- 
nificent vision, the other in a great historic 
drama, the supreme conflict between good 
and evil and its issue. In both Jesus 
Christ is the central figure, whose victory 
through defeat is the issue of the conflict. 
In both the Jewish dispensation is the pre- 
paration for the gospel, and the warfare and 
triumph of the Christ is described in lan- 
guage saturated with the Old Testament... 
The difference of date will go a long way 
toward explaining the difference of style." 
■ — Plummer's Gospel of St. John, Introd. 

Revela''tion of Christ, the second ad- 
vent of Christ. Three different Greek words 
are used by the apostles to express this — (1) 
apokalupsis (1 Cor. 1 : 7 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 7 ; 1 
Pet. 1 : 7, 13) ; (2) parousia (Matt. 24 : 3, 
27; 1 Thess. 2:19; James 5:7, 8); (3) 
epiphaneia (1 Tim. 6 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 10 ; 
4 : 1-8 ; Titus 2 : 13). There existed among 
Christians a vnde expectation, founded on 
Matt. 24 : 29, 30, 34, of the speedy return 
of Christ. (See Millennium.) 

Re'zeph — solid ; a stone — (2 Kings 19 : 
12 ; Isa. 37 : 12), a fortress near Haran, 
probably on the west of the Euphrates, 
conquered by Sennacherib. 

"R^'zin—firm ; a prince — a king of Syria, 
who joined Pekah (q.v.) in an invasion of 
the kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 15 : 37 ; 
16 : 5-9; Isa. 7 : 1-8). Ahaz induced Tiglath- 
pileser II. to attack Damascus, and this 
caused Rezin to withdraw for the purpose 
of defending his own kingdom. Damascus 
was taken, and Rezin was slain in battle 
by the Assyrian king, and his people car- 
ried into captivity. 

Re'zon — id. — son of Eliadah. Aban- 
doning the service of Hadadezer, the king 



of Zobah, on the occasion of his being de- 
feated by David, he became the "captain 
over a band " of marauders, and took 
Damascus, and became king of Syria (1 
Kings 11 : 23-25 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 3-8). For cen- 
turies after this the Syrians were the foes 
of Israel. He "became an adversary to 
Israel all the days of Solomon." 

Rhe^gium — breach — a town in the south 
of Italy, on the Strait of Messina, at which 
Paul touched on his way to Rome (Acts 
28 : 13). It is now called Rheggio. 

Rlie''sa— o^ec^iow— son of Zorobabel, men- 
tioned in the genealogy of our Lord (Luke 
3 : 27). 

Rhonda — a rose — the damsel in the house 
of Mary, the mother of John Mark. She 
came to hearken when Peter knocked at 
the door of the gate (Acts 12 : 12-15). 

Rhodes — a rose — an island to the south 
of the western extremity of Asia Minor, 
between Coos and Patara, about 46 miles 
long and 18 miles broad. Here the apostle 
probably landed on his way from Greece 
to Syria (Acts 21 : 1), on returning from 
his third missionary journey. 

Rib^lah — fruitful — an ancient town on 
the northern frontier of Palestine, 35 miles 
north-east of Baalbec, and 10 or 12 south 
of Lake Hums, on the eastern bank of the 
Orontes, in a wide and fertile plain. Here 
Nebuchadnezzar had his head-q\iarters in 
his campaign against Jerusalem, and here 
also Necho fixed his camp after he had 
routed Josiah's army at Megiddo (2 Kings 
23 : 29-35 ; 25 : 6, 20, 21 ; Jer. 39 : 5 ; 52 : 10). 
It was on the great caravan road from 
Palestine to Carchemish, on the Euphrates. 
It is described (Num. 34:11) as "on the 
eastern side of Ain." A place still called 
el-Ain — i.e., "the fountain" — is found in 
such a position about 10 miles distant. 
(See Jerusalem.) 

Rid^dle (Heb. hodah). The oldest and, 
strictly speaking, the only example of a 
riddle was that propounded by Samson 
( Juflg. 14 : 12-18). The parabolic prophecy 
in Ezek. 17 : 2-18 is there called a "riddle." 
It was rather, however, an allegory. The 
word " darkly " in 1 Cor. 13 : 12 is the ren- 
dering of the Greek enigma ; marg., "in a 
riddle," 



RIGHTEOUSNESS 



585 



RIVER 



Right'eousness. See Justification. 

Rixn^mon — pomegranate. (1. ) A man of 
Beeroth (2 Sam. 4 : 2), one of the four 
Gibeonite cities. (See Josh. 9 : 17.) 

(2.) A Syrian idol, mentioned only in 2 
Kings 5 : 18. 

(3.) One of the "uttermost cities" of 
Judah, afterwards given to Simeon (Josh. 
15 : 21, 32 ; 19 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 32). In Josh. 
15 : 32 Ain and Rimmon are mentioned 
separately, but in 19 : 7 and 1 Chr. 4 : 32 
(comp. Neh. 11 : 29) the two words are prob- 
ably to be combined, as forming together 
the name of one place, Ain-Rimmon=^Ac 
spring of the pomegranate. It has been 
identified with Um er-Riimdmin, about 13 
miles south-west of Hebron. 

(4.) "Rock of," to which the Benjamites 
fled ( Judg. 20 : 45, 47 ; 21 : 13), and where 
they maintained themselves for four months 
after the fearful battle at Gibeah, in which 
they were almost exterminated, 600 only 
surviving out of about 27,000. It is the 
present village of Rummon, "on the very 
edge of the hill country, with a precipitous 
descent toward the Jordan valley," sup- 
posed to be the site of Ai. 

Rim^mon-pa^rez — apomegravMtebreach, 
or Rimmon of the breach — one of the stations 
of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 
33 : 19, 20). 

Ring. Used as an ornament to decorate 
the fingers, arms, wrists, and also the ears 
and the nose. . Rings were used as a signet 
(Gen. 38 : 18). They were given as a token 
of investment with authority (Gen. 41 : 42 ; 
Esther 3 : 8-10 ; 8:2), and of favour and 
dignity (Luke 15 : 22). They were gener- 
ally worn by rich men (James 2 : 2). They 
are mentioned by Isaiah (3 : 21) among the 
adornments of Hebrew women. 

Ri^phath — a crusher — Gomer's second 
son (Gen. 10 : 3), supposed to have been the 
ancestor of the Paphlagonians. 

Ris''sah — heap of ruins ; dew — a station 
of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 
33 : 21, 22). 

Rith'mali — place of broom — a station in 
the wilderness (Num. 33:18, 19), the 
"broom valley," or "valley of broom- 
bushes," the place apparently of the origi- 
nal encampment of Israel, near Kadesh. 



Riv'er. (1.) Heb. 'aphik, properly the 
channel or ravine that holds water (2 
Sam. 22:16), translated "brook," "river," 
"stream," but not necessarily a perennial 
stream (Ezek. 6 : 3 ; 31 : 12 ; 32 : 6 ; 34 : 13). 

(2.) Heb. ndhal, in winter a "torrent," 
in summer a " wady " or valley (Gen. 32 : 
23 ; Deut. 2 : 24 ; 3 : 16 ; Isa. 30 : 28 ; Lam. 
2 : 18 ; Ezek. 47 : 9). 

These winter torrents sometimes come 
down with great suddenness and with 
desolating force. A distinguished traveller 
thus describes his experience in this 
matter: — "I was encamped in Wady 
Eeiran, near the base. of Jebel Serbal, when 
a tremendous thunderstorm burst upon us. 
After little more than an hour's rain, the 
water rose so rapidly in the previously dry 
wady that I had to run for my life, and 
with great difficulty succeeded in saving 
my tent and goods ; my boots, which I had 
not time to pick up, were washed away. 
In less than two hours a dry desert wady 
upwards of 300 yards broad was turned 
into a foaming torrent from 8 to 10 feet 
deep, roaring and tearing dowTi and bear- 
ing everything upon it — tangled masses of 
tamarisks, hundreds of beautiful palm- 
trees, scores of sheep and goats, camels 
and donkeys, and even men, women, and 
children, for a whole encampment of Arabs 
was washed away a few miles above m.e.. 
The storm commenced at five in the even- 
ing; at half-past nine the waters were 
rapidly subsiding, and it was evident that 
the flood had spent its force." (Comp. 
Matt. 7:26; Luke 6: 49.) 

(3.) Ndhdr, a "river" continuous and 
full, a perennial stream, as the Jordan, the 
Euphrates (Gen. 2 : 10 ; 15 : 18 ; Deut. 1:7; 
Ps. 66 : 6 ; Ezek. 10 : 15). . 

(4.) TeVdldh, a conduit, or water-course 
(1 Kings 18 : 32 ; 2 Kings 18 : 17 ; 20 : 20 ; 
Job 38 : 25 ; Ezek. 31 : 4). 

(5.) Peleg, properly "waters divided" — 
i.e., streams divided — throughout the land 
(Ps. 1:3); " the rivers {i.e., ' divisions '] of 
waters " (Job 20 : 17 ; 29 : 6 ; Prov. 5 : 16). 

(6.) Ye' 01 — i.e., "great river" — probably 
from an Egyptian word {Aur), commonly 
applied to the Nile (Gen. 41 : 1-3), but also 
to other rivers (Job 28 : 10 ; Isa. 33 : 21). 



RIVER 



586 



ROCK 



(7.) Yubhal, "a river " (Jer. 17 : 8), a full 
flowing stream. 

(8.) 'Ubhal, "a river" (Dan. 8:2). 

River of E^gypt. (1. ) Heb. ndhdr mits- 
raim, denotes in Gen. 15 : 18 the Nile, or its 
eastern branch (2 Chr. 9 : 26). (2.) In Num. 
34 : 5 (R. v., "brook of Egypt ") the Hebrew 
word is nahal, denoting a stream flowing 
rapidly in winter, or in the rainy season. 
This is a desert stream on the borders of 
Egypt. It is now called the Wddy eVArish. 
The present boundary between Egypt and 
Palestine is about midway between this 
wddy and Gaza. (See Num. 34 : 5; Josh. 1 5 : 
4, 47 ; 1 Kings 8 : 65 ; 2 Kings 24 : 7 ; Isa. 27 : 
12 ; Ezek. 47 : 19. In all these passages the 
R.V. has "brook" and the A.V. "river.") 

River of Gad, probably the Arno (2 
Sam. 24 : 5). 

River of God (Ps, 65 : 9), as opposed to 
earthly streams, denoting that the divine 
resources are inexhaustible, or the sum of 
all fertilizing streams that water the earth 
(Gen. 2 : 10). 

Rivers of Bab^ylon (Ps. 137:1), i.e., of 
the whole country of Babylonia — e.g., the 
Tigris, Euphrates, Chalonas, the Ulai, and 
the numerous canals. 

Rivers of Damas^cus, the Abana and 
Pharpar (2 Kings 5 : 12). 

Rivers of Ju^dah (Joel 3 : 18), the water- 
courses of Judea. 

Riz''pah — coal; hot stone — the daughter 
of Aiah, and one of Saul's concubines. She 
was the mother of Armoni and Mephi- 
bosheth (2 Sam. 3:7; 21 : 8, 10, 11). 

It happened that a grievous famine, which 
lasted for three years, fell upon the land 
during the earlier half of David's reign at 
Jerusalem. This calamity was sent "for 
Saul and for his bloody house, because he 
slew the Gibeonites." David inquired of 
the Gibeonites what satisfaction they de- 
manded, and was answered that nothing 
would compensate for the wrong Saul had 
done to them but the death of seven of 
Saul's sons. David accordingly delivered up 
to them the two sons of Rizpah and five of 
the sons of Merab [q.v.), Saul's eldest daugh- 
ter, whom she bore to Adriel. These the 
Gibeonites put to death, and hung up their 
bodies before the Lord at the sanctuary at 



Gibeah. Rizpah thereupon took her place 
on the rock of Gibeah {q.v.), and for five 
months watched the suspended bodies of 
her children, to prevent them from being de- 
voured by the beasts and birds of prey, till 
they were at length taken down and buried 
by David. 

Her marriage to Abner was the occasion 
of a quarrel between him and Ishbosheth, 
which led to Abner's going over to the side 
of David (2 Sam. 3 : 17-21). 

Road (1 Sam. 27 : 10; R.V., "raid"), an 
inroad, an incursion. This word is never 
used in Scripture in the sense of a way or 
path. 

Rob'bery. Practised by the Ishmaelites 
(Gen. 16 : 12), the Chaldeans and Sabeans 
(Job 1 : 15, 17), and the men of Shechem 
( Judg. 9 : 25. See also 1 Sam. 27 : 6-10 ; 
30; Hos. 4:2; 6:9). Robbers infested 
Judea in our Lord's time (Luke 10 : 30 ; 
John 18 : 40 ; Acts 5 : 36, 37 ; 21 : 38 ; 2 Cor. 
11 : 26). The words of the Authorized Ver- 
sion, " counted it not robbery to be equal,'' 
etc. (Phil. 2 : 6, 7), are better rendered in 
the Revised Version, "counted it not a 
prize to be on an equality," etc. — i.e., "did 
not look upon equality with God as a prize 
which must not slip from his grasp " = " did 
not cling with avidity to the prerogatives 
of his divine majesty ; did not ambitiously 
display his equality with God." Moule has 
well paraphrased the sentence thus : "He 
dealt with his true and rightful equality 
not as a thing held anxiously and only for 
himself, as the gains of force or fraud are 
held, but as a thing in regard of which a 
most gracious sacrifice and surrender was 
possible for us and our salvation." — Com- 
mentary in loc. 

Rock (Heb. tsilr), employed as a symbol 
of God in the Old Testament (1 Sam. 2:2; 
2 Sam. 22 : 3 ; Isa. 17 : 10 ; Ps. 28 : 1 ; 31 : 
2, 3 ; 89 : 26 ; 95 : 1) ; also in the New Testa- 
ment (Matt. 16 : 18 ; Rom. 9 : 33 ; 1 Cor. 
10 : 4). In Dan. 2 : 45 the Chaldaic form 
of the Hebrew word is translated "moun- 
tain." It ought to be translated "rock," 
as in the margin of the Revised Version. 
The "rock" from which the stone is cut 
there signifies the divine origin of Clirist. 
(See Stone.) 



ROE 



587 



ROMANS 



Roe (Heb. tsebi), properly the gazelle 
(Arab, ghdzal), permitted for food (Deut. 
14:5; comp. Deut. 12:15, 22; 15:22; 1 
Kings 4:23), noted for its swiftness and 
beauty and grace of form (2 Sam. 2 : 18 ; 1 
Chr. 12 : 8 ; Cant. 2 : 9 ; 7 : 3 ; 8 : 14). 

The gazelle {Gazella dorcas) is found in 
great numbers in Palestine. "Among the 
gray hills of Galilee it is still ' the roe upon 
the mountains of Bether,' and I have seen 
a little troop of gazelles feeding on the 
Mount of Olives close to Jerusalem itself " 
(Tristram). 



The Hebrew word {^ayydldh) in Prov. 5 : 
19 thus rendered (R. V., " doe "), is properly 
the "wild she-goat," the moimtain goat, 
the ibex. (See 1 Sam 24 : 3 ; Ps. 104 : 18 ; Job 
39:3.) 

Roge'lim — fullers — a town of Gilead, the 
residence of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sam. 
17 : 27 ; 19 : 31), probably near to Mahanaim. 

Roll, the common form of ancient books. 
The Hebrew word rendered "roll" or 
" volume " is meghillah, found in Ezra 6:2; 
Ps. 40 : 7 ; Jer. 36 : 2, 6, 23, 28, 29 ; Ezek. 
2:9; 3:1-3; Zech. 5 : 1, 2. " Rolls " 




GAZELLES. 



(Chald. pi. of sepkar, corresponding to 
Heb. sepher) in Ezra 6 : 1 is rendered in 
the Revised Version "archives." 

In the New Testament the word " volume " 
(Heb. 10:7; R.V., "roll") occurs as the 
rendering of the Greek kephalis, meaning 
the head or top of the stick or cylinder on 
which the manuscript was rolled, and hence 
the manuscript itself. (See Book. ) 

Ko'msim.ti-e^zer— elevation of help — one 
of the sons of Heman, "the king's seer in 
the words of God, to lift up the horn." 
He was head of the " four-and-twentieth " 
course of singers (1 Chr. 25 : 4, 31). 

Rodmans, Epistle to the. This epistle 
was probably written at Corinth. Phoebe 



(Rom. 16 : 1) of Cenchrea conveyed it to 
Rome, and Gaius of Corinth entertained 
the apostle at the time of his writing it 
(16 : 23 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 14), and Erastus was 
chamberlain of the city — i.e., of Corinth 
(2 Tim. 4 : 20). 

The precise time at which it was written 
is not mentioned in the epistle, but it was 
obviously written when the apostle was 
about to "go unto Jerusalem to minister 
unto the saints" — i.e., at the close of his 
second visit to Greece, during the winter 
preceding his last visit to that city (Rom. 
15 : 25 ; comp. Acts 19 : 21 ; 20 : 2, 3, 16 ; 1 
Cor. 16 : 1-4), early in A.D. 58. 

It is highly- probable that Christianity 



ROMANS 



588 



ROSE 



was planted in Rome by some of those who 
had been at Jerusalem on the day of Pente- 
cost (Acts 2 : 11). At this time the Jews 
were very numerous in Rome, and their 
synagogues were probably resorted to by 
Romans also, who in this way became 
acquainted with the great facts regarding 
Jesus as these were reported among the 
Jews. Thus a church composed of both 
Jews and Gentiles was formed at Rome. 
Many of the brethren went out to meet 
Paul on his approach to Rome. There are 
evidences that Christians were then in 
Rome in considerable numbers, and had 
probably more than one place of meeting 
(Rom. 16 : 14, 15). " The historian Tacitus 
has handed down the trials of a Roman 
lady who was a British princess, and al- 
though he does not in direct terms call her 
a Christian — which the pagan authors of 
the period called a 'foreign superstition,' 
and confounded with Judaism — there is no 
doubt from his description, to the unbiassed 
mind, that she was a Christian ; and al- 
though her husband declared her blameless, 
she was evidently a living raiartyr to her 
faith." — Porbes's Footsteps of St. Paul. 

The object. oi. the apostle in writing to 
this church was to explain to them the 
great doctrines of the gospel. His epistle 
was a "word in season." Himself deeply 
impressed with a sense of the value of the 
doctrines of salvation, he opens up in a clear 
and connected form the whole system of the 
gospel in its relation both to Jew and Gen- 
tile. This epistle is peculiar in this, that 
it is a systematic exposition of the gospel 
of universal application. The subject is 
here treated argumentatively, and is a plea 
for Gentiles addressed to Jews. In the 
Epistle to the Galatians, the same subject 
is discussed, but there the apostle pleads 
his own authority, because the church in 
Galatia had been founded by him. 

After the introduction (1:1-15), the 
apostle presents in its divers aspects and 
relations the doctrine of justification by 
faith (1 : lG-11 : 36) on the ground of the 
imputed righteousness of Christ. He shows 
that salvation is all of grace, and only of 
grace. This main section of his letter is 
followed by various practical exhortations 



(12 : 1-15 : 13), which are followed by a con- 
clusion containing personal explanations 
and salutations, which contain the names of 
twenty-four Christians at Rome, a benedic- 
tion, and a doxology (Rom, 15 : 14-ch. 16). 

Rome, the most celebrated city in the 
world at the time of Christ. It is said to 
have been founded B.C. 753. When the 
New Testament was written, Rome was 
enriched and adorned with the spoils of the 
world, and contained a population estimated 
at 1,200,000, of which the half were slaves. 
It was distinguished for its wealth and 
luxury and profligacy. The empire of which 
it was the capital had then reached its great- 
est prosperity, (See Map facing page 534.) 

On the day of Pentecost there were in 
Jerusalem "strangers from Rome," who 
doubtless carried with them back to Rome 
tidings of that great day, and were instru- 
mental in founding the church there. Paul 
was brought to this city a prisoner, where 
he remained for two years (Acts 28 : 30, 31) 
"in his own hired house." While here, 
Paul wrote his epistles to the Philippians, 
to the Ephesians, to the Colossians, to Phile- 
mon, and probably also to the Hebrews. 
He had during these years for companions 
Luke and Aristarchus (Acts 27 : 2), Timothy 
(Phil. 1:1; Col. 1 : 1), Tychicus (Eph. 6 : 
21), Epaphroditus (Phil. 4 : 18), and John 
Mark (Col. 4 : 10). (See Paul. ) 

Beneath this city are extensive galleries, 
called "catacombs," which were used from 
about the time of the apostles (one of the 
inscriptions found in them bears the date 
A.D. 71) for some three hundred years as 
places of refuge in the time of persecution, 
and also of worship and burial. About 
four thousand inscriptions have been found 
in the catacombs. These give an interest- 
ing insight into the history of the church 
at Rome down to the time of Constantine, 

In 1871 the temporal power of the Pope 
was abolished, and this city became the 
capital of united Italy, The liberty now 
enjoyed under the Italian Government has 
Oldened the way for Christian work in Rome, 
which is being carried on with marked and 
encouraging success. 

Rose. Many varieties of the rose proper 
are indigenous to Syria. The famed rose 



ROSH 



589 



RUE 



of Damascus is white ; but there are also 
red and yellow roses. In Cant. 2 : 1 and 




SWEET-SCENTED NARCISSUS (nAKCISSUS 

tazetta). 

Isa. 35 : 1 the Hebrew word habatstseleth 
(found only in these passages), rendered 
**rose" (R.V. marg., "autumn crocus"), 
is supposed by some to mean the oleander, 
by others the sweet-scented narcissus (a 
native of Palestine), the tulip, or the daisy ; 
but nothing definite can be affirmed regard- 
ing it. 

The "rose of Sharon" is probably the 
cistus or rock-rose, several species of which 
abound in Palestine. "Mount Carmel 
especially abounds in the cistus, which in 
April covers some of the barer parts of the 
mountain with a glow not inferior to that 
of the Scottish heather." (See Mteeh [2].) 

Rosh (Ezek. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 1) is rendered 
" chief "' in the Authorized Version. It is 
left untranslated as a proper name in the 
Revised Version. Some have supposed 
that the Russians are here meant, as one of 
the three Scythian tribes of whom Magog 
was the prince. They invaded the land of 
Judah in the days of Josiah. Herodotus, 
the Greek historian, says : " For twenty- 
eight years the Scythians ruled over Asia, 
and things were turned upside down by their 
violence and contempt. " (See Bethshe AN. ) 



Ros''in, found only in Authorized Ver- 
sion, margin, Ezek. 27 : 17 — Heb. tsori, uni- 
formly rendered elsewhere "balm" {q.v.), as 
here in the text. The Vulgate has resinam, 
rendered "rosin" in the Douay Version. 
As used, however, by Jerome, the Lat. 
resina denotes some odoriferous gum or oil. 

Ru''by (Heb. peninim), only in plural 
(Lam. 4 : 7). The ruby was one of the 
stones in the high priest's breastplate (Ex. 
28 : 17). A comparison is made between 
the value of wisdom and rubies (Job 28 : 18 ; 
Prov. 3 : 15 ; 8 : 11). The price of a virtuous 
woman is said to be "far above rubies" 
(Prov. 31 : 10). 

The exact meaning of the Hebrew word 
is uncertain. Some render it ' ' red coral ; " 
others, "pearl "or "mother-of-pearl." 

Rud^der bands. Ancient ships had two 
great broad-bladed oars for rudders. These, 
when not in use, were lifted out of the 
water and bound or tied up. When re- 
quired for use, these bands were unloosed 
and the rudders allowed to drop into the 
water (Acts 27 : 40). 

Rue, a garden herb {Euta graveolens) 
which the Pharisees were careful to tithe 




RUE (rUTA graveolens). 

(Luke 11 : 42), neglecting weightier matters. 
' It is omitted in the parallel passage of 



RUFUS 



590 



SABAOTH 



Matt. 23 : 23. There are several species 
growing wild in Palestine. It is used for 
medicinal and culinary purposes. It has a 
powerful scent, and is a stimulant, (See 
Mint.) 

Ru^fus — red — the son of Simon the 
Cyrenian (Mark 15 : 21), whom the Roman 
soldiers comj)elled to carry the cross on 
which our Lord was crucified. Probably 
it is the same person who is again men- 
tioned in Rom. 16 : 13 as a disciple at Rome, 
whose mother also was a Christian held in 
esteem by the apostle. Mark mentions 
him along with his brother Alexander as 
persons well known to his readers (Mark 
15 : 21). 

Ruha^'mah — having obtained mercy — a 
symbolical name given to the daughter of 
Hosea (2 : 1). 

Ru^mah — elevation — probably the same 
as Arumah ( Judg. 9 : 41 ; 2 Kings 23 : 36), 
near Shechem. Others identify it with 
Tell Rumeh, in Galilee, about 6 miles north 
of Nazareth. 

Rush, the papyrus (Job 8 : 11). (See 
Bulrush.) The expression "branch and 
rush " in Isa. 9 : 14 ; 19 : 15 means "utterly. " 

Ruth — a friend — a Moabitess, the wife 
of Mahlon, whose father, Eliraelech, had 
settled in the land of Moab. On the death 
of Elimelech and Mahlon, Naomi came 
with Ruth, her daughter-in-law, who re- 
fused to leave her, to Bethlehem, the old 
home from which Elimelech had migrated. 
There she had a rich relative, Boaz, to whom 
Ruth was eventually married. She became 
the mother of Obed, the grandfather of 
David. Thus Ruth, a Gentile, is among 
the maternal progenitors of our Lord (Matt. 
1:5). The story of "the gleaner Ruth 
illustrates the friendly relations between 
the good Boaz and his reapers, the Jewish 



land system, the method of transferring 
property from one person to another, the 
working of the Mosaic law for the relief 
of distressed and ruined families ; but, 
above all, handing down the unselfishness, 
the brave love, the unshaken trustfulness 
of her who, though not of the chosen race, 
was, like the Canaanitess Tamar (Gen. 38 : 
29 ; Matt. 1 : 3) and the Canaanitess Rahab 
(Matt. 1 : 5), privileged to become the an- 
cestress of David, and so of ' great David's 
greater Son ' " (Ruth 4 : 18-22). 

Ruth, The Book of, was originally a 
part of the Book of Judges, but it now 
forms one of the twenty-four sej^arate books 
of the Hebrew Bible. 

The history it contains refers to a period 
perhaps about one hundred and twenty- 
six years before the birth of David. It 
gives (1) an account of Naomi's going to 
Moab with her husband, Elimelech, and of 
her subsequent return to Bethlehem with 
her daughter-in-law; (2) the marriage of 
Boaz and Ruth ; and (3) the birth of Obed, 
of whom David sprang. 

The author of this book was probably 
Samuel, according to Jewish tradition. 

" Brief as this book is, and simple as is 
its story, it is remarkably rich in examples 
of faith, patience, industry, and kindness, 
nor less so in indications of the care which 
God takes of those who put their trust in 
him." 

Rye = Rie (Heb. kussemeth), found in 
Ex. 9 : 32 ; Isa. 28 : 25, in all of which the 
margins of the Authorized and of the Re- 
vised Versions have ' ' spelt. " This Hebrew 
word also occurs in Ezek. 4 : 9, where the 
Authorized Version has ' ' fitches '' (g. v. ) and 
the Revised Version "spelt." This, there 
can be no doubt, was the Triticum spclta, 
a species of hard, rough-grained wheat. 



s 



Sabachtha'ni — thou hast forsaken me — 
one of the Aramaic words uttered by our 
Lord on the cross (Matt. 27:46; Mark 
15 ; 34). 



Saba^oth, the transliteration of the 
Hebrew word tsehhcVoth, meaning "hosts," 
"armies" (Rom. 9:29; James 5:4). In 
the LXX. the Hebrew word is rendered by 



SABBATH 



591 



SABBATH 



"Almighty." (See Rev. 4:8; comp. Isa. 
6:3.) It may designate Jehovah as either 
(1) God of the armies of earth, or (2) God 
of the armies of the stars, or (3) God of the 
unseen armies of angels ; or j)erhaps it may 
include all these ideas. 

Sab''bath (Heb. verb shdbhath, meaning 
"to rest from labour"), the day of rest. 
It is first mentioned as having been insti- 
tuted in Paradise, when man was in inno- 
cence (Gen. 2:2). " The sabbath was made 
for man, " as a day of rest and refreshment 
for the body and of blessing to the soul. 

It is next referred to in connection with 
the gift of manna to the children of Israel 
,in the wilderness (Ex. 16:23); and after- 
wards, when the law was given from Sinai 
(20 : 11), the people were solemnly charged 
to "remember the sabbath day, to keep 
it holy.'' Thus it is spoken of as an institu- 
tion already existing. 

In the Mosaic law strict regulations were 
laid down regarding its observance (Ex. 
35 : 2, 3 ; Lev. 23 : 3 ; 26 : 34). These were 
peculiar to that dispensation. 

In the subsequent history of the Jews 
frequent references are made to the sanctity 
of the Sabbath (Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 6, 7 ; 58 : 13, 
14 ; Jer. 17 : 20-22 ; Neh. 13 : 19). In later 
times they perverted the Sabbath by their 
traditions. Our Lord rescued it from their 
perversions, and recalled to them its true 
nature and intent (Matt. 12 : 10-13 ; Mark 
2:27; Luke 13 : 10-17). 

The Sabbath, originally instituted for man 
at his creation, is oi permanent and universal 
obligation. The physical necessities of man 
require a Sabbath of rest. He is so con- 
stituted that his bodily welfare needs at 
least one day in seven for rest from ordinary 
labour. Experience also proves that the 
moral and spiritual necessities of men also 
demand a Sabbath of rest. "I am more 
and more sure by experience that the rea- 
son for the observance of the Sabbath lies 
deep in the everlasting necessities of human 
nature, and that as long as man is man the 
blessedness of keeping it, not as a day of 
rest only, but as a day of spiritual rest, will 
never be annulled. I certainly do feel by 
experience the eternal obligation, because 
of the eternal necessity, of the Sabbath. 



The soul withers withovit it. It thrives in 
proportion to its observance. The Sabbath 
was made for man. God made it for men 
in a certain spiritual state because they 
needed it. The need, therefore, is deeply 
hidden in human nature. He who can 
dispense with it must be holy and spiritual 
indeed. And he who, still unholy and un- 
spiritual, would yet dispense with it is a 
man that would fain be vidser than his 
Maker " (E. W. Robertson). 

The ancient Babylonian calendar, as seen 
from recently recovered inscriptions on the 
bricks among the ruins of the royal i^alace, 
was based on the division of time into weeks 
of seven days. The Sabbath is in these in- 
scriptions designated Sahaitu, and defined 
as " a day of rest for the heart " and " a day 
of completion of labour. " 

The change of the day. Originally at 
creation the seventh day of the week was 
set apart and consecrated as the Sabbath. 
The first day of the week is now observed 
as the Sabbath. Has God authorized this 
change? There is an obvious distinction 
between the Sabbath as an institution and 
the particular day set apart for its observ-^ 
ance. The question, therefore, as to the 
change of the day in no way affects the 
IDerpetual obligation of the Sabbath as an 
institution. Change of the day or no change, 
the Sabbath remains as a sacred institution 
the same. It cannot be abrogated. 

If any change of the day has been made, 
it must have been by Christ or by his 
authority. Christ has a right to make such 
a change (Mark 2:23-28). As Creator, 
Christ was the original Lord of the Sab- 
bath (John i. 3 ; Heb. 1 : 10). It was 
originally a mem.orial of creation. A work 
vastly greater than that of creation has 
now been accomplished by him — the work 
of redemption. We would naturally expect 
just such a change as would make the Sab- 
bath a memorial of that greater work. 

True, we can give no text authoriziilg 
the change in so many words. We have 
no express law declaring the change. But 
there are evidences of another kind. We 
know for a fact that the first day of the 
week has been observed from apostolic 
times, and the necessary conclusion is, that 



SABBATH 



592 



SACRIFICE 



it was observed by the apostles and their 
immediate disciples. This, we may be 
sure, they never would have done without 
the permission or the authority of their 
Lord. 

After his resurrection — which took place 
on the first day of the week (Matt. 28 : 1 ; 
Mark 16 : 2 ; Luke 24 : 1 ; John 20 : 1)— we 
never find Christ meeting with his disciples 
on the seventh day. But he specially 
honoured the first day by manifesting him- 
self to them on four separate occasions 
(Matt. 28:9; Luke 24:34, 18-33; John 
20 : 19-23). Again, on the next first day of 
the week, Jesus appeared to his disciples 
(John 20 : 26). 

Some have calculated that Christ's ascen- 
sion took place on the first day of the week. 
And there can be no doubt that the descent 
of the Holy Ghost at Pentecost was on that 
day (Acts 2 : 1). Thus Christ appears as 
instituting a new day to be observed by 
his people as the Sabbath — a day to be 
henceforth known amongst them as the 
"Lord's day." The observance of this 
" Lord's day " as the Sabbath was the 
general custom of the primitive churches, 
and must have had apostolic sanction (comp. 
Acts 20 : 3-7 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 1, 2) and authority, 
and so the sanction and authority of Jesus 
Christ. 

The words "at her sabbaths " (Lam. 1 : 7, 
A.V.) ought probably to be, as in the Re- 
vised Version, "at her desolations." 

Sab^bath day's journey, supposed to be 
a distance of 2,000 cubits, or less than half- 
a-mile, the distance to which, according to 
Jewish tradition, it was allowable to travel 
on the Sabbath day without violating the 
law (Acts 1 : 12 ; comp. Ex. 16 : 29 ; Num. 
35 : 5 ; Josh. 3 : 4). 

Sabbat^ical year, every seventh year, 
during which the land, according to the 
law of Moses, had to remain uncultivated 
(Lev. 25 : 2-7 ; comp. Ex. 23 : 10, 11, 12 ; Lev. 
26 : 34, 35). Whatever grew of itself dur- 
ing that year was not for the owner of the 
land, but for the poor and the stranger and 
the beasts of the field. All debts, except 
those of foreigners, were to be remitted 
(Deut. 15:1-11). There is little notice of 
the observance of this year in Biblical his- 



tory. It appears to have been much ne- 
glected (2 Chr. 36 : 20, 21). 

Sabe^ans, descendants of Seba (Gen. 
10:7); Africans (Isa. 40:3). They were 
"men of stature," and engaged in mer- 
chandise (Isa. 45 : 14). Their conversion to 
the Lord was predicted (Ps. 72 : 10). This 
word, in Ezek. 23 : 42, should be read, as 
in the margin of the Authorized Version, 
and in the Revised Version, "drunkards." 
Another tribe, apparently given to war, is 
mentioned in Job 1 : 15. 

Sab^tah — striking — the third son of Cush 
(Gen. 10:7; 1 Chr. 1:9). 

Sab'^techa, the fifth son of Cush [id. ). 

Sa^char — hire. (1.) One of David's heroes 
(1 Chr. 11 : 35) ; called also Sharar (2 Sam. 
23 : 33). 

(2.) A son of Obed-edom the Gittite, and 
a temple porter (1 Chr. 26 : 4). 

Sack^but (Chald. sabkha; Gr. sambuke), 
a Syrian stringed instrument resembling a 
harp (Dan. 3 : 5, 7, 10, 15) ; not the modern 
sackbut, which is a wind instrument. 

Sack^cloth, cloth made of black goats' 
hair — coarse, rough, and thick — used for 
sacks, and also worn by mourners (Gen. 
37:34; 42:25; 2 Sam. 3:31; Esther 4: 

1, 2 ; Ps. 30 : 11, etc. ), and as a sign of re- 
pentance (Matt. 11 : 21). It was put upon 
animals by the people of Nineveh (Jonah 
3:8). 

Sac'rifice. The offering up of sacrifices 
is to be regarded as a divine institution. 
It did not originate with man. God him- 
self appointed it as the mode in which 
acceptable worship was to be ofi^ered to 
him by guilty man. The language and the 
idea of sacrifice pervade the whole Bible. 

Sacrifices were offered in the ante- 
diluvian age. The Lord clothed Adam 
and Eve with the skins of animals, which 
in all probability had been offered in sacri- 
fice (Gen. 3 : 21). Abel offered a sacrifice 
"of the firstlings of his flock "(4:4; Heb. 
11 : 4). A distinction also was made be- 
tween clean and unclean animals, which 
there is every reason to believe had refer- 
ence to the offering up of sacrifices (Gen. 7 : 

2, 8), because animals were not given to 
man as food till after the Flood, 

The same practice is continued down 



SADDUCEES 



593 



SAFFRON 



through the patriarchal age (Gen. 8 : 20 ; 
12 : 7 ; 13 : 4, 18 ; 15 : 9-11 ; 22 : 1-18, etc. ). 

In the Mosaic period of Old Testament 
history definite laws were prescribed by God 
regarding the different kinds of sacrifices 
that were to be offered and the manner in 
which the offering was to be made. The 
offering of stated sacrifices became indeed 
a prominent and distinctive feature of the 
whole period (Ex. 12 : 3-27 ; Lev. 23 : 5-8 ; 
Num. 9 : 2-14). (See Altar. ) 

We learn from the Epistle to the He- 
brews that sacrifices had in themselves no 
value or efficacy. They were only the 
"shadow of good things to come," and 
pointed the worshippers forward to the 
coming of the great High Priest, who, in 
the fulness of the time, " was offered once 
for all to bear the sin of many." Sacri- 
fices belonged to a temporary economy, to a 
system of types and emblems which served 
their purposes and have now passed away. 
The "one sacrifice for sins" hath "per- 
fected for ever them that are sanctified. " 

Sacrifices were of two kinds : — 1. Un- 
bloody — such as (1) first-fruits and tithes ; 
(2) meat and drink-offerings; and (3) in- 
cense. 2. Bloody — such as (1) burnt- 
offerings; (2) peace-offerings; and (3) sin 
and trespass offerings. (See Offerings.) 
\ Sad^ducees. The origin of this Jewish 
sect cannot definitely be traced. It was 
probably the outcome of the influence of 
Grecian customs and philosophy during 
the period of Greek domination. The first 
time they are met with is in connection 
with John the Baptist's ministry. They 
came out to him when on the banks of the 
Jordan, and he said to them, "O genera- 
tion of vipers, who hath warned you to flee 
from the wrath to come?" (Matt. 3:7.) 
The next time they are spoken of they are 
represented as coming to our Lord tempt- 
ing him. He calls them "hypocrites " and 
"a wicked and adulterous generation" 
(Matt. 16:1-4; 22:23). The only refer- 
ence to them in the Gospels of Mark (12 : 
18-27) and Luke (20:27-38) is their at- 
tempting to ridicule the doctrine of the 
resurrection, which they denied, as they 
also denied the existence of angels. They 
are never mentioned in John's Gospel. 



There were many Sadducees among the 
"elders" of the Sanhedrin. They seem, 
indeed, to have been as numerous as the 
Pharisees (Acts 23 : 6). They showed their 
hatred of Jesus in taking part in his con- 
demnation (Matt. 16 : 21 ; 26 : 1-3, 59 ; 
Mark 8:31; 15:1; Luke 9:22; 22:66). 
They endeavoured to prohibit the apostles 
from preaching the resurrection of Christ 
(Acts 2:24, 31, 32; 4:1, 2; 5:17, 24-28). 
They were the deists or sceptics of that 
age. They do not appear as a separate 
sect after the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Sa'doc— jws^ — mentioned in the gene- 
alogy of our Lord (Matt. 1:14). 

Saffron — Heb. karkSm, Arab, zafran 
{i.e., "yellow") — mentioned only in Cant. 
4 : 13, 14 ; the Crocus sativus. Many species 
of the crocus are found in Palestine. The 




SAFFRON (crocus SATIVUS). 

pistils and stigmata, from the centre of its 
flowers, are pressed into "saffron cakes," 
common in the East. "We found," says 



SAINT 



594 



SALOME 



Tristram, "saffron a very useful condi- 
ment in travelling cookery, a very small 
pinch of it giving not only a rich yellow 
colour but an agreeable flavour to a dish of 
rice or to an insipid stew," 

Saint, one separated from the world and 
consecrated to God ; one holy by pro- 
fession and by covenant; a believer in 
Christ (Ps. 16:3; Rom. 1:7; 8:27; Phil. 
1:1; Heb. 6:10). 

The "saints" spoken of in Jude 14 are 
probably not the disciples of Christ, but 
the "innumerable company of angels" 
(Heb. 12:22; Ps. 68:17), with reference 
to Deut. 33 : 2. 

This word is also used of the holy dead 
(Matt. 27:52; Eev. 18:24). It was not 
used as a distinctive title of the apostles 
and evangelists and of a "spiritual nobil- 
ity " till the fourth century. In that sense 
it is not a scriptural title. 

Sa''la— a shoot — a descendant of Ar- 
phaxad (Luke 3 : 35, 36) ; called also Shelah 
(1 Chr. 1 : 18, 24). 

Sal''amis, a city on the south-east coast 
of Cyprus (Acts 13:5), where Saul and 
Barnabas, on their first missionary jour- 
ney, preached the word in one of the Jew- 
ish synagogues, of which there seem to 
have been several in that place. It is now 
called Famagusta. 

Sala^thiel — ivhom I asked of God — the 
son of Jeconiah (Matt. 1 : 12; 1 Chr. 3 : 17) ; 
also called the son of Neri (Luke 3 : 27). 
The probable explanation of the apparent 
discrepancy is that he was the son of Neri, 
the descendant of Nathan, and thus heir to 
the throne of David on the death of Jeco- 
niah (comp. Jer. 22 : 30). 

Sal^'cah — wandering — a city of Bashan 
assigned to the half tribe of Manasseh 
(Deut. 3 : 10 ; Josh. 12 : 5 ; 13 : 11), identified 
with Salkhad, about 56 miles east of Jor- 
dan. 

Sa'^lem — peace — commonly supposed to 
be another name of Jerusalem (Gen. 14 : 
18; Ps. 76:2; Heb. 7:1, 2). 

Sa''lim — peaceful — a place near ^non 
{q.v.), on the west of Jordan, where John 
baptized (John 3 : 23). It was probably 
the Shalem mentioned in Gen. 33 : 18, 
about 7 miles south of ^non, at the head 



of the great Wady Far'ah, which formed 
the northern boundary of Judea in the Jor- 
dan valley. 

Sal^lai — basket-maker. (1.) A Benja- 
mite (Neh. 11 : 8). 

(2. ) A priest in the days of Joshua and 
Zerubbabel (Neh. 12 : 20). 

&&.V\VL—toeighed. (1.) A priest (Neh. 
12 : 7). 

(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 9:7; Neh. 11: 
7). 

Salomon — clothed — the son of Nashon 
(Kuth 4:20; Matt. 1:4, 5), possibly the 
same as Salma in 1 Chr. 2 : 51. 

Salomon — shady; or Zalmon {q.v.) — 
a hill covered with dark forests, south of 
Shechem, from which Abimelech and his 
men gathered wood to burn that city 
(Judg. 9 : 48). In Ps. 68 : 14 the change 
from war to peace is likened to snow on 
the dark mountain, as some interpret the 
expression. Others siippose the words here 
mean that the bones of the slain left un- 
buried covered the land, so that it seemed 
to be white as if covered with snow. The 
reference, however, of the psalm is probably 
to Josh. 11 and 12. The scattering of the 
kings and their followers is fitly likened 
unto the snow-flakes rapidly falling on the 
dark Salmon. It is the modem Jehel 
Suleiman. 

Salmo^ne, a promontory on the east of 
Crete, under which Paul sailed on his 
voyage to Rome (Acts 27 : 7) ; the modern 
Cape Sidero. 

Salo^me. (1.) The wife of Zebedee and 
mother of James and John (Matt. 27 : 56), 
and probably the sister of Mary, the mother 
of our Lord (John 19 : 25). She sought for 
her sons places of honour in Christ's king- 
dom (Matt. 20 : 20, 21 ; comp. 19 : 28). She 
witnessed the crucifixion (Mark 15 : 40), 
and was present with the other women at 
the sepulchre (Matt. 27 : 56). 

(2.) "The daughter of Herodias," not 
named in the New Testament. On the 
occasion of the birthday festival held by 
Herod Antipas, who had married her 
mother Herodias, in the fortress of Ma- 
chserus, she "came in and danced, and 
pleased Herod" (Mark 6:14-29). John 
the Baptist, at that time a prisoner in the 



SALT 



595 



SALVATION 



dungeons underneath the castle, was at her 
request beheaded by order of Herod, and his 
head given to the damsel in a charger, "and 
the damsel gave it to her mother," w^hose 
revengeful spirit vi^as thus gratified. "A 
luxurious feast of the period " (says Tarrar, 
Life of Christ) "was not regarded as com- 
plete unless it closed with some gross panto- 
mimic representation; and doubtless Herod 
had adopted the evil fashion of his day. But 
he had not anticipated for his guests the 
rare luxury of seeing a princess, — his own 
niece, a grand-daughter of Herod the Great 
and of Mariamne, a descendant, therefore, 
of Simon the high priest and the great 
line of Maccabean princes — a princess who 
afterwards became the wife of a tetrarch 
[Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis] and the 
mother of a king, — honouring them by de- 
grading herself into a scenic dancer." 

Salt, used to season food (Job 6 : 6), and 
mixed with the fodder of cattle (Isa. 30 : 
24, "clean;" in marg. of R.V. "salted"). 
All meat-offerings were seasoned with salt 
(Lev. 2:13). To eat salt with one is to par- 
take of his hospitality — to derive subsist- 
ence from him ; and hence he who did so 
was bound to look after his host's interests 
(Ezra 4 : 14, " We have maintenance from 
the king's palace;" A.V. marg., "We are 
salted with the salt of the palace;" R,.V., 
"We eat the salt of the palaee"). 

A ' ' covenant of salt " (Num. ] 8 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 
13 : 5) was a covenant of perpetual obliga- 
tion. New-born children were rubbed with 
salt (Ezek. 16 : 4). Disciples are likened 
unto salt, with reference to its cleansing 
and preserving uses (Matt. 5 : 13). When 
Abimelech took the city of Shechem, he 
sowed the place with salt, that it might 
always remain a barren soil (Judg. 9 : 45). 
Sir Lyon Playfair argues, on scientific 
grounds, that under the generic name of 
"salt," in certain passages, we are to un- 
derstand petroleum or its residue asphalt. 
Thus in Gen. 19 : 26 he would read " pillar 
of asphalt ; " and in Matt. 5 :13, instead of 
' ' salt, " " petroleum, ' ' which loses its essence 
by exposure, as salt does not, and becomes 
asphalt, with which pavements were made. 
The Jehel Usdum, to the south of the 
Dead Sea, is a mountain of rock salt about 



7 miles long and from 2 to 3 miles wide 
and some hundreds of feet high. 

Salt Sea (Josh. 3 : 16). See Dead Sea. 

Salt, The city of, one of the cities of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 62), probably in the Valley 
of Salt, at the southern end of the Dead Sea. 

Salt, Valley of, a place where it is said 
David smote the Syrians (2 Sam. 8:13). 
This valley is the ancient border between 
Judah and Edom on the south of the Dead 
Sea. Hence some interpreters would insert 
the words, "and he smote Edom," after the 
word ' ' Syrians " in the above text. It is con- 
jectured that while David was leading his 
army against the Ammonites and Syrians, 
the Edomites invaded the south of Judah, 
and that David sent Joab or Abishai against 
them, who drove them back and finally sub- 
dued Edom. (Comp. title to Ps. 60.) 

Here also Amaziah "slew of Edom ten 
thousand men " (2 Kings 14 : 7 ; comp. 8 : 
20-22 and 2 Chr. 25 : 5-11). 

Saluta^tion. "Eastern modes of salu- 
tation are not unfrequently so prolonged as 
to become wearisome and a positive waste 
of time. The profusely polite Arab asks 
so many questions after your health, your 
happiness, your welfare, your house, and 
other things, that a person ignorant of the 
habits of the country would imagine there 
must be some secret ailment or mysterious 
sorrow oppressing you, which you wished 
to conceal, so as to spare the feelings of a 
dear, sympathizing friend, but which he, in 
the depth of his anxiety, would desire to 
hear of. I have often listened to these pro- 
longed salutations in the house, the street, 
and the highway, and not unfrequently I 
have experienced their tedious monotony, 
and I have bitterly lamented useless waste 
of time" (Porter, Through Samaria, etc.). 
The work on which the disciples were sent 
forth was one of urgency, which left no 
time for empty compliments and prolonged 
greetings (L\ike 10 : 4). 

Salva^'tion. This word is used of the 
deliverance of the Israelites from the 
Egyptians (Ex. 14 : 13), and of deliver- 
ance generally from evil or danger. In 
the New Testament it is specially used 
with reference to the great deliverance 
from the guilt and the pollution of sin 



SAMARIA 



596 



SAMARITANS 



wrought out by Jesus Christ — " the great 
salvation " (Heb. 2 : 3). (See Redemption ; 
Regeneeation. ) 

Sama'^ria — a xoatch-mountain or a watch- 
tower. In the heart of the mountains of 
Israel, a few miles north-west of Shechem, 
stands the "hill of Shomeron," a solitary- 
mountain, a great "mamelon." It is an 
oblong hill, with steep but not inaccessible 
sides, and a long flat top. Omri, the king 
of Israel, purchased this hill from Shemer 
its owner for two talents of silver, and 
built on its broad summit the city to which 
he gave the name of "Shomeron" — i.e., 
Samaria, as the new capital of his king- 
dom instead of Tirzah (1 Kings 16 : 24). 
As such it possessed many advantages. 
Here Omri resided during the last six 
years of his reign. As the result of an un- 
successful war with Syria, he appears to 
have been obliged to grant to the Syrians 
the right to "make streets in Samaria" — 
i.e., probably permission to the Syrian 
merchants to carry on their trade in the 
Israehte capital. This would imply the 
existence of a considerable Syrian popu- 
lation. 

Samaria was frequently besieged. In 
the (.lays of Ahab, Benhadad II. came up 
against it with thirty-two vassal kings, 
but was defeated with a great slaughter 
(1 Kings 20 : 1-22). A second time, next 
year, he assailed it, but was again utterly 
routed, and was compelled to surrender 
to Ahab (20 : 28-34), whose army, as com- 
pared with that of Benhadad, was no more 
than "two little flocks of kids." 

In the days of Jehoram this Benhadad 
again laid siege to Samaria, during which 
the city was reduced to the direst ex- 
tremities. But just when success seemed 
to be within their reach, they suddenly 
broke up the siege, alarmed by a mys- 
terious noise of chariots and horses and a 
great army, and fled, leaving their camp 
with all its contents behind them. The 
famishing inhabitants of the city were 
soon relieved with the abundance of the 
spoil of the Syrian camp ; and it came to 
pass, according to the word of Elisha, that 
*'a measure of fine flour was sold for a 
shekel, and two measures of barley for a 



shekel, in the gates of Samaria " (2 Kings 
7 : 1-20). 

Shalmaneser invaded Israel in the days 
of Hoshea, and reduced it to vassalage. 
He laid siege to Samaria (B.C. 723), which 
held out for three years, and was at length 
captured by Sargon, who completed the 
conquest Shalmaneser had begun (2 Kings 
18 : 9-12 ; 17 : 3), and removed vast num- 
bers of the tribes into captivity. 

This city, after passing through various 
vicissitudes, was given by the emperor 
Augustus to Herod the Great, who rebuilt 
it, and called it Sehaste (Gr. form of Augus- 
tus) in honour of the emperor. In the New 
Testament the only mention of it is in 
Acts 8 : 5-13, where it is recorded that 
Philip went down to the city of Samaria 
and preached there. 

It is now represented by the hamlet of 
Sebustieh, containing about three hundred 
inhabitants. The ruins of the ancient town 
are all scattered over the hill, down the 
sides of which they have rolled. The 
shafts of about one hundred of what must 
have been grand Corinthian colimans are 
still standing, and attract much attention, 
although nothing definite is known regard- 
ing them. (Comp. Micah 1:6.) 

In the time of Christ, Western Palestine 
was divided into three provinces — Judea, 
Samaria, an^ Galilee. Samaria occupied 
the centre of Palestine (John 4 : 4). It is 
called in the Talmiid the "land of the 
Cuthim, " and is not regarded as a part of 
the Holy Land at all. 

It may be noticed that the distance be- 
tween Samaria and Jerusalem — the re- 
spective capitals of the two kingdoms — is 
only 35 miles in a direct line. 

Sama'ria, Kingdom of. See Iseael, 
Kingdom of. 

Samar^itans, the name given to the new 
and mixed inhabitants whom Esarhaddon 
(B.C. 677), the king of Assyria, brought 
from Babylon and other places and settled 
in the cities of Samaria, instead of the 
original inhabitants whom Sargon (b.c. 
721) had removed into captivity (2 Kings 
17:24; comp. Ezra 4:2, 9, 10). These 
strangers (comp. Luke 17 : 18) amalgamated 
with the Jews still remaining in the land, 



SAMARITANS 



59^ 



SAMARITANS 




SAMARITAN PKIEST AND PENTATEUCH. 



and gradually abandoned their old idolatry 
and adopted partly the Jewish religion. 



After the return from the Captivity, the 
Jews in Jerusalem refused to allow them 

39 



SAMARITAN 



598 



SAMSON 



to take part with them in rebuilding the 
temple, and hence sprang up an open en- 
mity between them. They erected a rival 
temple on Mount Gerizim, which was, 
however, destroyed by a Jewish king (b.c. 
130). They then built another at Shechem. 
The bitter enmity between the Jews and 
Samaritans continued in the time of our 
Lord: the Jews "had no dealings with 
the Samaritans " (John 4:9; comp. Luke 
9 : 52, 53). Our Lord was in contempt 
called " a Samaritan " (John 8 : 48). Many 
of the Samaritans early embraced the gos- 
pel (John 4 : 5-42 ; Acts 8:25: 9:31; 15:3). 
Of these Samaritans there still remains a 
small population of about one hundred and 
sixty, who all reside in Shechem, where 
they carefully observe the religious customs 
of their fathers. They are the "smallest 
and oldest sect in the world." 

Samaritan Pen'tateuch. On the re- 
turn from the Exile, the Jews refused the 
Samaritans participation with them in the 
worship at Jer\isalem, and the latter sepa- 
rated from all fellowship with them, and 
built a temple for themselves on Mount 
Gerizim. This temple was razed to the 
ground more than one hundred years B.C. 
Then a system of worship was instituted 
similar to that of the temple at Jerusalem. 
It was founded on the Law, copies of 
which had been multiplied in Israel as 
well as in Judah. Thus the Pentateuch was 
preserved among the Samaritans, although 
they never called it by this name, but 
always "the Law," which they read as one 
book. The division into five books, as we 
now have it, however, was adopted by the 
Samaritans, as it was by the Jews, in all 
their priests' copies of "the Law," for the 
sake of convenience. This was the only 
portion of the Old Testament which was 
accepted by the Samaritans as of divine 
authority. 

The jorm of the letters in the manuscript 
copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch is 
different from that of the Hebrew copies, 
and is probably the same as that which 
was in general use before the Captivity. 
There are other peculiarities in the writing 
which need not here be specified. 

There are important differences between 



the Hebrew and the Samaritan copies of 
the Pentateuch in the readings of many 
sentences. In about two thousand in- 
stances in which the Samaritan and the 
Jewish texts differ, the LXX. agrees with 
the former. The New Testament also, 
when quoting from the Old Testament, 
agrees as a rule with the Samaritan text, 
where that differs from the Jewish. Thus 
Ex. 12 : 40 in the Samaritan reads, "Now 
the sojourning of the children of Israel and 
of their fathers which they had dwelt in 
the land of Canaan and in Egypt was four 
hundred and thirty years " (comp. Gal. 3 : 
17). It may be noted that the LXX. has 
the same reading of this text. 

Sam^gar-ne'too — he gracious, Nebo ! or 
a cup-hearer of Neho — probably the title of 
Nergal-sharezer, one of the princes of 
Babylon ( Jer. 39 : 3). 

Sa''m.os, an island in the -^gean Sea, 
which Paul passed on his voyage from 
Assos to Miletus (Acts 20 : 15), on his third 
missionary journey. It is about 27 miles 
long and 20 broad, and lies about 42 miles 
south-west of Smyrna. 

Samothra'^cia, an island in the ^gean 
Sea, off the coast of Thracia, about 32 miles 
distant. This Thracian Samos was passed 
by Paul on his voyage from Troas to Neapolis 
(Acts 16 : 11) on his first missionary jour- 
ney. It is about 8 miles long and 6 miles 
broad. Its modern name is Samothraki. 

Sam^'son — destroyer — the son of Mano- 
ah, born at Zorah. The narrative of his 
life is given in Judg. 13-16. He was a 
" Nazarite unto God " from his birth — the 
first Nazarite mentioned in Scripture 
(Judg. ]3 : 3-5 ; comp. Num. 6 : 1-21). The 
first recorded event of his life was his mar- 
riage with a Philistine woman of Timnath 
(Judg. 14 : 1-4). Such a marriage was not 
forbidden by the law of Moses, as the 
Philistines did not form one of the seven 
doomed Canaanite nations (Ex. 34 : 11-16 ; 
. Deut. 7 : 1-4). It was, however, an ill- 
assorted and unblessed marriage. His 
wife was soon taken from him and given 
"to his companion'' (Judg. 14:20). For 
this Samson took revenge by burning the 
" standing corn of the Philistines " (15 : 1- 
8), who, in their turn, in revenge "burnt 



SAMUEL 



599 



SAMUEL 



her and her father with fire. " Her death 
he terribly avenged (15 : 7-19). During 
the twenty years following this he judged 
Israel ; but we have no record of his life. 
Probably these twenty years may have 
been simultaneous with the last twenty 
years of Eli's life. After this we have an 
account of his exploits at Gaza (16 : 1-3), 
and of his infatuation for Delilah, and her 
treachery (16 : 4-20), and then of his melan- 
choly death (16 : 21-31). He perished in 
the last terrible destruction he brought 
upon his enemies. "So the dead which 
he slew at his death were more [in social 
and political importance = the elite of the 
people] than they which he slew in his 
life." 

" Straining all his nerves, he bowed : 
As with the force of winds and waters pent, 
When mountains tremble, those two massy pillars 
With horrible convulsion to and fro 
He tugged, he shook, tiU down they came, and 

drew 
The whole roof after them, with burst of thunder 
Upon the heads of all who sat beneath — 
Lords, ladies, captains, counsellors, or priests. 
Their choice nobility and flower." 

Milton's Samson Agonistes. 

Sam^uel — heard of God. The peculiar 
circumstances connected with his birth are 
recorded in 1 Sam. 1 : 20. Hannah, one of 
the two wives of Elkanah, who came up to 
Shiloh to worship before the Lord, earnestly 
prayed to God that she might become the 
mother of a son. Her prayer was graciously 
granted ; and after the child was weaned 
she brought him to Shiloh and consecrated 
him to the Lord as a perpetual Nazarite 
(1 : 23-2 : 11). Here his bodily wants and 
training were attended to by the women 
who served in the tabernacle, while Eli 
cared for his religious culture. Thus, 
probably, twelve years of his life passed 
away. " The child Samuel grew on, and 
was in favour both with the Lord, and also 
with men " (2 : 26 ; comp. Luke 2 : 52). It 
was a time of great and gromng degener- 
acy in Israel ( Judg. 21 : 19-21 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 
12-17, 22). The Philistines, who of late 
had greatly increased in number and in 
power, were practically masters of the 
country, and kept the people in subjection 
(1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 13 : 3). 



At this time neio communications from 
God began to be made to the jjious child. 
A mysterious voice came to him in the 
night season, calling him by name, and, 
instructed by Eli, he answered, " Speak, 
Lord; for thy servant heareth." The 
message that came from the Lord was one 
of woe and ruin to Eli and his profligate 
sons. Samuel told it all to Eli, whose 
only answer to the terrible denunciations 
(1 Sam. 3:11-18) was, "It is the Lord; 
let him do what seemeth him good "■ — the 
passive submission of a weak character, not, 
in his case, the expression of the highest 
trust and faith. The Lord revealed him- 
self now in divers manners to Samuel, 
and his fame and his influence increased 
throughout the land as of one divinely 
called to the prophetical office. A new 
period in the history of the kingdom of 
God now commenced. 

The Philistine yoke was heavy, and the 
IDCople, groaning under the wide-spread 
oppression, suddenly rose in revolt, and 
' ' went out against the Philistines to battle. " 
A fierce and disastrous battle was fought 
at Aphek, near to Ebenezer (1 Sam. 4 : 1, 2). 
The Israelites were defeated, leaving 4,000 
dead "in the field." The chiefs of the 
people thought to repair this great disaster 
by carrying with them the ark of the cov- 
enant as the symbol of Jehovah's pres- 
ence. They accordingly, without consulting 
Samuel, fetched it out of Shiloh to the 
camp near Aphek. At the sight of the 
ark among them the people " shouted with 
a great shout, so that the earth rang again.'' 
A second battle was fought, and again the 
Philistines defeated the Israelites, stormed 
their camp, slew 30,000 men, and took the 
sacred ark. The tidings of this fatal battle 
was speedily conveyed to Shiloh ; and so 
soon as the aged Eli heard that the ark of 
God was taken, he fell backward from his 
seat at the entrance of the sanctuary, and 
his neck brake, and he died. The taber- 
nacle with its furniture was probably, by 
the advice of Samuel, now about twenty 
years of age, removed from Shiloh to some 
place of safety, and finally to Nob, where 
it remained many years (21 : 1); 

The Philistines followed up their ad- 



* SAMUEL 



600 



SAMUEL 



vantage, and marched upon Shiloh, which 
they plundered and destroyed (comp. Jer, 
7 : 12 ; Ps. 78 : 59). This was a great epoch 
in the history of Israel, For twenty years 
after this fatal battle at Aphek the whole 
land lay under the oppression of the Philis- 
tines. During all these dreary years 
Samuel was a spiritual power in the land. 
From Ramah, his native place, where he 
resided, his influence went forth on every 
side among the people. With unwearied 
zeal he went up and down from place to 
place, reproving, rebuking, and exhorting 
the people, endeavouring to awaken in 
them a sense of their sinfulness, and to lead 
them to repentance. His labours were so 
far successful that " all the house of Israel 
lamented after the Lord." Samuel sum- 
moned the people to Mizpeh, one of the 
loftiest hills in Central Palestine, where 
they fasted and prayed, and prepared 
themselves there, under his direction, for 
a great war against the Philistines, who 
now marched their whole force toward 
Mizpeh, in order to crush the Israelites 
once for all. At the intercession of Samuel 
God interposed in behalf of Israel. Samuel 
himself was their leader — the only occasion 
in which he acted as a leader in war. The 
Philistines were utterly routed. They fled 
in terror before the army of Israel, and a 
great slaughter ensued. This battle, foiight 
probably about B.C. 1095, put an end to the 
forty years of Philistine oppression. In 
memory of this great deliverance, and in 
token of gratitude for the help vouchsafed, 
Samuel set up a great stone in the battle- 
field, and called it "Ebenezer," saying, 
"Hitherto hath the Lord helped us" 
(1 Sam. 7 : 1-12). This was the spot where, 
twenty years before, the Israelites had 
suffered a great defeat, when the ark of 
God was taken. 

This victory over the Philistines was 
followed by a long period of peace for Israel 
(1 Sam. 7 : 13, 14), during which Samuel 
exercised the functions of judge, going 
"from year to year in circuit" from his 
home in Ramah to Bethel, thence to Gilgal 
(not that in the Jordan valley, but that 
which lay to the west of Ebal and Geri- 
zim), and returning by Mizpeh to Ramah. 



He established regular services at Shiloh, 
where he built an altar ; and at Ramah he 
gathered a company of young men around 
him and established a school of the prophets. 
The schools of the prophets, thus originated, 
and afterwards established also at Gibeah, 
Bethel, Gilgal, and Jericho, exercised an 
important influence on the national charac- 
ter and history of the people in maintain- 
ing pure religion in the midst of growing 
corruption. They continued to the end of 
the Jewish commonwealth. 

Many years now passed, during which 
Samuel exercised the functions of his judi- 
cial office, being the friend and counsellor 
of the people in all matters of private and 
public interest. He was a great states- 
man as well as a reformer, and all regarded 
him with veneration as the "seer," the 
prophet of the Lord. At the close of this 
period, when he was now an old man, the 
elders of Israel came to him at Ramah 
(1 Sam. 8:4, 5, 19-22) ; and feeling how 
great was the danger to which the nation 
was exposed from the misconduct of 
Samuel's sons, whom he had invested with 
judicial functions as his assistants, and 
had placed at Beersheba on the Philistine 
border, and also from a threatened invasion 
of the Ammonites, they demanded that a 
king should be set over them. This re- 
quest was very displeasing to Samuel, He 
remonstrated with them, and warned them 
of the consequences of such a step. At 
length, however, referring the matter to 
God, he acceded to their desires, and an- 
ointed Saul {q.v.) to be their king (11 : 15). 
Before retiring from public life be con- 
vened an assembly of the people at Gilgal 
(ch. 12), and there solemnly addressed them 
with reference to his own relation to them 
as judge and prophet. 

The remainder of his life he spent in re- 
tirement at Ramah, only occasionally and 
in special circumstances appearing again 
in public (1 Sam. 13, 15) with communica- 
tions from God to king Saul, While 
mourning over the many evils which now 
fell upon the nation, he is suddenly sum- 
moned (ch,16) to go to Bethlehem and anoint 
David, the son of Jesse, as king over Israel 
instead of Saul. After this little is known 



SAMUEL 



601 



SANCTIFICATION 



of him till the time of his death, which 
took place at E-amah when he was probably 
aboiit eighty years of age. "And all 
Israel gathered themselves together, and 
lamented him, and buried him in his house 
at Ramah " (25 : 1) — not in the house itself, 
but in the court or garden of his house. 
(Comp. 2 Kings 21:18; 2 Chr. 33:20; 
1 Kings 2: 34; John 19: 41.) 

Samuel's devotion to God, and the special 
favour with which God regarded him, are 
referred to in Jer. 15 : 1 and Ps. 99 : 6. 

"It is difl&cult to realize the greatness 
of a historic figure after three thousand 
years ; but Samuel must have been more 
than the Luther of his day. Uniting in 
himself all the highest offices of his nation — 
its supreme prophet, its virtual high priest, 
and its acknowledged ruler — his influence 
was intensified by the lofty singleness of 
his life and aim. Men could not forget, 
as his age increased, how Jehovah had 
chosen to make revelations through him 
while he was yet a child ; how he had 
grown up in the sacred shadow of the 
tabernacle ; how he had been a Nazarite 
from his birth ; how fearless and loyal had 
been his enthusiasm for Jehovah ; how in- 
corruptible he had been as a judge ; and 
how well his life had illustrated the high 
morality and godliness he had enforced. 
They had seen the religious revolution he 
had accomplished. The state, as a whole, 
in its great characteristics, owed, in fact, 
its noble future to his work ; for he had in 
effect founded the order of prophets, he 
had prepared the way for the kings, and 
his revival of the Mosaic religion brought 
with it the future temple and its priest- 
hood. Before his time Israel had had no 
real national existence, and seemed likely to 
perish entirely ; yet he left it proud of its 
dignity as the people of God, and on 
the threshold of its highest glory under 
David. " — Geikie's Hours with the Bible. 

Sam^uel, Books of. The LXX. trans- 
lators regarded the books of Samuel and of 
Kings as forming one continuous history, 
which they divided into four books, which 
they called "Books of the Kingdom." 
The Vulgate version followed this division, 
but styled them "Books of the Kings." 



These books of Samuel they accordingly 
called the "First" and "Second" Books of 
Kings, and not, as in the modern Protestant 
versions, the "First" and "Second" Books 
of Samuel. 

The authors of the books of Samuel 
were probably Samuel, Gad, and Nathan. 
Samuel penned the first twenty-four chap- 
ters of the first book. Gad, the companion 
of David (1 Sam. 22 : 5), continued the his- 
tory thus commenced ; and Nathan com- 
pleted it, probably arranging the whole in 
the form in which we now have it (1 Chr. 
29 : 29). 

The contents of the books. The first 
book comprises a period of about a hun- 
dred years, and nearly coincides with the 
life of Samuel. It contains (1) the history 
of Eli (1-4); (2) the history of Samuel 
(5-12) ; (3) the history of Saul and of 
David in exile (13-31). The second book, 
comprising a period of perhaps fifty years, 
contains a history of the reign of David 
(1) over Judah (1-4), and (2) over all Israel 
(5-24), mainly in its political aspects. The 
last four chapters of Second Samuel may 
be regarded as a sort of appendix record- 
ing various events, but not chronologically. 
These books do not contain complete his- 
tories. Frequent gaps are met with in the 
record, because their object is to present a 
history of the kingdom of God in its gradual 
development, and not of the events of the 
reigns of the successive rulers. It is no- 
ticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11 : 2-12 : 
29) containing an account of David's sin in 
the matter of Bathsheba is omitted in the 
corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20. 

Sanbal^'lat held some place of authority 
in Samaria when Nehemiah went up to 
Jerusalem to rebuild its ruined walls. He 
vainly attempted to hinder this work 
(Neh. 2 : 10, 19 ; 4 : 1-12 ; 6). His daughter 
became the wife of one of the sons of Joiada, 
a son of the high priest, much to the grief 
of Nehemiah (13 : 28). 

Sanc^tification involves more than a 
mere moral reformation of character, 
brought about by the power of the truth : 
it is the work of the Holy Spirit bringing 
the whole nature more and more under the 
influences of the new gracious principles 



SANCTUARY 



602 



SANHEDRIM 



implanted in the soul in regeneration. In 
other words, sanctification is the carrying 
on to perfection the work begun in re- 
generation, and it extends to the whole 
man (Rom. 6 : 13 ; 2 Cor. 4:6; Col. 3 : 10 ; 
1 John 4 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 19). It is the special 
office of the Holy Spirit in the plan of re- 
demption to carry on this work (1 Cor. 6 : 
11 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 13). 

Faith is instrumental in securing sancti- 
fication, inasmuch as it (1) secures union to 
Christ (1 Cor. 13 ; Gal. 2 : 20), and (2) brings 
the believer into living contact with the 
truth, whereby he is led to yield obedience 
"to the commands, trembling at the threat- 
enings, and embracing the promises of God 
for this life and that which is to come. " 

Perfect sanctification is not attainable in 
this life (1 Kings 8 : 46 ; Prov. 20 : 9 ; Eccl. 
7 : 20 ; James 3 : 2 ; 1 John 1 : 8). See Paul's 
account of himself in Rom. 7 : 14-25 ; Phil. 
3 : 12-14 ; and 1 Tim. 1 : 15 ; also the con- 
fessions of David (Ps. 19 : 12 ; 51), of Moses 
(90 : 8), of Job (42 : 5, 6), and of Daniel (9 : 
20). "The more holy a man is, the more 
humble, self-renouncing, self-abhorring, 
and the more sensitive to every sin, he be- 
comes, and the more closely he clings to 
Christ. The moral imperfections which 
cling to him he feels to be sins, which he 
laments and strives to overcome. Believers 
find that their life is a constant warfare, 
and they need to take the kingdom of 
heaven by storm, and watch while they 
pray. They are ahvays subject to the con- 
stant chastisement of their Father's loving 
hand, which can only be designed to correct 
their imperfections and to confirm their 
graces. And it has been notoriously the 
fact that the best Christians have been 
those who have been the least prone to 
claim the attainment of perfection for 
themselves. " — Hodge's Outlines. 

Sanc'tuary denotes — (1) the Holy Land 
(Ex. 15 : 17 ; comp. Ps. 114 : 2) ; (2) the 
temple (1 Chr. 22 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 21) ; (3) 
the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 8 ; Lev. 12 : 4 ; 21 : 
12) ; (4) the holy place, the place of the 
Presence (Gr. liter on, the ieva^le-house ; not 
the ndos, which is the temple area, with its 
courts and porches) — Lev. 4:6; Num. 10 : 
21; Eph. 2:21, R.V., marg. ; (5) God's 



holy habitation in heaven (Ps. 102 : 19). 
In the final state there is properly "no 
sanctuary " (Rev, 21 : 22), for God and the 
Lamb "are the sanctuary." All is there 
hallowed by the Divine Presence ; all is 
sanctuary. 

San^dals. Mentioned only in Mark 6 : 
9 and Acts 12 : 8. The sandal was simply 
a sole, made of wood or palm-bark, fastened 
to the foot by leathern straps. Sandals 




were also made of seal-skin (Ezek. 16 : 10 ; 
lit. tahash, "leather;" A.V., "badger's 
skin"). (See Shoe.) 

San'hedrim,more correctly San^hedrin 
(Gr. synedrion), meaning "a sitting to- 
gether," or a "council." This word (ren- 
dered "council," A. V.) is frequently used 
in the New Testament (Matt. 5 : 22 ; 26 : 59 ; 
Mark 15 : 1, etc. ) to denote the supreme 
judicial and administrative council of the 
Jews, which, it is said, was first instituted 
by Moses, and was composed of seventy 
men (Num. 11 : 16, 17). But that seems to 
have been only a temporary arrangement 
which Moses made. This council is with 
greater probability supposed to have origi- 
nated among the Jews when they were 
under the domination of the Syrian kings 
in the time of the Maccabees. The name 
is first employed by the Jewish historian 
Josephus. This "council" is referred to 
simply as the " chief priests and elders of 
the people " (Matt. 26 : 3, 47, 57, 59 ; 27 : 1, 
3, 12, 20, etc.), before whom Christ was 
tried on the charge of claiming to be the 
Messiah. Peter and John were also brought 



SANSANNAH 



603 



SARGON 



before it for promulgating heresy (Acts 4 : 
1-23 ; 5 : 17^1) ; as was also Stephen on a 
charge of blasphemy (6 : 12-15), and Paul 
for violating a temj^le by-law (22 : 30 ; 23 : 
1-10). 

The Sanhedrin is said to have consisted 
of seventy-one members, the high priest 
being president. They were of three classes 
—(1) the chief priests, or heads of the 
twenty - four priestly courses (1 Chr. 24), 
(2) the scribes, and (3) the elders. As the 
highest court of judicature, "in all causes 
and over all persons, ecclesiastical and civil, 
supreme," its decrees were binding, not 
only on the Jews in Palestine, but on all 
Jews wherever scattered abroad. Its juris- 
diction was greatly curtailed by Herod, 
and afterwards by the Romans. 

Its usual place of meeting was within 
the precincts of the temple, in the hall 
" Gazith," but it sometimes met also in the 
house of the high priest (Matt. 26 : 3), who 
was assisted by two vice-presidents. 

Sansan'nah — a palm branch, or a thorn 
hush — a town in the south (the negeb) of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 31) ; called also Hazar- 
susah (19 : 5), or Hazar-susim (1 Chr. 4 : 31). 

Saph — extension — the son of the giant 
whom Sibbechai slew (2 Sam. 21 : 18) ; called 
also Sippai (1 Chr. 20 : 4). 

Saph'ir — beautiful — a town of Judah 
(Micah 1 : 11), identified with es-Sudfir, 5 
miles south-east of Ashdod. 

Sapph^ira — beautiful — the wife of An- 
anias [q.v.). She was a jjartner in his guilt 
and also in his punishment (Acts 5 : 1-11). 

Sapph'ire. Associated with diamonds 
(Ex. 28 : 18) and emeralds (Ezek. 28 : 13) ; 
one of the stones in the high priest's breast- 
plate. It is a precious stone of a sky-bkie 
colour, probably the lapis lazuli, brought 
from Babylon. The throne of God is de- 
scribed as of the colour of a sapphire (Ex. 
24 : 10 ; comp. Ezek. 1 : 26). 

Sa''rah — princess — the wife and at the 
same time the half-sister of Abraham (Gen. 
11 : 29 ; 20 : 12). This name was given to 
her at the time that it was announced to 
Abraham that she should be the mother of 
the promised child. Her story is from her 
marriage identified with that of the patriarch 
till the time of her death. Her death at 



the age of one hundred and twenty-seven 
years (the only instance in Scripture where 
the age of a woman is recorded) was the 
occasion of Abraham's purchasing the cave 
of Machpelah as a family burying-place. 

In the allegory of Gal. 4 : 22-31 she is the 
type of the "Jerusalem which is above." 
She is also mentioned in Heb. 11 : 11 among 
the Old Testament worthies, who "all died 
in faith." (See Abeaham.) 

Sa^rai — my princess — the name originally 
borne by Sarah (Gen. 11 : 31 ; 17 : 15). 

Sar'^dine stone (Rev. 4:3 — R.V., "sar- 
dius ; " Heb. 'odhem; LXX., Gr. sardion, 
from a root meaning "red"), a gem of a 
blood-red colour. It was called " sardius " 
because obtained from Sardis in Lydia. It 
is enumerated among the precious stones 
in the high priest's breastplate (Ex. 28 : 
17 ; 39 : 10). It is our red carnelian. 

Sar^dis, the metropolis of Lydia in Asia 
Minor. It stood on the river Pactolus, at 
the foot of mount Tmolus. Here was one 
of the seven Asiatic churches (Rev. 3 : 1-6). 
It is now a ruin called Sert-Kalessi. 

Sar^donyx (Rev. 21 : 20), a species of 
the carnelian combining the sard and the 
onyx, having three layers of opaque spots 
or stripes on a transparent red basis. Like 
the sardine, it is a variety of the chal- 
cedony, 

Sarep^ta (Luke 4 : 26). See Zarephath. 

Sar''gon, one of the most powerful of the 
Assyrian monarchs. He was the successor 
of Shalmaneser IV. The romantic story 
of his birth is thus recorded by himself on 
one of the clay tablets found in the ruins 
of the royal library: — "I am Sargon, the 
great king, the king of Agana. My mother 
was of the masters of the land, but I never 
knew my father. I was born secretly in 
the city of Atzupirani, on the banks of the 
Euphrates. My mother put me in an ark 
of bulrushes lined with bitumen, and laid 
me in the river, which did not enter the 
ark. It bore me to the d^velling of Akki, 
the water-carrier, and he in the goodness 
of his heart lifted me from the water and 
brought me up as his own son. After this 
he established me as a gardener, and Ishtar 
caused me to prosper, and after years I 
became king.^' His name occurs in the 



SATAN 



604 



SAUL 




CYLINDER RECORD- 
ING THE CONQUEST 
OF SAMARIA BY 
SARGON. 



Bible only in Isa. 20 : 1, in connection with 
the siege of Ashdod. By a succession of 
victories he enlarged and consolidated the 
empire, which now extended from the 
Mediterranean in the west to the moun- 
tains of Elam in the east. He thus carried 
out almost to comple- 
tion the ambitious de- 
signs of Tiglath-pileser 
(q.v.). He took the city 
of Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 
6; 18:9-21), and car- 
ried 27,280 of its inhabi- 
tants into captivity. He 
found only fifty chariots 
in the Israelitish capi- 
tal. He afterwards drove 
Merodach-Baladan out 
of Babylon, which he 
entered in triumph. 
The Babylonian king 
yielded to the conqueror. 
He was murdered by 
one of his own soldiers 
in his new city of Khor- 
sabad (b.c. 705), after a reign of sixteen 
years. He was succeeded by his son Sen- 
nacherib {q.v.). 

Sa'^tan — adversary j accuser. When used 
as a proper name, the Hebrew word so ren- 
dered has the article ^'the adversary" (Job 
1 : 6-12 ; 2 : 1-7). In the New Testament 
it is used as interchangeable with Diabolos, 
or the devil, and is so used more than 
thirty times. 

He is also called "the dragon " and "the 
serpent " (Eev. 12 : 9 ; 20 : 2) ; "the prince 
of this world " (John 12 : 31 ; 14 : 30) ; " the 
prince of the power of the air " (Eph. 2:2); 
" the god of this world " (2 Cor. 4:4); and 
"the spirit that worketh in the children 
of disobedience " (Eph. 2 : 2). The distinct 
personality of Satan and his activity among 
men are thus obviously recognized. He 
tempted our Lord in the wilderness (Matt. 
4 : 1-11). He is "Beelzebub, the prince of 
the devils " (12 : 24). He is " the constant 
enemy of God, of Christ, of the divine 
kingdom, of the followers of Christ, and of 
all truth ; full of falsehood and all malice, 
and exciting and seducing to evil in every 
possible way. " His power is very great in 



the world. He is a "roaring lion, seeking 
whom he may devour" (1 Pet. 5 : 8). Men 
are said to be "taken captive by him" 
(2 Tim. 2 : 26). Christians are warned 
against his "devices" (2 Cor. 2:11), and 
called on to "resist " him (James 4 : 7). 

Christ redeems his people from "him 
that hath the power of death, that is, the 
devil " (Heb. 2: 14). Satan has the "power 
of death," not as lord, but simply as exe- 
cutioner. 

Ssi^tyr— hairy one. Mentioned in Greek 
mythology as a creature composed of a man 
and a goat, supposed to inhabit wild and 
desolate regions. The Hebrew word is 
rendered also "goat" (Lev. 4:24) and 
"devil " — i.e., an idol in the form of a goat 
(17:7; 2 Chr. 11:15). When it is said 
(Isa. 13:21; comp. 34:14) "the satyrs 
shall dance there," the meaning is that the 
place referred to shall become a desolate 
waste. Some render the Hebrew word 
"baboon," a species of which is found in 
Babylonia. 

Sanl— asked for. (1.) A king of Edoni 
(Gen. 36:37, 38); called Shaul in 1 Chr. 
1:48. 

(2.) The son of Kish (probably his only 
son, and a child of prayer — "asked for "), 
of the tribe of Benjamin, the first king of 
the Jewish nation. The singular provi- 
dential circumstances connected with his 
election as king are recorded in 1 Sam. 8- 
10. His father's she-asses had strayed, and 
Saul was sent with a servant to seek for 
them. Leaving his home at Gibeah (10 : 5, 
"the hill of God," A.V. ; lit., "Gibeah of 
God "), Saul and his servant went toward 
the north-west over Movmt Ephraim, and 
then turning north-east they came to "the 
land of Shalisha," and thence eastward to 
the land of Shalim, and at length came to 
the district of Zuph, near Samuel's home 
at Ramah (9 : 3-10). At this point Saul 
proposed to return from the three days' 
fruitless search, but his servant suggested 
that they should first consult the "seer." 
Hearing that he was about to offer sacri- 
fice, the two hastened into Ramah, and 
"behold Samtiel was coming out to meet 
them," on his way to the "bamah" — i.e., 
the "height" — where sacrifice was to be 



SAUL 



605 



SAUL 



oflfered ; and in answer to Saul's question, 
"Tell me, I pray thee, where the seer's 
house is," Samuel made himself known to 
him. Sam.uel had been divinely prepared 
for his coming (9:15-17), and received Saul 
as his guest. He took him with him to the 
sacrifice, and then after the feast "com- 
muned with Saul upon the top of the 
house" of all that was in his heart. On 
the morrow Samuel * ' took a vial of oil and 
poured it on his head," and anointed Saul 
as king over Israel (9 : 25-10 : 8), giving him 
three signs in confirmation of his call to be 
king. When Saul reached his home in 
Gibeah the last of these signs was fulfilled, 
and the Spirit of God came upon him, and 
"he was turned into another man." The 
simple covmtryman was transformed into 
the king of Israel, a remarkable change 
suddenly took place in his whole demeanour, 
and the people said in their astonishment, 
as they looked on the stalwart son of Kish, 
"Is Saul also among the prophets?" — a 
saying which passed into a "proverb." 
(Comp. 19 : 24.) 

The intercourse between Saul and Samuel 
was as yet unknown to the people. The 
" anointing " had been in secret. But now 
the time had come when the transaction 
must be confirmed by the nation. Samuel 
accordingly summoned the people to a 
solemn assembly "before the Lord" at 
Mizpeh. Here the lot was drawn (10 : 17- 
27), and it fell upon Saul, and when he was 
presented before them, the stateliest man 
in all Israel, the air was rent for the first 
time in Israel by the loud cry, "God save 
the king ! " He now returned to his home 
in Gibeah, attended by a kind of body- 
guard — " a band of men whose hearts God 
had touched." On reaching his home he 
dismissed them, and resumed the quiet toils 
of his former life. 

Soon after this, on hearing of the con- 
duct of Nahash the Ammonite at Jabesh- 
gilead {q.v.), an army out of all the tribes 
of Israel rallied at his summons to the 
trysting-place at Bezek, and he led them 
forth a great army to battle, gaining a 
complete victory over the Ammonite in- 
vaders at Jabesh (11:1-11). Amid the 
universal joy occasioned by this victory he 



was now fully recognized as the king of 
Israel. At the invitation of Samuel "all 
the people went to Gilgal, and there they 
made Saul king before the Lord in Gilgal." 
Samuel now officially anointed him as king 
(11 : 15). Although Samuel never ceased to 
be a judge in Israel, yet now his work in 
that capacity practically came to an end. 

Saul now undertook the great and diffi- 
cult enterprise of freeing the land from 
its hereditary enemies the Philistines, and 
for this end he gathered together an army 
of 3,000 men (1 Sam. 13 : 1, 2). The Phihs- 
tines were encamped at Geba. Saul, with 
2,000 men, occupied Michmash and Mount 
Bethel ; while his son Jonathan, with 
1,000 men, occupied Gibeah, to the south 
of Geba, and seemingly without any direc- 
tion from his father "smote" the Philis- 
tines in Geba. Thus roused, the Philis- 
tines, who gathered an army of 30,000 
chariots and 6,000 horsemen, and " people 
as the sand which is on the sea-shore in 
multitude," encamped in Michmash, which 
Saul had evacuated for Gilgal. Saul 
now tarried for seven days in Gilgal 
before making any movement, as Samuel 
had appointed (10 : 8) ; but becoming im- 
patient on the seventh day, as it was 
drawing to a close, when he had made an 
end of offering the burnt offering, Samuel 
appeared and warned him of the fatal 
consequences of his act of disobedience, for 
he had not waited long enough (13 : 13, 14). 

When Saul, after Samuel's departure, 
went out from Gilgal with his 600 men, 
his followers having decreased to that 
number (13 : 15), against the Philistines at 
Michmash {q.v.), he had his head-quarters 
under a pomegranate tree at Migron, 
over against Michmash, the W^dy es- 
Suweinit alone intervening. Here at 
Gibeah-Geba Saul and his army rested, 
uncertain what to do. Jonathan became 
impatient, and with his armour-bearer 
planned an assault against the Philistines, 
unknown to Saul and the army (14 : 1-15). 
Jonathan and his armour-bearer went 
down into the w^dy, and on their hands 
and knees climbed to the top of the narrow 
rocky ridge called Bozez, where was the out- 
post of the Philistine army. They surprised 



SAUL 



COG 



SAUL 



and then slew twenty of the Philistines, 
and immediately the whole host of the 
Philistines was thrown into disorder and 
fled in great terror. " It was a very great 
trembling;" a supernatural panic seized 
the host. Saul and his 600 men — a band 
which speedily increased to 10,000 — per- 
ceiving the confusion, pursued the army 
of the Philistines, and the tide of battle 
rolled on as far as to Bethaven, halfway 
between Michraash and Bethel. The 
Philistines were totally routed. " So the 
Lord saved Israel that day." While pur- 
suing the Philistines, Saul rashly adjured 
the people, saying, " Cursed be the man 
that eateth any food until evening." But 
though faint and weary, the Israelites 
" smote the Philistines that day from 
Michmash to Aijalon " (a distance of from 
15 to 20 miles). Jonathan had, while pass- 
ing through the wood in pursuit of the 
Philistines, tasted a little of the honey- 
comb which was abundant there (14 : 27). 
This was afterwards discovered by Saul 
(ver. 42), and he threatened to put his son 
to death. The people, however, interposed, 
saying, "There shall not one hair of his 
head fall to the ground." He whom God 
had so signally owned, who had "wrought 
this great salvation in Israel," must not 
die. " Then Saul went up from following 
the Philistines : and the Philistines went 
to their own place " (1 Sam. 14 : 24-4G) ; and 
thus the campaign against the Philistines 
came to an end. This was Saul's second 
great military success. 

Saul's reign, however, continued to be 
one of almost constant war against his 
enemies round about (14 : 47, 48), in all of 
which he proved victorious. The war 
against the Amalekites is the only one which 
is recorded at length (1 Sam. 15). These 
oldest and hereditary (Ex. 17 : 8 ; Num. 
14 : 43-45) enemies of Israel occupied the 
territory to the south and south-west of 
Palestine. Samiiel sunmioned Saul to 
execute the "ban" which God had pro- 
nounced (Deut. 25 : 17-19) on this cruel 
and relentless foe of Israel. The cup of 
their iniquity was now full. This com- 
mand was " the test of his moral qualifica- 
tion for being king." Saul proceeded to 



execute the divine command ; and gather- 
ing the people together, marched from 
Telaim (1 Sam. 15 : 4) against the Amale- 
kites, whom he " smote from Havilah un- 
til thou comest to Shur," utterly destroy- 
ing ' ' all the people with the edge of the 
sword" — i.e., all that fell into his hands. 
He was, however, guilty of rebellion and 
disobedience in sparing Agag their king, 
and in conniving at his soldiers' sparing 
the best of the sheep and cattle ; and 
Samuel, following Saul to Gilgal, in the 
Jordan valley, said unto him, ' ' Because 
thou hast rejected the word of the Lord, 
he also hath rejected thee from being 
king " (15 : 23). The kingdom was rent from 
Saul and was given to another, even to 
David, whom the Lord chose to be Saul's 
successor, and whom Samuel anointed 
(16:1-13). From that day "the spirit of 
the Lord departed from Saul, and an evil 
spirit from the Lord troubled him." He 
and Samuel parted only to meet once 
again at one of the schools of the pro- 
phets. 

David was now sent for as a "cunning 
player on the harp" (1 Sam, 16 : 16, 18), to play 
before Saul when the evil spirit troubled 
him, and thus was introduced to the court 
of Saul. He became a great favourite with 
the king. At length David returned to 
his father's house and to his wonted avoca- 
tion as a shepherd for perhaps some three 
years. The Philistines once more invaded 
the land, and gathered their army between 
Shochoh and Azekah, in Ephes-dammim, 
on the southern slope of the valley of 
Elah. Saiil and the men of Israel went 
forth to meet them, and encamped on the 
northern slope of the same valley which 
lay between the two armies. It was here 
that David slew Goliath of Gath, the 
champion of the Philistines (17 : 32-40), an 
exploit which led to the flight and utter 
defeat of the Philistine army. Saul now 
took David permanently into his service 
(18 : 2) ; but he became jealous of him (ver. 
9), and on many occasions showed his en- 
mity toward him (ver. 10, 11), his enmity 
ripening into a purpose of murder which 
at different times he tried in vain to carry 
out. 



SAVIOUR 



607 



SCEPTRE 



After some time the Philistines ' ' gathered 
themselves together " in the plain of Es- 
draelon, and pitched their camp at Shnnem, 
on the slope of Little Hermon ; and Saul 
" gathered all Israel together, " and ' ' pitched 
in Gilboa " (1 Sam. 28 : 3-14). Being un- 
able to discover the mind of the Lord, 
Saul, accompanied by two of his retinue, 
betook himself to the "witch of Endor," 
some 7 or 8 miles distant. Here he was 
overwhelmed by the startling communica- 
tion that was mysteriously made to him by 
Samuel (ver. 16-19), who appeared to him. 
"He fell straightway all along on the 
earth, and was sore afraid, because of the 
words of Samuel " (ver. 20). The Philistine 
host " fought against Israel : and the men 
of Israel fled before the Philistines, and 
fell down slain in Mount Gilboa " (31 : 
1). In his despair at the disaster that 
had befallen his army, Saul " took a sword 
and fell upon it." And the Philistines 
on the morrow "found Saul and his three 
sons fallen in Mount Gilboa." Hav- 
ing cut off his head, they sent it with his 
weapons to Philistia, and hung up the 
skull in the temple of Dagon at Ashdod. 
They suspended his headless body, with 
that of Jonathan, from the walls of Beth- 
shan. The men of Jabesh - gilead after- 
wards removed the bodies from this posi- 
tion ; and having burnt the flesh, they 
buried the bodies under a tree at Jabesh. 
The remains were, however, afterwards 
removed to the family sepulchre at Zelah 
(2 Sam. 21 : 13, 14). (See David.) 

(3.) "Who is also called Paul" {q.v.), 
the circumcision name of the apostle, 
given to him, perhaps, in memory of King 
Saul (Acts 7 : 58 ; 8:1; 9:1). 

Sav'iour, one who saves from any form 
or degree of evil. In its highest sense the 
word indicates the relation sustained by 
our Lord to his redeemed ones — he is their 
Saviour. The great message of the gospel 
is about salvation and the Saviour. It is 
the "gospel of salvation." Eaith in the 
Lord Jesus Christ secures to the sinner a 
personal interest in the work of redemp- 
tion. Salvation is redemption made effec- 
tual to the individual by the power of the 
Holy Spirit. 



Scape'goat— Lev. 16: 8-26; R.V., " the 
goat for Azazel " [q.v.) — the name given to 
the goat which was taken away into the 
wilderness on the day of Atonement (16 : 20- 
22). The priest made atonement over the 
scapegoat, laying Israel's guilt upon it, 
and then sent it awaj'-, the goat bearing 
" upon him all their iniquities unto a land 
not inhabited." 

At a later period an evasion or modifica- 
tion of the law of Moses was introduced 
by the Jews. " The goat was conducted 
to a mountain named Tzuk, situated at a 
distance of ten Sabbath days' journey, or 
about six and a half English miles, from 
Jerusalem. At this place the Judean 
desert was supposed to commence ; and 
the man in whose charge the goat was 
sent out, while setting him free, was in- 
structed to push the unhappy beast down 
the slope of the mountain side, which was 
so steep as to insure the death of the goat, 
whose bones were broken by the fall. The 
reason of this barbarous custom was that 
on one occasion the scapegoat returned to 
Jerusalem after being set free, which was 
considered such an evil omen that its re- 
currence was prevented for the future by 
the death of the goSiX" {Tioenty- seven Years' 
Work in the Holy Land). This mountain 
is now called el-Muntdr. 

Scar'let. This dye was obtained by the 
Egyptians from the shell-fish Carthamus 
tinctorius ; and by the Hebrews from the 
Coccus tlicis, an insect which infests oak 
trees, called kermes by the Arabians. 

This colour was early known (Gen. 38 : 
28). It was one of the colours of the 
ephod (Ex. 28:6), the girdle (8), and the 
breastplate (15) of the high priest. It is 
also mentioned in various other connec- 
tions (Josh. 2 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 24 ; Lam. 4:5; 
Nahum 2:3). A scarlet robe was in mockery 
placed on our Lord (Matt. 27 : 28 ; Luke 
23:11). "Sins as scarlet" (Isa. 1:18)— 
i.e., as scarlet robes "glaring and habit- 
vial." Scarlet and crimson were the firm- 
est of dyes, and thus not easily washed 
out. 

Scep''tre (Heb. shSbet = Gr. skeptron), 
properly a staff or rod. As a symbol of 
authority, the use of the sceptre originated 



SCEVA 



608 



SCRIBES 



in the idea that the ruler was as a shep- 
herd of his people (Gen. 49 : 10 ; Num. 24 : 
17 ; Ps. 45 : 6 ; Isa. 14 : 5). There is no 
example on record of a sceptre having 
ever been actually handled by a Jewish 
king. 

Sce'va — an implement — a Jew, chief of 
the priests at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 13-16) ; 
i.e., the head of one of the twenty -four 
courses of the house of Levi. He had 
seven sons, who "took upon them to call 
over them which had evil spirits the name 
of the Lord Jesus," in imitation of Paul. 
They tried their method of exorcism on a 
fierce demoniac, and failed. His answer to 
them was to this effect (19 : 15) : " The Jesus 
whom you invoke is One whose authority 
I acknowledge ; and the Paul whom you 
name I recognize to be a servant or mes- 
senger of God ; but what sort of men are 
ye who have been empowered to act as 
you do by neither?" (Lindsay on the Acts 
of the Apostles. ) 

Schism — a separation — an alienation 
causing divisions among Christians, who 
ought to be united (1 Cor. 12 : 25). 

School^master, the law so designated 
by Paul (Gal. 3 : 24, 25). As so used, the 
word does not mean teacher, but peda- 
gogue (shortened into the modern pa^re) — 
i.e., one who was intrusted with the super- 
vision of a family, taking them to and 
from the school, being responsible for their 
safety and manners. Hence the pedagogue 
was stern and severe in his discipline. 
Thus the law was a pedagogue to the 
Jews, with a view to Christ — i.e., to pre- 
pare for faith in Christ hy producing con- 
victions of guilt and helplessness. The 
office of the pedagogue ceased when *' faith 
came" — i.e., the object of that faith, the 
seed, which is Christ. 

Schools of the Prophets (1 Sam. 19 : 
18-24 ; 2 Kings 2 : 3, 5, 7, 12, 15) were in- 
stituted for the purpose of training young 
men for the prophetical and priestly 
offices. (See Prophet; Samuel.) 

Scor^pions, mentioned along with ser- 
pents (Deut. 8 : 15). Used also figuratively 
to denote wicked persons (Ezek. 2:6; Luke 
10 : 19) ; also a particular kind of scourge 
or whip (1 Kings 12 : 11). Scorpions were 



a species of spider. 
Jordan valley. 



They abounded in the 




SCORPION. 

Scourging (1 Kings 12 : 11). Variously 
administered. In no case were the stripes 
to exceed forty (Deut. 25 : 3 ; comp. 2 Cor. 
11 : 24). In the time of the apostles, in 
consequence of the passing of what was 
called the Porcian law, no Homan citizen 
could be scourged in any case (Acts 16 : 
22-37). (See Bastinado.) In the scourg- 
ing of our Lord (Matt. 27 : 26 ; Mark 15 : 
15) the words of prophecy (Isa. 53 : 5) were 
fulfilled. 

Scribes anciently held various import- 
ant offices in the public affairs of the 
nation. The Hebrew word so rendered 
{sopher) is first used to designate the holder 
of some military office ( Judg. 5 : 14 ; A. V., 
"pen of the writer;" R.V., "the mar- 
shal's staff;" marg., "the staff of the 
scribe "). The scribes acted as secretaries 
of state, whose business it was to prepare 
and issue decrees in the name of the king 
(2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 20 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 18:16 ; 24: 6 ; 
1 Kings 4 : 3 ; 2 Kings 12 : 9-11 ; 18 : 18-37, 
etc.). They discharged various other im- 
portant public duties as men of high au- 
thority and influence in the affairs of state. 

There was also a subordinate class of 
scribes, most of whom were Levites. They 
were engaged in various ways as writers. 
Such, for example, was Baruch, who 
"wrote from the mouth of Jeremiah all 
the words of the Lord " ( Jer. 36 : 4, 32). 



SCRIP 



609 



SEA 



In later times, after the Captivity, when 
the nation lost its independence, the scribes 
turned their attention to the law, gaining 
for themselves distinction by their intimate 
acquaintance with its contents. On them 
devolved the duty of multiplying copies of 
the law and of teaching it to others (Ezra 
7 : 6, 10-12 ; Neh. 8:1,4, 9, 13). It is evi- 
dent that in New Testament times the 
scribes belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, 
who supplemented the ancient written 
law by their traditions (Matt. 23), there- 
by obscuring it and rendering it of none 
effect. The titles "scribes" and "law- 
yers " iq.v.) are in the Gospels interchange- 
able (Matt. 22:35; Mark 12:28; Luke 
20 : 39, etc. ). They were in the time of 
our Lord the public teachers of the people, 
and frequently came into collision with 
him. They afterwards shoAved themselves 
greatly hostile to the apostles (Acts 4:5; 
6 : 12). 

Some of the scribes, however, were men 
of a different spirit, and showed them- 
selves friendly to the gospel and its 
preachers. Thus Gamaliel advised the 
Sanhedrin, when the apostles were before 
them charged with "teaching in this 
name," to "refrain from these men and 
let them alone " (Acts 5 : 34-39 ; comp. 
23 : 9). 

Scrip, a small bag or wallet usually 
fastened to the girdle (1 Sam. 17:40); "a 
shepherd's bag, " 

In the New Testament it is the render- 
ing of Gr. pera, which was a bag carried 
by travellers and shepherds, generally 
made of skin (Matt. 10 : 10 ; Mark 6:8; 
Luke 9:3; 10 : 4). The name "scrip " is 
meant to denote that the bag was intended 
to hold scraps, fragments, as if scraped off 
from larger articles, trifles. 

Scrip'ture invariably in the New Testa- 
ment denotes that definite collection of 
sacred books, regarded as given by inspira- 
tion of God, which we usually call the Old 
Testament (2 Tim. 3 : 15, 16 ; John 20 : 9 ; 
Gal. 3:22; 2 Pet. 1:20). It was God's 
purpose thus to perpetuate his revealed 
will. From time to time he raised up 
men to commit to writing in an infallible 
record the revelation he gave. The 



"Scripture," or collection of sacred writ- 
ings, was thus enlarged from time to time 
as God saw necessary. We have now a 
completed "Scripture," consisting of the 
Old and New Testaments. The Old Tes- 
tament canon in the time of our Lord was 
precisely the same as that which we now 
possess under that name. He placed the 
seal of his own authority on this collection 
of writings, as all equally given by inspira- 
tion (Matt. 5 : 17 ; 7 : 12 ; 22 : 40 ; Luke 16 : 
29, 31). (See Bible ; Canon.) 

Scythian. The Scythians consisted of 
"all the pastoral tribes who dwelt to the 
north of the Black Sea and the Caspian, 
and were scattered far away toward the 
east. Of this vast country but little was 
anciently known. Its modern represent- 
ative is Russia, which, to a great extent, 
includes the same territories." They were 
the descendants of Japheth (Gen. 9 : 27). 
It appears that in apostolic times there 
were some of this people that embraced 
Christianity (Col. 3 : 11). 

Sea, The (Heb. yam), signifies (1) "the 
gathering together of waters," the ocean 
(Gen. 1 : 10) ; (2) a river, as the Nile (Isa. 
19 : 5), the Euphrates (Isa. 21 : 1 ; Jer. 51 : 
36) ; (3) the Red Sea (Ex. 14 : 16, 27 ; 15 : 4, 
etc.); (4) the Mediterranean (Ex. 23:31; 
Num. 34:6, 7; Josh. 15:47; Ps. 80:11, 
etc.); (5) the "sea of Galilee," an inland 
fresh -water lake, and the Dead Sea or 
" salt sea " (Gen. 14 : 3 ; Num. 34 : 3, 12, 
etc. ). The word ' ' sea " is used symbolically 
in Isa. 60 : 5, where it probably means the 
nations around the Mediterranean. In 
Dan. 7 : 3, Rev. 13 : 1 it may mean the 
tumultuous changes among the nations of 
the earth. 

Sea of Ja'zer (Jer. 48 : 32), a lake, now 
represented by some ponds in the high 
valley in which the Ammonite city of Jazer 
lies, the ruins of which are called Sar. 

Sea, The molten, the great laver made 
by Solomon for the use of the priests in 
the temple, described in 1 Kings 7 : 23-26 ; 
2 Chr. 4 : 2-5. It stood in the south-eastern 
corner of the inner court. It was 5 ciibits 
high, 10 in diameter from brim to brim, 
and 30 in circumference. It was placed on 
the backs of twelve oxen, standing with 



SEA 



610 



SEAL 



their faces outward. It was capable of 
containing two or three thousand baths of 




SUPPOSED FORM OP THE MOLTEN SEA. 

water (comp. 2 Chr. 4 : 5), which was origin- 
ally supplied by the Gibeonites, but was 
afterwards brought by a conduit from the 
pools of Bethlehem. It was made of ' ' brass " 
(copper), which Solomon had taken from the 
captured cities of Hadarezer, the king of 
Zobah (1 Chr. 18 : 8). Ahaz afterwards 
removed this laver from the oxen, and 
placed it on a stone pavement (2 Kings 
16 : 17). It was destroyed by the Chal- 
deans (25 : 13). 

Sea of glass, a figurative expression 
used in Rev. 4 : 6 and 15 : 2. According to 
the interpretation of some, "this calm, 
glass-like sea, which is never in storm, but 
only interfused with flame, represents 
the counsels of God, those purposes of 
righteousness and love which are often 
fathomless but never obscure— always the 
same, though sometimes glowing with holy 
anger." (Comp. Ps. 36 : 6 ; 77:19; Rom. 
11:33-36.) 

Se^ah. In land measure, a space of 50 
cubits long by 50 broad. In measure of 
capacity, a seah was a little over one peck. 
(See Measuke. ) 

Seal, commonly a ring engraved with 
some device (Gen. 38 : 18, 25). Jezebel 
"wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed 
them with his seal " (1 Kings 21 : 8). Seals 
are frequently mentioned in Jewish history 
(1 Kings 8:6; Neh. 9 : 38 ; 10 : 1 ; Esther 
3 : 12 ; Cant. 8:6; Isa. 8 : 16 ; Jer. 22 : 24 ; 
32:44, etc.). Sealing a document was 



equivalent to the signature of the owner of 
the seal. " The use of a signet-ring by the 





ANCIENT JEWISH SEALS. 

monarch has recently received a remarkable 
illustration by the discovery of an impres- 
sion of such a signet on fine clay at Ko- 
yunjik, the site of the ancient Nineveh. 
This seal appears to have been impressed 
from the bezel of a metalhc finger-ring. It 
is an oval, 2 inches in length by 1 inch wide, 
and bears the image, name, and titles of the 
Egyptian king Sabaco " (Rawlinson's Hist. 
Illus. of the 0. T., p. 46). The actual signet - 
rings of two Egyptian kings (Cheops and 
Horus) have been discovered. 




EGYPTIAN SIGNET-RINGS. 

The use of seals is mentioned in the New 
Testament only in connection with the 
record of our Lord's burial (Matt. 27 : 6(5). 
The tomb was sealed by the Pharisees and 
chief priests for the purpose of making sure 
that the disciples would not come and steal 
the body away ( ver. 63, 64). The mode of do- 
ing this was probably by stretching a cord 
across the stone and sealing it at both ends 
with sealing-clay. When God is said to 
have sealed the Redeemer, the meaning is, 



SEASONS 



611 



SELA 



that he has attested his divine mission 
(John 6 : 27). Circnmcision is a seal, an 
attestation of the covenant (Rom. 4 : 11). 
Believers are sealed with the Spirit, as God's 
mark put upon them (Eph. 1 : 13 ; 4 : 30). 
Converts are by Paul styled the seal of his 
apostleship — i.e., they are its attestation 
(1 Cor. 9 : 2). Seals and sealing are fre- 
quently mentioned in the book of Revela- 
tion (5:1; 6:1; 7:3; 10 : 4 ; 22 : 10). 

Sea^sons (Gen. 8:22). See Ageicul- 
TUKE; Month. 

Se'ba. (1.) One of the sons of Cush 
(Gen. 10 : 7). 

(2. ) The name of a country and nation (Isa. 
43 : 3 ; 45 : 14) mentioned along with Egypt 
and Ethiopia, and therefore probably in 
north-eastern Africa. The ancient name 
of Meroe. The kings of Sheba and Seba 
are mentioned together in Ps. 72 : 10. 

Se''bat, the eleventh month of the He- 
brew year, extending from the new moon 
of February to that of March (Zech. 1 : 7). 
Assyrian sa6a^u, "storm." (See Month.) 

^ecsk'Gsib.— enclosure— one of the six cities 
in the wilderness of Judah, noted for its 
"great cistern " (Josh. 15 : 61). It has been 
identified with the ruin Sikkeh, east of 
Bethany. 

Se'chu — a hill or watch-tower — a place 
between Gibeah and Ramah noted for its 
"great well " (1 Sam. 19 : 22) ; probably the 
modern Suweikeh, south of Beeroth. 

Sect (Gr. hairesis, usually rendered 
"heresy"— Acts 24:14; 1 Cor. 11:19; 
Gal. 5:20, etc.), meaning properly "a 
choice," then "a chosen manner of life," 
and then " a religious party," as the "sect " 
of the Sadducees (Acts 5 : 17), of the Phar- 
isees (15:5), the Nazarenes — i.e., Chris- 
tians — (24 : 5). It afterwards came to be 
used in a bad sense, of those holding per- 
nicious error, divergent forms of belief 
(2 Pet. 2:1; Gal. 5 : 20). 

Secun^dus — second — a Christian of 
Thessalonica who accompanied Paul into 
Asia (Acts 20 : 4). 

Seer, a name sometimes applied to the 
prophets because of the visions granted to 
them. It is first found in 1 Sam. 9:9. It 
is afterwards applied to Zadok, Gad, etc. 
(2 Sam. 15 : 27 ; 24 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 9 : 22 ; 25 : 5; 



2 Chr. 9 : 29 ; Amos 7:12; Micah 3 : 7). 
The "sayings of the seers" (2 Chr. 33:18, 
19) is rendered in the Revised Version " the 
history of Hozai " (marg., the seers; so the 
LXX.), of whom, however, nothing is 
known. (See Pkophet.) 

Seethe, to boil (Ex. 16 : 23). 

Seeth^ing pot, a vessel for boiling pro- 
visions in (Job 41 : 20 ; Jer. 1 : 13). 

Se''gub — elevated. (1. ) The youngest son 
of Hiel the Bethelite. His death is recorded 
in 1 Kings 16 : 34 (comp. Josh. 6 : 26). 

(2.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2: 
21, 22). 

Se^ir — rough; hairy. (1.) A Horite ; 
one of the "dukes" of Edom (Gen. 36: 
20-30). 

(2.) The name of a mountainous region 
occupied by the Edomites, extending along 
the eastern side of the Arabah from the 
south-eastern extremity of the Dead Sea to 
near the Akabah, or the eastern branch of 
the Red Sea. It was originally occupied 
by the Horites (Gen. 14 : 6), who were after- 
wards driven out by the Edomites (Gen. 
32 : 3 ; 33 : 14, 16). It was allotted to the 
descendants of Esau (Deut. 2:4, 22 ; Josh. 
24:4; 2 Chr. 20:10; Isa. 21:11; Ezek. 
25 : 8). 

(3.) A mountain range (not the Edomite 
range. Gen. 32 : 3) lying between the Wady 
Aly and the WMj Ghurab (Josh. 15 : 10). 

Sei^rath — ivoody district ; shaggy — a 
place among the mountains of Ephraim, 
bordering on Benjamin, to which Ehud 
fled after he had assassinated Eglon at 
Jericho ( Judg. 3 : 26, 27). 

Se^la = Se'lah — rock — the capital of 
Edom, situated in the great valley extend- 
ing from the Dead Sea to the. Red Sea 
(2 Kings 14 : 7). It was near Mount Hor, 
close by the desert of Zin. It is called 
' ' the rock " (Judg. 1 : 36). When Amaziah 
took it he called it Joktheel {q.v.). It is 
mentioned by the prophets (Isa. 16:1; 
Obad. 3) as doomed to destruction. 

It appears in later history and in the 
Vulgate Version under the name of Petra. 
"The caravans from all ages, from the in- 
terior of Arabia and from the Gulf of 
Persia, from Hadramaut on the ocean, and 
even from Sabea or Yemen, aiDpear to have 



SELA-HAMMAHLEKOTH 



612 



SENATE 




KOCK TEMPiE, PETRA. 



pointed to Petra as a common centre ; and 
from Petra the tide seems again to have 
branched out in every direction— to Egypt, 
Palestine, and Syria, through Arsinoe, 
Gaza, Tyre, Jerusalem, and Damascus, and 
by other routes, terminating at the Medi- 
terranean." (See Edom [2].) 

Se^la-hamniahle''koth — cliff of divisions 
— the name of the great gorge which lies 
between Hachilah and Maon, south-east of 
Hebron. This gorge is now called the Wddy 
Maldky. This was the scene of the inter- 
view between David and Saul mentioned 
in 1 Sam. 26 : 13. Each stood on an oppos- 
ing cliff, with this deep chasm between. 

Se^lah, a word frequently found in the 
book of Psalms, and also in Hab. 3 : 9, 13 — 
about seventy-four times in all in Scripture. 
Its meaning is doubtful. Some interpret 
it as meaning ' ' silence " or * ' pause ; " others, 
"end," "a louder strain," "piano," etc. 



The LXX. render the word by daplasma 

— i.e., "a division." 

Seleu^'cia, the sea-port of Antioch, near 
the mouth of the Orontes. Paul and his 
companions sailed from this port on their 
first missionary journey (Acts 13 : 4). This 
city was built by Seleucus Nicator, the 
"king of Syria." It is said of him that 
" few princes have ever lived with so great 
a passion for the building of cities. He is 
reputed to have built in all nine Seleucias, 
sixteen An tiochs, andsixLaodiceas." Seleu- 
cia became a city of great importance, and 
was made a "free city " by Pompey. It is 
now a small village, called el-Kalusi. 

Sem'ei, mentioned in the genealogy of 
our Lord (Luke 3 : 26). 

Sena^ah — thorny — a place many of the 
inhabitants of which retiarned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2 : 35 ; Neh. 7 : 38). 

Sen'ate (Acts 5:21), the "elders of 



SENEH 



613 



SENNACHERIB 



Israel " who formed a component part of 
the Sanhedrin. 

Sc'neh — the acacia ; rock - thorn — the 
southern cliflF in the Wady es-Suweinit, a 
valley soiith of Michmash, which Jonathan 
climbed with his armour-bearer (1 Sam. 
14 : 4, 5). The rock opposite, on the other 
side of the wsldy, was called Bozez. 

Se'^nir = Shenir, the name given to Her- 
mon by the Amorites (Deut, 3 : 9). It 
means "coat of mail" or "breastplate," 
and is equivalent to "Sirion." Some in- 
terpret the word as meaning "the pro- 
minent" or "the snowy mountain." It is 
properly the name of the central of the 
three summits of Hermon {q.v.) 

Sennach'^erib (Heb. Sanherib), the eldest 
son of Sargon, whom he succeeded on the 
throne of Assyria (B.C. 705), in the twenty- 
third year of Hezekiah. ' ' Like the Persian 
Xerxes, he was weak and vainglorious, 
cowardly under reverse, and cruel and boast- 
ful in success." He first 
set himself to break up the 
powerful combination of 
l^rinces who were in league 
against him. Among these 
was Hezekiah, who had en- 
tered into an alliance with 
Egypt against Assyria. 
He accordingly led a very 
powerful army of at least 
200,000 men into Judea, 
and devastated the land on 
every side, taking and de- 
stroying many cities (2 

Kings 18 : 13-16 ; comp. 
Isa. 22, 24, 29, and 2 Chr. 
32 : 1-8). His own account of this invasion, 
as given in the Assyrian annals, is in these 
words : " Because Hezekiah, king of Judah, 
would not submit to my yoke, I came up 
against him, and by force of arms and by 
the might of my power I took forty-six of 
liis strong fenced cities ; and of the smaller 
towns which were scattered about, I took 
and plundered a countless number. From 
these places I took and carried off 200,156 
persons, old and young, male and female, 
together with horses and mules, asses and 
camels, oxen and sheep, a countless multi- 
tude,; and Hezekiah himself I shut up in 



Jerusalem, his capital city, like a bird in a 
cage, building towers round the city to hem 
him in, and raising banks of earth against 

the gates, so as to prevent escape Then 

upon Hezekiah there fell the fear of the 
power of my arms, and he sent out to me 
the chiefs and the elders of Jerusalem with 
30 talents of gold and 800 talents of silver, 
and divers treasures, a rich and immense 

booty All these things were brought to 

me at Nineveh, the seat of my government. " 
(Comp. Isa. 22 : 1-13 for description of the 
feelings of the inhabitants of Jervisalem at 
such a crisis.) 




SENNACHERIB IN CHARIOT. 

(Fj-0771 Koyii7ijik.) 

Hezekiah was not disposed to become an 
Assyrian feudatory. He accordingly at once 
sought help from Egypt (2 Kings 18 : 20-24). 
Sennacherib, hearing of this, marched a 
second time into Palestine (2 Kings 18 : 17- 
37 ; 19 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9-23 ; Isa. 36 : 2-22 ; 37 ; 
Ps. 76). Hezekiah put his trust at such a 
crisis in the Lord. The prophet Isaiah 
encouraged him in the hope of deliverance 
(2 Kings 19 ; 6, 7). Sennacherib sent en- 
voys to try to persuade Hezekiah to sur- 
render, but in vain. (See TiRHAKAH.) He 
next sent a threatening letter (19 : 10-14), 
which Hezekiah carried into the temple 

40 



SEORIM 



614 



SEPULCHRE 



and spread before the Lord. Isaiah again 
brought an encouraging message to the 
pious king (2 Kings 19 : 20-34). " In that 
night " the angel of the Lord went forth 
and smote the camp of the Assyrians. In 
the morning, " behold, they were all dead 
corpses." The Assyrian army was anni- 
hilated. 

This great disaster is not, as was to be 
expected, taken notice of in the Assyrian 
annals. 

The scene is thus depicted by the English 
poet : — 

" The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the 

fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and 

gold.... 
Like the leaves of the forest when summer is 

green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were 

seen : 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath 

blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and 

strown. 
For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the 

blast. 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he 

passed ; 
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and 

chill, 
And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever 

grew still." — Byron's Hebrew Melodies. 

Though Sennacherib survived this disas- 
ter some twenty years, he never again re- 
newed his attempt against Jerusalem. He 
was murdered by two of his own sons (Ad- 
rammelech and Sharezer), and was suc- 
ceeded by another son, Esarhaddon (b.c. 
681), after a reign of twenty-four years. 

Seo^rim — larley — the chief of the fourth 
priestly course (1 Chr. 24 : 8). 

Se'phar — numbering ^Gf&n. 10:30), sup- 
posed by some to be the ancient Himyaritic 
capital, "Shaphar," Zaphar, on the Indian 
Ocean, between the Persian Gulf and the 
Red Sea. 

Seph^arad (Obad. 20), some locality un- 
known. The modern Jews think that 
Spain is meant, and hence they designate 
the Spanish Jews "Sephardim," as they 
do the German Jews by the name " Ash- 
kenazim," because the rabbis call Germany 
Ashkenaz. Others identify it with Sardis, 



the capital of Lydia. The Latin father 
Jerome regarded it as an Assyrian word, 
meaning "boundary," and interpreted the 
sentence, " which is in Sepharad," by "who 
are scattered abroad in all the boundaries 
and regions of the earth. " Perowne says : 
"Whatever uncertainty attaches to the 
word Sepharad, the drift of the prophecy 
is clear — viz., that not only the exiles from 
Babylon, but Jewish captives from other 
and distant regions, shall be brought back 
to live prosperously within the enlarged 
borders of their own land." 

Sepharva^im, taken by Sargon, king of 
Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 24 ; 18 : 34 ; 19 : 13 ; 
Isa. 37:13). It stood on the "Royal 
Canal, " which ran parallel to the Euphrates, 
and opposite Sippara, so that the two cities 
came to be regarded as a double city, and 
received the common name Sepharvaim — 
i.e., " the two Sipparas," or "the two book- 
towns. " The site of this town is occupied 
by the modern village of Mosahih, about 
20 miles above the ruins of Babylon. A 
great library was established here by Sar- 
gon I. The recent discovery of cuneiform 
inscriptions at Tel el-Amarna in Egypt, 
consisting of official despatches to Pharaoh 
Amenophis IV. and his predecessor from 
their agents in Palestine, proves that in the 
century before the Exodus an active literary 
intercourse was carried on between these 
nations, and that the medium of the corre- 
spondence was the Babylonian language 
and script. (See Kiejath-sephek.) 

Sep^tuagint. See Versions. 

Sep^ulchre, first mentioned as purchased 
by Abraham for Sarah from Ephron the 
Hittite (Gen. 23 : 20). This was the " cave 
of the field of Machpelah," where also 
Abraham and Rebekah and Jacob and Leah 
were buried (49 : 29-32). In Acts 7 : 10 it 
is said that Jacob was "laid in the sepulchre 
that Abraham bought for a sum of money 
of the sons of Emmor the father of Sychem. " 
It has been proposed, as a mode of recon- 
ciling the apparent discrepancy between 
this verse and Gen. 23 : 20, to read Acts 
7:16 thus: "And they {i.e., our fathers] 
were carried over into Sychem, and laid in 
the sepulchre that Abraham bought for a 
sum of money of the sons of Emmor {the 



SERAH 



615 



SERPENT 



son] of Sychem. " In this way the purchase 
made by Abraham is not to be confounded 
with the purchase made by Jacob sub- 
sequently in the same district. Of this 
purchase by Abraham there is no direct 
record in the Old Testament. (See Tomb.) 

Se''rah — abundance ; princess — the daiigh- 
ter of Asher and grand-daughter of Jacob 
(Gen. 46 : 17) ; called also Sarah (Num. 26: 
46; R.V., "Serah"). 

Sera^iab.— soldier of Jehovah. (1.) The 
father of Joab (1 Chr. 4 : 13, 14). 

(2.) The grand-daughter of Jehu (1 Chr. 
4 : 35). 

(3.) One of David's scribes or secretaries 
(2 Sam. 8 : 17). 

(4.) A Netophathite (Jer. 40 : 8). 

(5.) Ezra 2: 2. 

(6.) Eather of Ezra the scribe (7 : 1). 

(7.) A ruler of the temple (Neh. 11 : 11). 

(8.) A priest of the days of Jehoiakim 
(Neh. 12 : 1, 12). 

(9. ) A chief priest of the time of Zedekiah. 
He was carried captive by Nebuchad- 
nezzar to Babylon, and there put to death 
(2 Kings 25 : 18, 23 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 14). 

(10.) The son of Neriah. When Zedekiah 
made a journey to Babylon to do homage 
to Nebuchadnezzar, Seraiah had charge of 
the royal gifts to be presented on that occa- 
sion. Jeremiah took advantage of the 
occasion, and sent with Seraiah a word of 
cheer to the exiles in Babylon, and an 
announcement of the doom in store for that 
guilty city. The roll containing this mes- 
sage (Jer. 50 : 1-8) Seraiah was to read to 
the exiles, and then, after fixing a stone to 
it, was to throw it into the Euphrates, 
uttering, as it sank, the prayer recorded in 
Jer. 51 : 59-64. Babylon Avas at this time 
in the height of its glory, the greatest and 
most powerful monarchy in the world. 
Scarcely seventy years elapsed when the 
words of the prophet were all fulfilled. Jer. 
51 : 59 is rendered in the Revised Version, 
"Now Seraiah was chief chamberlain," in- 
stead of "was a quiet prince," as in the 
Authorized Version. 

Ser'aphim, mentioned in Isa. 6 : 2, 3, 6, 7. 
This word means fieri/ ones, in allusion, as 
is supposed, to their burning love. They 
are represented as "standing" above the 



King as he sat upon his throne, ready at 
once to minister unto him. Their form 
appears to have been human, with the ad- 
dition of Avings. (See Angels.) This 
word, in the original, is used elsewhere 
only of the "fiery serpents " (Num. 21 : 6, 8 ; 
Deut. 8 : 15 ; comp. Isa. 14 : 29 ; 30 : 6) sent 
by God as his instruments to inflict on the 
people the righteous penalty of sin. 

Seared — feai — one of the sons of Zebulun 
(Gen. 46 : 14). 

Ser'geants— Acts 16 : 35, 38 (R. V., "lie- 
tors ") — officers who attended the magis- 
trates and assisted them in the execution 
of justice. 

Ser'gius Pau^'lus, a "prudent man"' 
(R.V., "man of understanding"), the 
deputy (R.V., "proconsul") of Cyprus 
(Acts 13 : 6-13). He became a convert to 
Christianity under Paul, who visited this 
island on his first mission to the heathen. 

A remarkable memorial of this procon- 
sul was recently (1887) discovered at Rome. 
On a boundary stone of Claudius his name 
is found, among others, as having been ap- 
pointed (a.d. 47) one of the curators of the 
banks and the channel of the river Tiber. 
After serving his three years as proconsul 
at Cyprus, he returned to Rome, where he 
held the office referred to. As he is not 
saluted in Paul's letter to the Romans, he 
probably died before it was written. 

Sermon on the mount. After spend- 
ing a night in solemn meditation and prayer 
in the lonely mountain-range to the west 
of the Lake of Galilee (Luke 6 : 12), on the 
following morning our Lord called to him 
his disciples, and from among them chose 
twelve, who were to be henceforth trained 
to be his apostles (Mark 3 : 14, 15). After 
this solemn consecration of the twelve, he 
descended from the mountain-peak to a 
more level spot (Liake 6:17), and there he 
sat down and delivered the "sermon on the 
mount " (Matt. 5-7 ; Luke 6 : 20-49) to the 
assembled multitude. The mountain here 
spoken of was probably that knoA\Ti by the 
name of the "Horns of Hattin " {Eurtin 
Hattin), a ridge running east and west, not 
far from Capernaum. It was afterwards 
called the "Mount of Beatitudes." 

Ser^pent (Heb. nahash ; Gr. ophis)^ fre 



SERPENT 



616 



SEVEN 



quently noticed in Scripture. More than 
forty species are found in Syria and Arabia. 
The poisonous character of the serpent is 
alluded to in Jacob's blessing on Dan (Gen. 
49 : 17 ; see Prov. 30 : 18, 19 ; James 3:7; 
Jer. 8 : 17). (See Addek.) 

This word is used symbolically of a deadly, 
subtle, malicious enemy (Luke 10 : 19). 

The serpent is first mentioned in connec- 
tion with the history of the temptation and 
fall of our first parents (Gen. 3). It has 
been well remarked regarding this tempta- 
tion : "A real serpent was the agent of the 
temptation, as is plain from what is said of 
the natural characteristic of the serpent in 
the first verse of the chapter (3 : 1), and 
from the curse pronounced upon the animal 
itself. But that Satan was the actual 
tempter, and that he used the serpent 
merely as his instrument, is evident (1) from 
the nature of the transaction ; for although 
the serpent may be the most subtle of all 
the beasts of the field, yet he has not the 
high intellectual faculties which the tempter 
here displayed. (2.) In the New Testa- 
ment it is both directly asserted and in 
various forms assumed that Satan seduced 
our first parents into sin (John 8 : 44 ; Pom. 
16 : 20; 2 Cor. 11 : 3, 14; Pev. 12 : 9 ; 20 : 2)." 
— Hodge's System. Theol., ii. 127. 

Ser'pent, Fiery flying (Num. 21 : 6), sup- 
posed to have been identical with the naja 
haje of Egypt ; some swift-springing, deadly 
snake (Isa. 14 : 29). After setting out from 
their encampment at Ezion-geber, the Is- 
raelites entered on a wide sandy desert, 
which stretches from the mountains of 
Edom as far as the Persian Gulf. While 
traversing this region, the people began to 
murmur and utter loud complaints against 
Moses. As a punishment, the Lord sent 
serpents among them, and much people of 
Israel died. Moses interceded on their be- 
half, and by divine direction he made a 
"brazen serpent," and raised it on a pole 
in the midst of the camp, and all the 
wounded Israelites who looked on it were 
at once healed. (Comp. John 3 : 14, 15.) 
(See Asp.) This "brazen serpent" was 
preserved by the Israelites till the days of 
Hezekiah, when it was destroyed (2 Kings 
18:4). (See Brass.) 



Se'rug — branch — the father of Nahor 
(Gen. 11:20-23); called Saruch in Luke 
3:35. 

Serv'itor occurs only in 2 Kings 4 : 43, 
Authorized Version (R.V., "servant"). 
The Hebrew word there rendered "servi- 
tor" is elsewhere rendered "minister," 
"servant" (Ex. 24:13; 33:11). Prob- 
ably Gehazi, the personal attendant on 
Elisha, is here meant. 

Seth — appointed; a substitute — the third 
son of Adam and Eve (Gen. 4:25; 5:3). 
His 'mother gave him this name, "for 
God," said she, "hath appointed me [i.e., 
compensated me with] another seed instead 
of Abel, whom Cain slew." 

Se^thur — hidden — one of the spies sent 
to search the Promised Land. He was of 
the tribe of Asher (Num. 13 : 13). 

Sev'en. This number occurs frequently 
in Scripture, and in such connections as 
lead to the supposition that it has some 
typical meaning. On the seventh day God 
rested, and hallowed it (Gen. 2 : 2, 3). The 
division of time into weeks of seven days 
each accounts for many instances of the 
occurrence of this number. This number 
has been called the symbol of perfection, 
and also the symbol of rest. "Jacob's 
seven years' service to Laban; Pharaoh's 
seven fat oxen and seven lean ones; the 
seven branches of the golden candlestick; 
the seven trumpets and the seven priests 
who sounded them ; the seven days' siege 
of Jericho; the seven churches, seven 
spirits, seven stars, seven seals, seven vials, 
and many others, sufficiently prove the im- 
portance of this sacred number " (see Lev. 
25:4; 1 Sam. 2:5; Ps. 12:6; 79:12; 
Prov. 26 : 16 ; Isa. 4:1; Matt. 18 : 21, 22 ; 
Luke 17:4). The feast of Passover (Ex. 
12 : 15, 16), the feast of Weeks (Deut. 16 : 
9), of Tabernacles (13 : 15), and the Jubilee 
(Lev. 25 : 8), were all ordered by seven. 
Seven is the number of sacrifice (2 Chr. 29 : 
21 ; Job 42 : 8), of purification and conse- 
cration (Lev. 4 : 6, 17 ; 8 : 11, 33 ; 14 : 9, 51), 
of forgiveness (Matt. 18 : 21, 22 ; Luke 17 : 
4), of reward (Deut. 28:7; 1 Sam. 2:5), 
and of punishment (Lev. 26 : 21, 24, 28 ; 
Deut. 28 : 25). It is used for any round 
number in such passages as Job 5 : 19 ; 



SEVENTY 



611 



SHALLUM 



Prov. 26:16, 25; Isa. 4:1; Matt. 12:45. 
It is used also to mean "abundantly" 
(Gen. 4:15, 24; Lev. 26:24; Ps. 79:12). 

Sev'enty weeks, a prophetic period 
mentioned in Dan. 9 : 24, and usually in- 
terpreted on the " year-day " theory — i.e., 
reckoning each day for a year. This period 
will thus represent 490 years. This is re- 
garded as the period which would elapse 
till the time of the coming of the Messiah, 
dating "from the going forth of the com- 
mandment to restore and rebuild Jeru- 
salem " — i.e., from the close of the Cap- 
tivity. 

Shaalabnbin or Shaal^bim — a place of 
foxes — a town of the tribe of Dan (Josh. 
19 : 42 ; Judg. 1 : 35). It was one of the 
chief towns from which Solomon drew his 
supplies (1 Kings 4 : 9). It is probably the 
modern village of Selbtt, 3 miles north of 
Ajalon. 

Shaara^im — Uvo gates. (1.) A city in 
the plain of Judah (1 Sam. 17 : 52) ; called 
also Sharaim (Josh. 15 : 36). 

(2.) A town in Simeon (1 Chr. 4 : 31). 

Shaash'gaz — servant of the beautiful — a 
chief eunuch in the second house of the 
harem of king Ahasuerus (Esther 2 : 14). 

Shabbeth^ai — Sa bbath-born — a Levi te 
who assisted in expounding the law and 
investigating into the illegal marriages of 
the Jews (Ezra 10 : 15 ; Neh. 8 : 7; 11 : 16). 

Shad'^dai — the Omnipotent — the name of 
God in frequent use in the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures, generally translated "the Almighty. " 

Shad'ow, used in Col. 2 : 17 ; Heb. 8:5; 
10 : 1 to denote the typical relation of the 
Jewish to the Christian dispensation. 

Shad^rach — royal — the Chaldean name 
given to Hananiah, one of the Hebrew 
youths whom Nebuchadnezzar carried cap- 
tive to Babylon (Dan. 1:6, 7; 3:12-30). 
He and his two companions refused to 
bow down before the image which Nebu- 
chadnezzar had set up on the plains of 
Dura. Their conduct filled the king with 
the greatest fury, and he commanded 
them to be cast into the burning fiery fur- 
nace. Here, amid the fiery flames, they 
were miraculously preserved from harm. 
Over them the fire had no ix)wer, "neither 
was a hair of their head singed, neither 



had the smell of fire passed on them." 
Thus Nebuchadnezzar learned the great- 
ness of the God of Israel. (See Abednego.) 

Sha'lem — peaceful — a place (probably 
the village of Salim) some 2 miles east of 
Jacob's well. There is an abundant supply 
of water, which may have been the reason 
for Jacob's settling at this place (Gen. 33 : 
18-20). The Revised Version translates 
this word, and reads, "Jacob came in 
peace to the city of Shechem," thus not 
regarding it as a proper name at all. 

Sha'^lim, Land of — land of foxes — a place 
apparently to the north-Avest of Jerusalem 
(1 Sam. 9 : 4), perhaps in the neighboiir- 
hood of Shaalabbin in Dan (Josh, 19 : 42). 

Shali^sha, Land of, probably the dis- 
trict of Baal-shalisha (2 Kings 4 : 42), lying 
about 12 miles north of Lydda (1 Sam. 
9:4). 

Shallecheth, The gate of— i.e., "the 
gate of casting out," hence supposed to be 
the refuse gate ; one of the gates of the 
house of the Lord, "by the causeway of 
the going up" — i.e., the causeway rising 
up from the Tyropceon valley = valley of 
the cheesemakers (1 Chr. 26 : 16). 

ShaVlum— retribution. (1.) The son of 
Jabesh, otherwise unknown. He "con- 
spired against Zachariah, and smote him 
before the people, and slew him, and 
reigned in his stead " (2 Kings 15 : 9, 10). 
He reigned only "a month of days in 
Samaria. " Menahem rose up against Shal- 
lum and put him to death (1 Kings 14 : 17 ; 
16 : 6, 9, 23 ; 2 Kings 15 : 14), and became 
king in his stead. 

(2.) Keeper of the temple vestments in 
the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22 : 14). 

(3.) One of the posterity of Judah (1 Chr. 
2 : 40, 41). 

(4. ) A descendant of Simeon (1 Chr. 4 : 25). 

(5.) One of the line of the high priests 
(1 Chr. 6 : 13). 

(6.) IChr. 7:13. 

(7. ) A keeper of the gate in the reign of 
David (1 Chr. 9 : 17). 

(8. ) A Levite porter (1 Chr. 9 : 19, 31 ; Jer. 
35:4). 

(9.) An Ephraimite chief (2 Chr. 28 : 12). 

(10.) The uncle of the prophet Jeremiah 
(Jer. 32 : 7). . 



SHALMAN 



618 



SHARON 



(11.) A son of king Josiah (1 Chr. 3: 
15; Jer. 22:11), who was elected to suc- 
ceed his father on the throne, although he 
was two years yoimger than his brother 
Eliakim. He assumed the crown under 
the name of Jehoahaz {q.v.). He did not 
imitate the example of his father (2 Kings 
23:32), but was "a young lion that had 
learned to catch his prey, to devour men " 
(Ezek. 19 : 3). His policy was anti-Egyp- 
tian therefore. Necho, at that time at 
Riblah, sent an army against Jerusalem, 
which at once yielded, and Jehoahaz was 
carried captive to the Egyptian camp, 
Eliakim being appointed king in his stead. 
He remained a captive in Egypt till his 
death, and was the first king of Judah 
that died in exile. 

Shal'^man, an Assyrian king (Hos. 10 : 
14), identified with Shalmanezer II. (Sayce) 
or IV, (Lenormant), the successor of Pul 
on the throne of Assyria (b.c. 727). He 
made war against Hoshea, the king of 
Israel, whom he subdued and compelled to 
pay an annual tribute. Hoshea, however, 
soon after rebelled against his Assyrian 
conqueror. Shalmanezer again marched 
against Samaria, which, after a siege of 
three years, was taken (2 Kings 17 : 3-5 ; 
18:9) by Sargon {q.v.). A revolution 
meantime had broken out in Assyria, and 
Shalmanezer was deposed. Sargon usurped 
the vacant throne. 

Sha^ma — hearing — one of David's heroes 
(1 Chr. 11 : 44). 

Shamari^ah, one of the sons of Reho- 
boam, king of Judah (2 Chr. 11 : 19). 

Sham^gar. The Philistines from the 
maritime plain had made incursions into 
the Hebrew upland for the purposes of 
plunder, when one of this name, the son 
of Anath, otherwise unknown, headed a 
rising for the jjurpose of freeing the land 
from this oppression. He repelled the in- 
vasion, slaying 600 men with an "ox goad " 
{q.v.). The goad was a formidable sharp- 
pointed instrument, sometimes ten feet long. 
He was probably contemporary for a time 
with Deborah and Barak ( Judg. 3 : 31 ; 5:6). 

Sha'mir — a sharp thorn. (1.) One of 
the sons of Michah (1 Chr. 24 : 24). 

(2.) A town among the mountains of 



Judah (Josh. 15 : 48) ; probably Sdmerah, 
2^ miles north-west of Debir. 

(3.) The residence of Tola, one of the 
judges, on Mount Ephraim (Judg. 10 : 1, 2). 

Sham^mah — desert. (1.) One of the 
"dukes " of Edom (Gen. 36 : 13, 17). 

(2.) One of the sons of Jesse (1 Sam. 16 : 
9). He is also called Shimeah (2 Sam. 13 : 
3) and Shimma (1 Chr. 2 : 13). 

(3.) One of David's three mighty men 
(2 Sam. 23 : 11, 12). 

(4.) One of David's mighties (2 Sam. 23: 
25) ; called also Shammoth (1 Chr. 11 : 27) 
and Shamhuth (27 : 8). 

Shammu^a — heard. (1.) One of the 
spies sent out by Moses to search the land 
(Niim. 13 : 4). He represented the tribe of 
Reuben. 

(2.) One of David's sons (1 Chr. 14:4; 
3:5, " Shimea ; " 2 Sam. 5 : 14). 

(3.) A Levite under Nehemiah (11 : 17). 

Sha''phan — a coney — a scribe or secre- 
tary of king Josiah (2 Kings 22 : 3-7). He 
consulted Huldah concerning the newly- 
discovered copy of the law which was de- 
livered to him by Hilkiah the priest (8-14). 
His grandson Gedaliah was governor of 
Judea (25 : 22). 

Sha^-phsit— judge. (1. ) One of the spies. 
He represented the tribe of Simeon (Num. 
13 : 5). 

(2.) The father of Elisha (1 Kings 19: 
16-19). 

(3.) One of David's chief herdsmen (1 
Chr. 27 : 29). 

Sha''pher — brightness — one of the sta- 
tions where Israel encamped in the wilder- 
ness (Num. 33 : 23, 24). 

Shar'aim — tivo gates (Josh. 15 : 36) — 
more correctly Shaaraim (1 Sam. 17 : 52), 
probably Tell Zakar1.ya and Kefr Zakarhja, 
in the valley of Elah, 3^ miles north-west 
of Socoh. 

Share''zer — prince of fire — a son of Sen- 
nacherib, king of Assyria. He and his 
brother Adrammelech murdered their father 
and then fled into the land of Armenia (2 
Kings 19 : 37). 

Sha'ron, Sa^ron — a plain — a level tract 
extending from the Mediterranean to the 
hill country to the west of Jerusalem, 
about 30 miles long and from 8 to 15 miles 



SHAVEH 



619 



SHEBUEL 



broad, celebrated for its beavity and fertility 
(1 Chr. 27 : 29 ; Isa. 33 : 9 ; 35 : 2 ; 65 : 10). 
The "rose of Sharon" is celebrated (Cant. 
2 : 1). It is called Lasharon (the article la 
being here a part of the word) in Josh. 12 : 18. 

Sha^veh, Valley of^valley of the plain 
— the ancient name of the "king's dale" 
{q.v.), or Kidron, on the north side of Jeru- 
salem (Gen. 14 : 17). 

Sha'veh-Kiriatha'im^pZam of Kirja- 
thaim — where Chedorlaomer defeated the 
Emims, the original inhabitants (Gen. 14 : 
5). Now Kareiydt, north of Dibon, in the 
land of Moab. 

Shav'sha ("Seraiah," 2 Sam. 8:17; 
"Shisha," 1 Kings 4:3), one of David's 
secretaries (1 Chr. 18 : 16). 

Sheal^tiel — asked for of God — father of 
Zerubbabel (Ezra 3 : 2, 8; Neh. 12 : 1). 

Shear^ing-house (2 Kings 10 : 12, 14 ; 
marg., " house of shepherds binding 
sheep." R.V., " the shearing-house of the 
shepherds ; " marg., "house of gathering "), 
some place between Samaria and Jezreel, 
where Jehu slew "two and fifty men " of 
the royal family of Judah. The Heb. 
word Beth-eked so rendered is supposed by 
some to be a proper name. 

She''ar-Ja^sliul> — a remnant shall escape 
or return {i.e., to God) — a symbolical name 
which the prophet Isaiah gave to his son 
(Isa. 7 : 3), perhaps his eldest son. 

She^ba — probably a man. (1.) Heb. 
shebhd', the son of Raamah (Gen. 10 : 7), 
whose descendants settled with those of 
Dedan on the Persian Gulf. 

(2.) Heb. id. A son of Joktan (Gen. 10 : 
28), probably the founder of the Sabeans. 

(3.) Heb. id. A son of Jokshan, who was 
a son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 3)« 

(4.) Heb. id. A kingdom in Arabia Felix. 
The queen of Sheba brought gold, spices, 
and precious stones to Solomon (1 Kings 
10 : 1, 2). She is called by our Lord the 
" queen of the south " (Matt. 12 : 42). 

(5.) Heb. shebha'' — "seven" or " an oak." 
A town of Simeon (Josh. 19 : 2). 

(6.) Heb. id. A " son of Bichri," of the 
family of Becher, the son of Benjamin, and 
thus of the stem from which Saul was 
descended (2 Sam. 20 : 1-22). 

When David was returning to Jerusalem 



after the defeat of Absalom, a strife arose 
between the ten tribes and the tribe of 
Judah, because the latter took the lead in 
bringing back the king. Sheba took ad- 
vantage of this state of things, and raised 
the standard of revolt, proclaiming, "We 
have no part in David." With his fol- 
lowers he proceeded northward. David see- 
ing it necessary to check this revolt, ordered 
Abishai to take the gihhorim, " mighty 
men, " and the. body-guard and such troops 
as he could gather, and j)ursue Sheba. 
Joab joined the expedition, and having 
treacherously put Amasa to death, assumed 
the command of the army. Sheba took 
refuge in Abel-Bethmaachah, a fortified 
town some miles north of Lake Merom. 
While Joab was engaged in laying siege 
to this city, Sheba 's head was, at the in- 
stigation of a "wise woman" who had held 
a parley with him from the city walls, 
thrown over the wall to the besiegers, and 
thus the revolt came to an end. 

Shebaiii''ah — lohom Jehovah made tender, 
or has made groto up. (1.) A Levite ap- 
pointed to blow the trumpet before the 
ark of God (1 Chr. 15 : 17, 24). 

(2.) Another Levite (Neh. 9 : 4, 5). 

(3.) A priest (Neh. 10:12). 

(4.) A Levite (Neh. 10:4). 

Sheb^arim — breaks; ruins — a place near 
Ai (Josh. 7:5; H.V. marg., "the quar- 
ries "). 

Sheb^na — tender youth — ' ' treasurer "' 
over the house in the reign of Hezekiah — 
i. e. , comptroller or governor of the palace. 
On account of his pride he was ejected 
from this ofiice, and Eliakim was pro- 
moted to it (Isa. 22 : 15-25). He appears 
to have been the leader of the party who 
favoured an alliance with Egypt against 
Assyria. It is conjectxired that "Shebna 
the scribe," who was one of those Avhom the 
king sent to confer with the Assyrian am- 
bassador (2 Kings 18 : 18, 26, 37 ; 19 : 2; Isa. 
36 : 3, 11, 22 ; 37 : 2), was a different person. 

Sheb^uel — captive of God. (1.) One of 
the descendants of Gershom, who had 
charge of the temple treasures in the time 
of David (1 Chr. 23 : 16 ; 26 : 24). 

(2.) One of the sons of Heman; one of 
those whose duty it was to "lift up the 



SHECANIAH 



620 



SHECHINAH 



horn " in the temple service (1 Chr. 25 : 4) ; 
called also Shubael (ver. 20). 

Shecani^ah — one intimate ivith Jehovah. 
(1.) A priest to whom the tenth lot came 
forth when David divided the priests (1 
Chr. 24 : 11). 

(2.) One of the priests who were "set to 
give to their brethren by courses " of the 
daily portion (2 Chr. 31 : 15, 16). 

Shechani^ah — id. (1.) A priest whose 
sons are mentioned in 1 Chr. 3 : 21, 22. 

(2.) Ezra 8:. 5. 

(3.) Ezra 10: 2, 3. 

(4.) The father of Shemaiah, who re- 
paired the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3 : 29). 

(5.) The father-in-law of Tobiah (Neh. 
6 : 18). 

(6.) A priest who returned from the Cap- 
tivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12 : 3). 

She^chem — shoulder. (1.) The son of 
Hamor the Hivite (Gen. 33 : 19 ; 34). 

(2.) A descendant of Manasseh (Num. 
26 : 31 ; Josh. 17 : 2). 

(3. ) A city in Samaria (Gen. 33 : 18), 
called also Sichem (12 : 6), Sychem (Acts 
7 : 16). .. It stood in the narrow sheltered 
valley between Ebal on the north and 
Gerizim on the south, these mountains at 
their base being only some 500 yards apart. 
Here Abraham pitched his tent and built 
his first altar in the Promised Land, and 
received the first divine promise (Gen. 12 : 
6, 7). Here also Jacob "bought a parcel 
of a field at the hands of the children of 
Hamor" after his return from Mesopo- 
tamia, and settled with his household, 
which he purged from idolatry by burying 
the teraphim of his followers under an oak 
tree, which was afterwards called "the oak 
of the sorcerer " (Gen. 33 : 19 ; 35 : 4 ; Judg. 
9:37). (See Meonenim.) Here too after 
a while he dug a well, which bears his name 
to this day (John 4 : 5, 39-42). To Shechem" 
Joshua gathered all Israel ' ' before God, " and 
delivered to them his second j^arting address 
(Josh. 24:1-15). He "made a covenant 
with the people that day " at the very place 
where, on first entering the land, they had 
responded to the law from Ebal and Ger- 
izim (Josh. 24 : 25), the terms of which 
were recorded "in the book of the law of 
God " — i.e., in the roll of the law of Moses ; 



and in memory of this solemn transaction 
a great stone was set up "under an oak" 
(comp. Gen. 28 : 18 ; 31 : 44-46 ; Ex. 24 : 4 ; 
Josh. 4:3), possibly the old "oak of 
Moreh," as a silent witness of the transac- 
tion to all coming time. 

Shechem became one of the cities of 
refuge, the central city of refuge for 
Western Palestine (Josh. 20 : 7), and here 
the bones of Joseph were buried (24 : 32). 
Rehoboam was appointed king in Shechem 
(1 Kings 12 : 1, 19), but Jeroboam afterwards 
took up his residence here. This city is 
mentioned in connection with our Lord's 
conversation with the woman of Samaria 
(John 4:5); and thus, remaining as it does 
to the present day, it is one of the oldest 
cities of the world. It is the modern 
Ndblus, a contraction for Neapolis, the 
name given to it by Vespasian. It lies 
about a mile and a half up the valley on 
its southern slope, and on the north of 
Gerizim, which rises about 1,100 feet 
above it, and is about 34 miles north of 
Jerusalem. It contains about 10,000 in- 
habitants, of whom about 160 are Samari- 
tans and 100 Jews, the rest being Chris- 
tians and Mohammedans. 

The site of Samaria is said to be of 
unrivalled beauty. Stanley says it is " the 
most beautiful, perhaps the only very 
beautiful, spot in Central Palestine." 

The narrow valley between Ebal and 
Gerizim is the water-shed of the district, 
a fine brook running eastward from it to 
the Dead Sea, and other brooks westward 
to the Mediterranean. (See Sychak.) 

Shechi^nah, a Chaldee word meaning 
resting-place, not found in Scripture, but 
used by the later Jews to designate the 
visible symbol of God's presence in the 
tabernacle, and afterwards in Solomon's 
temple. When the Lord led Israel out of 
Egypt he went before them "in a pillar of 
a cloud." This was the symbol of his 
presence with his people. For references 
made to it during the wilderness wander- 
ings, see Ex. 14 : 20 ; 40 : 34-38 ; Lev. 9 : 23, 
24 ; Num. 14 : 10 ; 16 : 19, 42. 

It is probable that after the entrance 
into Canaan this glory-cloud settled in the 
tabernacle upon the ark of the covenant in 



SHEEP 



621 



SHELAH 



the most holy place. We have, however, 
no special reference to it till the consecra- 
tion of the temple by Solomon, when it 
filled the whole house with its glory, so 
that the priests could not stand to minister 
(1 Kings 8 : 10-13 ; 2 Chr. 5 : 13, 14 ; 7 : 1-3). 
Probably it remained in the first temple in 
the holy of holies as the symbol of Je- 
hovah's presence so long as that temple 
stood. It afterwards disappeared. (See 
Cloud.) 

Sheep are of different varieties. Prob- 
ably the flocks of Abraham and Isaac were 
of the wild species found still in the moun- 
tain regions of Persia and Kurdistan. 
After the Exodus, and as a result of inter- 
course with surrounding nations, other 
species were no doubt introduced into the 
herds of the people of Israel. They are 
frequently mentioned in Scripture. The 
care of a shepherd over his flock is referred 
to as illustrating God's care over his people 
(Ps. 23:1, 2; 74:1; 77:20; Isa. 40:11; 
53 : 6 ; John 10 : 1-5, 7-16). 

"The sheep of Palestine are longer in 
the head than ours, and have tails from 5 
inches broad at the narrowest part to 15 
inches at the widest, the weight being in 
proportion, and ranging generally from 10 
to 14 lbs., but sometimes extending to 30 
lbs. The tails are indeed huge masses of 
fat" (Geikie's Holy Land, etc.). The tail 
was no doubt the "rump" so frequently 
referred to in the Levitical sacrifices (Ex. 
29 : 22 ; Lev. 3:9; 7:3; 9 : 19). 

Sheep-shearing was generally an occasion 
of great festivity (Gen. 31 : 19 ; 38 : 12, 13 ; 
1 Sam. 25 : 4-8, 36 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 23-28). 

Sheep ^-f old, a strong fenced enclosure 
for the iDrotection of the sheep gathered 
within it (Niim. 32 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 17 : 7 ; Ps. 
50 : 9 ; 78 : 70). In John 10 : 16 the Author- 
ized Version renders by "fold" two dis- 
tinct Greek words, auU and j)oimne, the 
latter of which properly means a "flock," 
and is so rendered in the Revised "Version. 
(See also Matt. 26 : 31 ; Luke 2 : 8 ; 1 Cor. 
9:7.) 

Sheep'-gate, one of the gates of Jerusa- 
lem mentioned by Nehemiah (3 : 1, 32 ; 12 : 
39). It was in the eastern wall of the city. 

Sheep''-market occurs only in John 5 : 2 



(marg., also P.V., "sheep-gate"). The 
word so rendered is an adjective, and it is 
uncertain whether the noun to be supplied 
should be " gate " or, following the Vulgate 
Version, "pool." 

She''kel — weight — the common standard 
both of weight and value among the He- 
brews. It is estimated at 220 English 
grains, or a little more than half an ounce 
avoirdupois. The "shekej of the sanc- 
tuary " (Ex. 30 : 13 ; Num. 3 : 47) was equal 
to twenty gerahs (Ezek. 45 : 12). There were 
shekels of gold (1 Chr. 21 : 25), of silver (1 
Sam. 9 : 8), of brass (17 : 5), and of iron (7). 
When it became a coined piece of money, 
the shekel of gold was equivalent to about 
£2 of our money. SLx gold shekels, accord- 
ing to the later Je'wlsh system, were equal 
in value to fifty silver ones. 

The temple contribution, with which the 
public sacrifices were bought (Ex. 30 : 13 ; 
2 Chr. 24 : 6), consisted of one common 
shekel, or a sanctuary half-shekel, equal to 




THE SANCTtiARY HALF-SHEKEL. 

two Attic drachmas. The coin, a stater 
{q.v.), which Peter found in the fish's mouth 
paid this contribution for both him and 
Christ (Matt. 17 : 24, 27). 

A zuza, or quarter of a shekel, was given 
by Saul to Samuel (1 Sam. 9 : 8). 




ZUZA, OR QUARTER-SHEKEL. 

^"he'lsCtL— petition. (1.) Judah's third 
son (Gen. 38 : 2, 5, 11, 14). 

(2.) A son of Arphaxad (1 Chr. 1 : 18). 




EASTERN SHEEP AND SHEPHERD. 



Page 621, 



SHELEMIAH 



622 



SHENIR 



Sheleini''ah — ivhom Jehovah repays. (1.) 
Ezra 10 : 39. 

(2.) The father of Hananiah (Neh. 3 : 30). 

(3.) A priest in the time of Nehemiah 
(13 : 13). 

(4.) Father of one of those who ac- 
cused Jeremiah to Zedekiah ( Jer. 37 : 3 ; 
38 : 1). 

(5. ) Father of a captain of the ward (Jer. 
37 : 13). 

(6.) Jer. 36:14. 

Shem — a name ; renoion — the first men- 
tioned of the sons of Noah (G-en. 5 : 32 ; 6 : 
10). He was probably the eldest of Noah's 
sons. The words " brother of Japheth the 
elder " in Gen. 10 : 21 are more correctly 
rendered "the elder brother of Japheth," 
as in the Revised Version. Shem's name 
is generally mentioned first in the list of 
Noah's sons. He and his wife were saved 
in the ark (11 : 11). Noah foretold his pre- 
eminence over Canaan (9 : 23-27). He died 
at the age of six hundred years, having 
been for many years contemporary with 
Abraham, according to the usual chron- 
ology. The Israelitish nation sprang from 
him (Gen. 11 : 10-26 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 24-27). 

She''ma— rwmow?'. (1.) A Reubenite (1 
Chr. 5 : 8). 

(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 13). 

(3. ) One who stood by Ezra when he read 
the law (Neh. 8 : 4). 

(4.) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 26) ; the same as Sheba (ver. 5). 

Shema^ah — rumour — a Benjamite whose 
sons "came to David to Ziklag" (1 Chr. 
12 : 3). 

Shenia''iah — lohovi Jehovah heard. (1.) 
A prophet in the reign of Rehoboam (1 
Kings 12 : 22-24). 

(2.) Neh. 3:29. 

(3.) A Simeonite (1 Chr. 4 : 37). 

(4.) A priest (Neh. 12:42). 

(5.) ALevite (1 Chr. 9:14). 

(6.) IChr. 9:16; Neh. 11: 15. 

(7.) A Levite in the time of David, who 
with 200 of his brethren took part in the 
bringing up of the ark from Obed-edom to 
Hebron (1 Chr. 15 : 8). 

(8.) A Levite (1 Chr. 24:6). 

(9.) The eldest son of Obed-edom (1 Chr. 
26 : 4-8). 



(10.) A Levite (2 Chr. 29 : 14). 

(11.) A false prophet who hindered the 
rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. 6 : 10). 

(12. ) A prince of Judah who assisted at 
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem 
(Neh. 12 : 34-36). 

(13. ) A false prophet who opposed Jere- 
miah (Jer. 29 : 24-32). 

(14.) One of the Levites whom Jehosha- 
phat appointed to teach the law (2 Chr. 
17 : 8). 

(15.) A Levite appointed to "distribute 
the oblations of the Lord " (2 Chr. 31 : 15). 

(16.) A Levite (2 Chr. 35:9). 

(17.) The father of Urijah the prophet 
(Jer. 26 : 20). 

(18. ) The father of a prince in the reign 
of Jehoiakim (Jer. 36 : 12). 

Shemari^ah — whom Jehovah guards. 
(1.) One who joined David at Ziklag (1 
Chr.' 12 : 5). 

(2.) Ezra 10: 32, 4L 

Shein'e"ber — soaring on high — the king 
of Zeboiim, who joined with the other kings 
in casting off the yoke of Chedorlaomer. 
After having been reconquered by him, he 
was rescued by Abraham (Gen. 14 : 2). 

Shein''inith — eighth; octave — a musical 
term, supposed to denote the lowest note 
sung by men's voices (1 Chr. 15 : 21 ; Ps. 6 ; 
12, title). 

Shemir^amoth — most high name. (1.) 
A Levite in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 
Chr. 17 : 8). 

(2.) A Levite in David's time (1 Chr. 15: 
18, 20). 

• Shemu^el — heard of God. (1.) The son 
of Ammihud. He represented Simeon in 
the division of the land (Num. 34 : 20). 

(2.) Used for "Samuel" (1 Chr. 6:33, 
R.V.). 

(3.) A prince of the tribe of Issachar (1 
Chr. 7 : 2). 

Shen — a tooth — probably some conspic- 
uous tooth -shaped rock or crag (1 Sam. 7 : 
12), a place between which and Mizpeh 
Samuel set vip his "Ebenezer." In the 
Hebrew the word has the article prefixed, 
" the Shen." The site is unknown. 

She^nir — Senir (Deut. 3:9; Cant. 4 : 
8), the name given to Mount Hermon {q.v.) 
by the Sidonians. 



SHEOL 



623 



SHEVA 



Shekel (Heb., "the all-demanding world" 
= Gr. Hades, "the unknown region"), the 
invisible world of departed souls. (See 
Hell.) 

She^phar (Gen. 10 : 30), a mount on the 
coast of Hadramaut, in the south of Arabia. 

Shephati'ah— ywc?(7e of the Lord. (1.) 
One of the sons of David by Abital (2 Sam. 
3:4). 

(2.) A Benjamite who joined David at 
Ziklag (1 Chr. 12 : 5). 

(3.) A Simeonite prince in David's time 
(1 Chr. 27 : 16). 

(4.) One of Jehoshaphat's sons (2 Chr. 
21 : 2). 

(5.) Ezra 2: 4. 

(6.) Ezra 2: 57; Neh. 7:59. 

(7.) One of the princes who urged the 
putting of Jeremiah to death ( Jer. 38 : 
1-4). 

Shep''herd, a word naturally of frequent 
occurrence in Scripture. Sometimes the 
word " pastor " is used instead (Jer. 2:8; 
3 : 15 ; 10 : 21 ; 12 : 10 ; 17 : 16). 

This word is used figuratively to repre- 
sent tlie relation of rulers to their subjects 
and of God to his people (Ps. 23 : 1 ; 80 : 1 ; 
Isa. 40 : 11 ; 44 : 28 ; Jer. 25 : 34, 35 ; Nahum 
3 : 18 ; John 10 : 11, 14 ; Heb. 13 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 
2 : 25 ; 5:4). 

The duties of a shepherd in an unen- 
closed country like Palestine were very 
onerous. ' ' In early morning he led forth 
the flock from the fold, marching at its 
head to the spot where they were to be 
pastured. Here he watched them all day, 
taking care that none of the sheep strayed, 
and if any for a time eluded his watch and 
wandered away from the rest, seeking dili- 
gently till he found and brought it back. 
In those lands sheep require to be supplied 
regularly with water, and the shepherd for 
this purpose has to guide them either to 
some running stream or to wells dug in the 
wilderness and furnished with troughs. At 
night he brought the flock home to the fold, 
counting them as they passed under the 
rod at the door to assure himself that none 
were missing. Nor did his labours always 
end with sunset. Often he had to guard 
the fold through the dark hours from the 
attack of wild beasts, or the wily attempts 



of the prowling thief (seel Sam. 17:34)." 
— Deane's David. 

Sherebi'ah— /a?ne of the Lord — a priest 
whose name is prominent in connection 
with the work carried on by Ezra and 
Nehemiah at Jerusalem (Ezra 8 : 17, 18, 
24-30 ; Neh. 8 : 7 ; 9 : 4, 5 ; 10 : 12). 

She^resh — root — a descendant of Ma- 
nasseh (1 Chr. 7 : 16). 

Shere'zer, one of the messengers whom 
the children of the Captivity sent to Jeru- 
salem " to pray for them before the Lord " 
(Zech. 7 : 2). 

Sher^iffs (Dan. 3 : 2), Babylonish officers. 

She^shach (Jer. 25 : 26), supposed to be 
equivalent to Babel (Babylon), according 
to a secret (cabalistic) mode of writing 
among the Jews of unknown antiquity, 
which consisted in substituting the last 
letter of the Hebrew alphabet for the first, 
the last but one for the second, and so on. 
Thus the letters sh, sh, ch become b, h, I 
— i.e.. Label. This is sujDposed to be con- 
firmed by a reference to Jer. 51 : 41, where 
Sheshach and Babylon are in parallel 
clauses. There seems to be no reason to 
doubt that Babylon is here intended by 
this name. (See Streane's Jeremiah, I.e.) 

She''shai — lohitish — one of the sons of 
Anak (Num. 13 : 22). When the Israelites 
obtained possession of the country the sons 
of Anak were expelled and slain (Josh. 15 : 
14 ; Judg. 1 : 10). 

Sheshbaz'^zar — fire-worshipper — (Ezra 
1 : 8, 11), probably the Persian name of 
Zerubbabel (g.i?.)— Ezra 2:2; Hag. 1:12, 
14 ; Zech. 4 : 6, 10. 

^Yiefh.— tumult. (1.) "The children of 
Sheth " (Num. 24 : 17) ; R. V., " the sons of 
tumult," which is probably the correct 
rendering, as there is no evidence that this 
is a proper name here. 

(2. ) The antediluvian patriarch (1 Chr.l:l). 

She''thar — a star — a prince at the court 
of Ahasuerus (Esther 1 : 14). 

She''thar-'boz''nai — star of splendom — a 
Persian officer who vainly attempted to 
hinder the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 
5 : 3, 6 ; 6:6, 13). 

She^va — Jehovah contends. (1.) The son 
of Caleb (1 Chr. 2 : 49). 

(2.) Oneof David's scribes (2 Sam. 20:25). 



SHEWBREAD 



624 



SHIHOR 



Shew'bread— Ex. 25:30 (K.V. marg., 
"presence bread"); 1 Chr. 9:32 (marg., 
" bread of ordering ") ; Num. 4:7: called 
" hallowed bread " (R. V., " holy bread ") in 
1 Sam. 21 : 1-6. 

This bread consisted of twelve loaves 
made of the finest flour. They were flat 
and thin, and were placed in two rows of 
six each on a table in the holy place before 
the Lord. They were renewed every Sab- 
bath (Lev. 24 : 5-17), and those that were 
removed to give place to the new ones were 
to be eaten by the priests only in the holy 
place (see 1 Sam. 21 : 3-G ; comp. Matt. 
12 : 3, 4). 

The number of the loaves represented 
the twelve tribes of Israel, and also the 
entire spiritual Israel, "the true Israel;" 
and the placing of them on the table sym- 




TABLE WITH SHEWBREAD. 

bolized the entire consecration of Israel to 
the Lord, and their acceptance of God as 
their God. The table for the bread was 
made of acacia wood, 3 feet long, 18 inches 
broad, and 2 feet 3 inches high. It was 
plated with pure gold. Two staves, plated 
with gold, passed through golden rings, 
were used for carrying it. 

Shib''boleth — river, or an ear of corn. 
The tribes living on the east of Jordan, 
separated from their brethren on the west 
by the deep ravines and the rapid river, 
gradually came to adopt peculiar customs, 
and from mixing largely with the Moabites, 
Ishmaelites, and Ammonites to pronounce 



certain letters in such a manner as to dis- 
tinguish them from the other tribes. Thus 
when the Ephraimites from the west in- 
vaded Gilead, and were defeated by the 
Gileadites under the leadership of Jeph- 
thah, and tried to escape by the " passages 
of the Jordan," the Gileadites seized the 
fords and would allow none to pass who 
could not pronounce "shibboleth" with a 
strong aspirate. This the fugitives were 
unable to do. They said "sibboleth," as 
the word was pronounced by the tribes on 
the west, and thus they were detected 
( Judg. 12 : 1-7). Forty-two thousand were 
thus detected, and 

" Without reprieve, adjudged to death, 
For want of well-pronouncing shibboleth." 

SihiWrasiti— fragrance — a town of Reu- 
ben, east of Jordan (Num. 32 : 
38). 

Shield, used in defensive war- 
fare, varying at different times 
and under different circumstances 
in size, form, and material (1 Sam. 
17 : 7 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 21 ; 1 Kings 10 : 
17 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 8, 24, 34 ; Isa. 22 : 
6 ; Ezek. 39 : 9 ; Nahum 2 : 3). 

Used figuratively of God and 
of earthly princes as the defend- 
ers of their jDeople (Gen. 15 : 1 ; 
Deut. 33 : 29 ; Ps. 33 : 20 ; 84 : 11). 
Eaith is compared to a shield 
(Eph. 6 : 16). 

Shields were usually "anointed" 

(Isa. 21 : 5), in order to preserve 

them, and at the same time make 

the missiles of the enemy glide off them 

more easily. 

Shigg'aion, from the verb shdgdh, " to 
reel about through drink," occurs in the 
title of Ps. 7. The plural form, shigionoth, 
is found in Hab. 3 : 1. The word denotes 
a lyrical poem composed under strong 
mental emotion ; a song of impassioned 
imagination accompanied with suitable 
music ; a dithyrambic ode. 

Shi^hon — overturning — a town of lasa- 
char (Josh. 19 : 19). 

Shi'hor— rfa)'^— (1 Chr. 13 : 5), the south- 
western boundary of Canaan, the Wddy 
el-'Artsh. (See SiHOR; Nile.) 



SHIHOR 



625 



SHIMEI 



Shi^hor - Lib^nath — hlach - lohite — a 
stream on the borders of Asher, probably 
the modern Nahr Zerka — i.e., the "crocodile 
brook," or "blue river" — which rises in the 
Carmel range and enters the Mediterranean 
a little to the north of Csesarea (Josh. 19 : 
26). Crocodiles are still found in the 
Zerka. Thomson suspects " that long ages 
ago some Egyptians, accustomed to worship 
this ugly creature, settled here {viz., at 
Caesarea), and brought their gods Avith 
them. Once here they would not easily be 
exterminated " {The Land and the Book). 

Shil^him — armed, or loells — a town in the 
south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 32) ; called also 
Sharuhen and Shaarim (19 : 6 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 31). 

Shilo^ah, The waters of=Siloah (Neh. 
3: 15) and Siloam {q.v.). 

Shi^loh, generally understood as denot- 
ing the Messiah, " the peaceful one," as 
the word signifies (Gen. 49 : 10). The Vul- 
gate Version translates the word, "he who 
is to be sent," in allusion to the Messiah; 
the Revised Version, margin, " till he come 
to Shiloh;" and the LXX., "until that 
which is his shall come to Shiloh." It is 
most simple and natural to render the 
expression, as in the Authorized Version, 
"till Shiloh come," interpreting it as a 
proper name (comp. Isa. 9 : 5). 

Shi^loh — a place of rest — a, city of Eph- 
raim, " on the north side of Bethel," from 
which it is distant 10 miles ( Judg. 21 : 19) ; 
the modern SeiMn (the Arabic for Shiloh), 
a "mass of shapeless ruins." Here the 
tabernacle was set up after the Conquest 
(Josh. 18 : 1-10), where it remained during 
all the period of the judges till the ark fell 
into the hands of the Philistines. "No 
spot in Central Palestine could be more 
secluded than this early sanctuary, nothing 
more featureless than the landscape around ; 
so featureless, indeed, the landscape and 
so secluded the spot that from the time of 
St. Jerome till its re-discovery by Dr. 
Robinson in 1838 the very site was for- 
gotten and unknown. " It is referred to by 
Jeremiah (7 : 12, 14 ; 26 : 4-9) five hundred 
years after its destruction. 

SM^lonite. Ahijah the prophet, whose 
home was in Shiloh, is so designated 
(1 Kings 11 : 29 ; 15 : 29). The plural form 



occurs (1 Chr. 9 : 5), denoting the descend- 
ants of Shelah, Judah 's youngest son. 

Shiin''ea — the hearing prayer. (1.) One 
of David's sons by Bathsheba (1 Chr. 3:5); 
called also Shammua (14 : 4). 

(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari 
(1 Chr. 6 : 30). 

(3. ) Another Levite of the family of Ger- 
shon (1 Chr. 6 : 39) ; called also Shimeam 
(9 : 38). 

(4.) One of David's brothers (1 Sam. 
16 : 9, marg. ). 

Shim^eah. (1.) One of David's brothers 
(2 Sam. 21 : 21) ; same as Shimea (4). 

(2.) A Benjamite, a descendant of Gib- 
eon (1 Chr. 8 : 32). 

Shim^ei— famous. (1. ) A son of Gershon, 
and grandson of Levi (Num. 3 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 
6 : 17, 29) ; called Shimi in Ex. 6 : 17. 

(2.) A Benjamite of the house of Saul, 
who stoned and cursed David when he 
reached Bahurim in his flight from Jeru- 
salem on the occasion of the rebellion of 
Absalom (2 Sam. 16 : 5-13). After the de- 
feat of Absalom he " came cringing to the 
king, humbly suing for pardon, bringing 
with him a thousand of his Benjamite 
tribesmen, and representing that he was 
heartily sorry for his crime, and had hur- 
ried the first of all the house of Israel to 
offer homage to the king" (19:16-23). 
David forgave him ; biit on his death-bed he 
gave Solomon special instructions regard- 
ing Shimei, of whose fidelity he seems to 
have been in doubt (1 Kings 2 : 8, 9). He was 
put to death at the command of Solomon, 
because he had violated his word by leaving 
Jerusalem and going to Gath to recover two 
of his servants who had escaped (36-46). 

(3. ) One of David's mighty men who re- 
fused to acknowledge Adonijah as David's 
successor (1 Kings 1 : 8). He is probably 
the same person who is called elsewhere 
(4:18) "thesonof Elah." 

(4.) A son of Pedaiah, the brother of 
Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3 : 19). 

(5.) A Simeonite (1 Chr. 4 :26, 27). 

(6.) A Reubenite (1 Chr. 5 : 4). 

(7.) A Levite of the family of Gershon 
(1 Chr. 6 : 42). 

(8.) A Ramathite who was "over the 
vineyards " of David (1 Chr. 27 : 27). 



SHIMEON 



626 



SHISHAK 



(9.) One of the sons of Heman, who as- 
sisted in the purification of the temple 
(2 Chr. 29 : 14). 

(10.) A Levite (2 Chr. 31 : 12, 13). 

(11.) Another Levite (Ezra 10 : 23). 

" The family of Shimei " (Zech. 12 : 13 ; 
R.V., "the family of the Shimeites^') 
were the descendants of Shimei (1). 

Shim^eon. Ezra 10 : 31. 

Shim^hi — famous — a Benjamite (1 Chr. 
8 : 21). 

Shim^rath — guardian — a Benjamite, 
one of Shimhi's sons {id.). 

Shini''ri — watchman. (1.) A Simeonite 
(1 Chr. 4 : 37). 

(2.) The father of one of the "valiant 
men " of David's armies (1 Chr. 11 : 45). 

(3.) Assisted at the purification of the 
temple in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 
29 : 13). 

Shiin''roin — watchman — the fourth son 
of Issachar (Gen. 14 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 1 ; R. V., 
correctly, "Shimron"). 

Shim^ron — tvatch-post — an ancient city 
of the Canaanites ; with its villages, allotted 
to Zebulun (Josh. 19 : 15) ; now probably 
SemUnieh, on the northern edge of the 
plain of Esdraelon, 5 miles west of Naza- 
reth. 

Shiin''ron-iner^on, the same, probably, 
as Shimron (Josh. 12 : 20). 

^Yiiraf sYiSii— the shining one, or sunny — 
the secretary of Rehum the chancellor, 
who took part in opposing the rebuilding 
of the temple after the Captivity (Ezra 4 : 
8, 9, 17-23). 

Shin^ab — cooling — the king of Admah, 
in the valley of Siddim, who with his con- 
federates was ^conquered by Chedorlaomer 
(Gen. 14 : 2). 

Shi'nar, The Land of. LXX. and Vul- 
gate " Senaar;" in the inscriptions, "Shu- 
mir ; " probably identical with Babylonia or 
Southern Mesopotamia, extending almost 
to the Persian Gulf. Here the tower of 
Babel was built (Gen. 11 : 1-6), and the 
city of Babylon. The name occurs later 
in Jewish history (Isa. 11 : 11 ; Zech. 5 : 11). 
Shinar was apparently first peopled by 
Turanian tribes, who tilled the land and 
made bricks and built cities. Then tribes of 
Semites invaded the land and settled in it, 



and became its rulers. This was followed in 
course of time by an Elamite invasion ; 
from which the land was finally delivered 
by Hammurabi, the son of Amarpel (per- 
haps "Amraphel, king of Shinar"), who 
became the founder of the new empire of 
Chaldea. 

Ships, early used in foreign commerce 
by the Phoenicians (Gen. 49 : 13). Moses 
(Deut. 28 : 68) and Job (9 : 26) make refer- 
ence to them, and Balaam speaks of the 
"ships of Chittim" (Num. 24:24). Solo- 
mon constructed a navy at Ezion-geber by 
the assistance of Hiram's sailors (1 Kings 
9 : 26-28 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 18). Afterwards, Je- 
hoshaphat sought to provide himself with a 
navy at the same port, but his ships appear 
to have been wrecked before they set sail 
(1 Kings 22 : 48, 49 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 35-37). 

In our Lord's time fishermen's boats on 
the Sea of Galilee were called "ships." 
Much may be learned regarding the con- 
struction of ancient merchant ships and 
navigation from the record in Acts 27, 28. 

Shiph^mite, probably the designation of 
Zabdi, who had charge of David's vine- 
yards (1 Chr. 27 : 27). 

Shiph^rah — beauty — one of the Egyptian 
midwives (Ex. 1 : 15). 

Shiph'tan— ji'ucZ(7e— an Ephraimite prince 
at the time of the division of Canaan 
(Num. 34 : 24). 

Shi^shak I.=SheshonkL, kingof Egypt. 
His reign was one of great national success, 
and a record of his wars and conquests 
adorns the portico of what are called the 
" Bubastite kings" at Karnak, the ancient 
Thebes. Among these conquests is a re- 
cord of that of Judea. In the fifth year 
of Rehoboam's reign Shishak came up 
against the kingdom of Judah with a 
powerful army. He took the fenced cities 
and came to Jerusalem. He pillaged the 
treasures of the temple and of the royal 
palace, and carried away the shields of 
gold which Solomon had made (1 Kings 
11 : 40 ; 14 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 12 : 2). (See Reho- 
BOAM.) This expedition of the Egyptian 
king was undertaken at the instigation 
of Jeroboam for the purpose of humbling 
Judah. Hostilities between the two king- 
doms still continued ; but during Reho- 



SHITTAH 



627 



SHUAL 



boam's reign there was not again the inter- 
vention of a third party. 

Shit'tah-tree. Shittah wood was em- 
ployed in making the various parts of the 
tabernacle in the wilderness, and must 
therefore have been indigenous in the de- 
sert in which the Israelites wandered. It 
was the acacia or mimosa {Acacia Nilotica 
and A. sei/al). " The wild acacia {Mimosa 
Nilotica), under the name of sunt, every- 
where represents the seneh, or senna, of 
the burning bush. A slightly different 
form of the tree, equally common under 
the name of seyal, is the ancient ' shittah,' 
or, as more usually expressed in the plural 
form, the ' shittim," of which the taber- 
nacle was made." — Stanley's Sinai, etc. 
(Ex. 25 : 10, 13, 23, 28). 

Shit^tim — acacias — also called "Abel- 
shittim " (Num. 33 : 49), a plain or valley 
in the land of Moab where the Israelites 
were encamped after their two victories 
over Sihon and Og, at the close of their 
desert wanderings, and from which Joshua 
sent forth two spies {q.v.) "secretly" to 
" ^4ew " the land and Jericho (Josh. 2 : 1). 

Sho^a — opulent — the mountain district 
Ijang to the north-east of Babylonia, an- 
ciently the land of the Guti, or Kuti, the 
modern Kurdistan. The plain lying between 
these mountains and the Tigris was called 
su-Edina — i.e., "the border of the plain." 
This name was sometimes shortened into 
Suti and Su, and has been regarded as = 
Shoa (Ezek. 23 : 23). Some think it denotes 
a place in Babylon. (See Pekod.) 

Siho'lasib— apostate. (1.) One of David's 
sons by Bathsheba (2 Sam. 5 : 14). 

(2.) One of the sons of Caleb (1 Chr. 2: 
18), the son of Hezron. 

Sho'"bach — poured out — the " captain of 
the host of Hadarezer " when he mustered 
his vassals and tributaries from beyond 
"the river Euphrates " (2 Sam. 10 : 15-18); 
called also Shophach (1 Chr. 19 : 16). 

Sho'bai— motors (Ezra 2 : 42). 

Sho^bal — pilgrim. (1.) The second son 
of Seir the Horite; one of the Horite 
"dukes "(Gen. 36:20). 

(2.) One of the sons of Caleb, and grand- 
son of Hur (1 Chr. 2 : 50, 52 ; 4 : 1, 2). 

Sho'bi — captor — son of Nahash of Rab- 



bah, the Ammonite. He showed kindness 
to David when he fled from Jerusalem to 
Mahanaim (2 Sam. 17 : 27). 

Sho'cho (2 Chr. 28 : 18) = Shochoh (1 Sam. 
17 : l)=Shoco (2 Chr. 11 : 7). See Socoh. 

Shoe. Of various forms, from the mere 
sandal {q.v.) to the complete covering of the 
foot. The word so rendered ( A. V. ) in Deut. 
33:25, min^al, "a bar," is derived from a 
root meaning "to bolt " or "shut fast," and 
hence a fastness or fortress. The verse has 
accordingly been rendered " iron and brass 
shall be thy fortress," or, as in the Revised 
Version, "thy bars shall be iron and 
brass." 

Sho^mer — luatckman. (1.) The father 
of Jehozabad, who murdered Joash (2 
Kings 12 : 21) ; called also Shimrith (2 Chr. 
24 : 26). 

(2.) A man of Asher (1 Chr. 7:32); 
called also Shamer (34). 

Sho'^phan — hidden, or holloic — a !^ town 
east of Jordan (Num. 32 : 35), " built by 
the children of Gad." This word should 
probably be joined with the word preced- 
ing it in this passage, Atroth-Shophan, as 
in the Revised Version. 

Shoshan^nim — lilies — the name of some 
musical instrument, probably resembling 
in shape a lily (Ps. 45 ; 69 — title). Some 
think that an instrument of six strings is 
meant, 

Shoshan^nim-E'duth, in title of Ps. 
80 (R.V. marg., "lilies, a testimony"), 
probably the name of the melody to which 
the psalm was to be sung. 

Shu'a — u-ealth. (1.) A Canaanite 
whose daughter was married to Judah 
(1 Chr. 2 : 3). 

(2.) A daughter of Heber the Asherite 
(1 Chr. 7 : 32). 

Shu ''ah — prostration; a pit. (1.) One 
of Abraham's sons by Keturah (Gen. 
25 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 32). 

(2.) 1 Chr. 4:11. 

Shu'^al — a fox — an Asherite (1 Chr. 
7 : 36). 

Shu'al, The land of— land of the fox— 
a district in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Sam. 
13 : 17 ) ; possibly the same as Shalim (9 : 4), 
in the neighbourhood of Shaalabbin (Josh. 
19 : 42). 

,41 



SHUHITE 



628 



SIDDIM 



Shu^hite, a designation of Bildad (Job 
2 : 11), probably because he was a descend- 
ant of Shuah. 

Shu''lainite, the same, as some think, 
with " Shunammite, " from " Shunem ; " 
otherwise, the origin and import of the 
word are unknown (Cant. 6 : 13). 

Shu^nammite, a person of Shunem 
(1 Kings 1 : 3 ; 2 Kings 4 : 12). The Syr. 
and Arab, read ' ' Sulamite. " 

Shu'^nem — two resting-places — a little 
village in the tribe of Issachar, to the 
north of Jezreel and south of Mount Gil- 
boa (Josh. 19 : 18), where the Philistines 
encamped when they came against Saul 
(1 Sam. 28 : 4), and where Elisha was hos- 
pitably entertained by a rich woman of 
the place. On the siidden death of this 
woman's son she hastened to Carmel, 20 
miles distant across the plain, to tell Elisha 
and to bring him with her to Shunem. 
There, in the "prophet's chamber," the 
dead child lay ; and Elisha entering it, 
shut the door and iDrayed earnestly : and 
the boy was restored to life (2 Kings 4 : 
8-37). This woman afterwards retired 
during the famine to the low land of the 
Philistines ; and on returning a few years 
afterwards, found her house and fields in 
the possession of a stranger. She appealed 
to the king at Samaria, and had them in a 
somewhat remarkable manner restored to 
her (comp. 2 Kings 8 : 1-6). 

Shur — an enclosure; a ivall — a part, 
probably, of the Arabian desert, on the 
north-eastern border of Egypt, giving its 
name to a wilderness extending from 
Egypt toward Philistia (Gen. 16 : 7 ; 20 : 1; 
2.5 : 18 ; Ex. 15 : 22). The name was prob- 
ably given to it from the wall which the 
Egyptians built to defend their frontier 
on the north-east from the desert tribes. 
This wall or line of fortifications extended 
from Pelusium to Heliopolis. 

Shu''shan— a lily — the Susa of Greek 
and Roman writers, once the capital of 
Elam. It lay in the uplands of Susiana, 
on the east of the Tigris, about 150 miles 
to the north of the head of the Persian Gulf. 
It is the modern Shush, on the north-west of 
Shiister. Once a magnificent city, it is now 
an immense mass of ruins. Here Daniel 



saw one of his visions (Dan. 8) ; and here 
also Nehemiah (Neh. 1) began his public 
life. Most of the events recorded in the 
Book of Esther took place here. Modern 
explorers have brought to light numerous 
relics, and the ground-plan of the splendid 
palace of Shushan, one of the residences 
of the great king, together with numerous 
specimens of ancient art, which illustrate 
the statements of Scripture regarding it 
(Dan. 8 : 2). The great hall of this palace 
(Esther 1) "consisted of several magni- 
ficent groups of columns, together with a 
frontage of 343 feet 9 inches, and a depth 
of 244 feet. These groups were arranged 
into a central phalanx of thirty-six columns 
(six rows of six each), flanked on the west, 
north, and east by an eqiial number, dis- 
posed in double rows of six each, and distant 
from them 64 feet 2 inches. " The inscrip- 
tions on the ruins represent that the palace 
was founded by Darius and completed by 
Artaxerxes. 

Shu^shan-E'duth — lily of the testimony 
— the title of Ps. 80. (See Shoshannim.) 

Sib^becai — the Lord sustains — one of 
David's heroes (1 Chr. 11 : 29), general of 
the eighth division of the army (27 : 11). 
He slew the giant Saph in the battle of 
Gob (2 Sam. 21 : 18). Called also Mebunnai 
(23 : 27). 

Sib''inah — coolness ; fragrance — a town 
in Reuben, in the territory of Moab, on the 
east of Jordan (Josh. 13 : 19) ; called also 
Shebam and Shibmah (Num. 32 : 3, 38). 
It was famous for its vines (Isa. 16 : 9 ; Jer. 
48 : 32). It has been identified with the 
rviin of SUmieh, where there are rock-cut 
wine-presses. This fact explains the words 
of the prophets referred to above. It was 
about 5 miles east of Heshbon. 

Si'chem = She'chem {q.v.), Gen. 12 : 6. 

Sickle of the Egyptians resembled that 
in modern use. The ears of corn were 
cut with it near the top of the straw. 
There was also a sickle used for warlike 
purposes, more correctly, however, called 
a pruning-kook (Deut. 16 : 9 ; Jer. 50 : 16 ; 
Joel 3 : 13 ; Mark 4 : 29). 

Sid'dim, Vale ot— valley of the broad 
plains — "which is the salt sea" (Gen. 14: 
3, 8, 10), between Engedi and the cities 



SIDON 



629 



SILAS 



of the plain, at the south end of the 
Dead Sea. It was "full of slime-pits" — 
i.e., bitumen springs. Here Chedorlaomer 
and the confederate kings overthrew the 
kings of Sodom and the cities of the plain. 
God afterwards, on account of their wicked- 
ness, "overthrew those cities, and all the 
plain, and all the inhabitants of the 
cities;" and the smoke of their destruc- 
tion "went up as the smoke of a furnace " 
(19 : 24-28), and was visible from Mamre, 
where Abraham dwelt. 

Some, however, contend that the "cities 
of the plain " were somewhere at the 
north of the Dead Sea. (See Sodom.) 

SVdon— fishing ; fishery — Gen. 10:15, 
19 (R.V., Zidon); Matt. 11:21, 22; Liake 
6:17. (See Zidon.) 

Sig'net, a seal used to attest docu- 
ments (Dan. 6 : 8-10, 12). In 6 : 17, this 
word properly denotes a ring. The im- 
pression of a signet ring on fine clay has 
recently been discovered among the ruins 
at Nineveh. It bears the name and title 
of an Egyptian king. Two actual signet 
rings of ancient Egyptian monarchs 
(Cheops and Horus) have also been dis- 
covered. 

When digging a shaft close to the south 
wall of the temple area, the engineers of the 
Palestine Exploration Eund, at a depth of 
12 feet below the surface, came upon a 
pavement of polished stones, formerly one 
of the streets of the city. Under this 
pavement they found a stratum of 16 feet 
of concrete, and among this concrete, 10 
feet down, they found a signet stone bear- 
ing the inscription, in 
Old Hebrew charac- 
ters, "Haggai, son of 
Shebaniah. " It has 
been asked. Might not 
this be the actual seal 
of Haggai the prophet? 
We know that he was 
in Jerusalem after the 
Captivity ; and it is somewhat singular 
that he alone of all the minor prophets 
makes mention of a signet (Hag. 2 : 23). 
(See Seal.) 

Siphon — striking down. The whole 
country on the east of Jordan, from the 




HAGGAI S SEAL. 



Arnon to the Jabbok, was possessed by the 
Amorites, whose king, Sihon, refused to 
permit the Israelites to pass through his 
territory, and put his army in array against 
them. The Israelites went forth against 
him to battle, and gained a complete vic- 
tory. The Amorites were defeated ; Si- 
hon, his sons, and all his people, were 
smitten with the sword, his walled towns 
were captured, and the entire country oc- 
cupied by the Amorites was taken posses- 
sion of by the Israelites (Num. 21 : 21-30 ; 
Deut. 2 : 24-37). 

The country from the Jabbok to Her- 
mon was at this time ruled by Og, the last 
of the Rephaim. He also tried to prevent 
the progress of the Israelites, but was 
utterly routed, and all his cities and terri- 
tory fell into the hands of the Israelites 
(comp. Num. 21 : 34 ; Deut. 3 : 3, 4, 14 ; Ps. 
135 : 10-12 ; 136 : 15-21). 

These two victories gave the Israelites 
possession of the country on the east of 
Jordan, from the Arnon to the foot of 
Hermon. 

The kingdom of Sihon embraced about 
1,500 square miles, while that of Og was 
more than 3,000 square miles. 

Si'hor (correctly Shi^hor) — black; dark 
— the name given to the river Nile in 
Isa. 23 : 3 ; Jer. 2 : 18. In Josh. 13 : 3 it is 
probably "the river of Egypt" — i.e., the 
Wddy el-Arish (1 Chr. 13 : 5) — which flows 
"before Egypt" — i.e., in a north-easterly 
direction from Egypt — and enters the sea 
about 50 miles south-west of Gaza. 

Si^las — icood—a, prominent member of 
the church at Jerusalem ; also called Sil- 
vanus. He and Judas, surnamed Barsa- 
bas, were chosen by the church there to 
accompany Paul and Barnabas on their 
return to Antioch from the council of the 
apostles and elders (Acts 15 : 22), as bearers 
of the decree adopted by the council. He 
assisted Paul there in his evangelistic 
labours, and was also chosen by him to be 
his companion on his second missionary 
tour (Acts 16 : 19-24). He is referred to 
in the epistles under the name of Silvanus 
(2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 
1 : 1 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 12). There is no record of 
the time or place of his death. 



SILK 



630 



SILOAM 



Silk — Heb. demeshek, " damask," silk 
cloth manufactured at Damascus — Amos 
3:12, A. v., "in the corner of a bed, and 
in Damascus in a couch, " is more correctly 
in the R.V., "in the corner of a couch and 
on the silken cushions of a. bed." 

Heb. mesht — (Ezek. 16 : 10, 13, rendered 
"silk"). In Gen. 41:42 (marg. A.V.), 
Prov. 31:22 (R.V., "fine linen"), the 
word " silk " ought to be "fine linen." 

Silk was common in New Testament 
times (Eev. 18 : 12). 

Sil''la — a highioay ; a twig — only in 2 
Kings 12 : 20. If taken as a proper name 
(as in the LXX. and other versions), the 
locality is unknown. 

Silo^ah, The pool of — Heb. shelah; i.e., 
"the dart"— Neh. 3:15; with the art. 



shiloah, "sending," Isa. 8:6 (comp. 7:3) 
= Siloam (q.v.). 

Silo'^axn, Pool of— sent or sending. 
Here a notable miracle was wrought by 
our Lord in giving sight to the blind 
(John 9:7-11). It has been identified 
with the Birket Silwdn in the lower Tyro- 
poeon valley, to the south-east of the hill 
of Zion. 

The water which flows into this pool 
intermittingly by a subterranean channel 
springs from the "Fountain of the Vir- 
gin" {q.v.). The length of this channel, 
which has several windings, is 1,750 feet, 
though the direct distance is only 1,100 
feet. The pool is 53 feet in length from 
north to south, 18 feet wide, and 19 deep. 
The water passes from it by a channel cut 
















; 




^ 



Vv 



^ .^ "h .^S^-j. AS ^.-, 



THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION. 

(Tracing from a squeeze, taken 15th July, 1881, by Lieuts. Couder and Mantell, R.E.) 



in the rock into the gardens below. (See 
En-rogel.) 

A few years ago (1880) a youth, while 
wading up the conduit by which the water 
enters the pool, accidentally discovered an 
inscription cut in the rock, on the eastern 
side, about 19 feet from the pool. This is 
the oldest extant Hebrew record of the 
kind. It has with great care been de- 
ciphered by scholars, and has been found 
to be an account of the manner in which the 
tunnel was constructed. Its whole length 
is said to be "a thousand cubits;" and 
the inscription further notes that the 
workmen, like the excavators of the 
Mont Cenis Tunnel, excavated from both 
ends, meeting in the middle. 

Some have argued that the inscription 



was cut in the time of Solomon; others, 
with more probability, refer it to the reign 
of Hezekiah. A more ancient tunnel was 
discovered in 1889 some 20 feet below the 
ground. It is of smaller dimensions, but 
more direct in its course. It is to this 
tunnel that Isaiah (8 : 6) probably refers. 

The Siloam inscription above referred to 
was surreptitiously cut from the wall of the 
tunnel in 1891 and broken into fragments. 
These were, however, recovered by the ef- 
forts of the British Consul at Jerusalem, and 
are now in the museum at Constantinople. 

Silo^am, Tower of, mentioned only 
Luke 13 : 4. The place here spoken of is 
the village now called Silwdn, or Kefr Sil- 
wdn, on the east of the valley of Kidron, 
and to the north-east of the pool. It 



SILVER 



631 



SIMON 



stands on the west slope of the Moimt of 
Olives. 

As illustrative of the movement of small 
bands of Canaanites from place to place, 
and the intermingling of Canaanites and 
Israelites even in small toM^ns in earlier 
times, M. C. Ganneau records the follow- 
ing curious fact : " Among the inhabit- 
ants of the village (of Siloam) there are a 
hundred or so domiciled for the most part 
in the lower quarter, and forming a group 
apart from the rest, called Dhiabry^ — i.e., 
men of Dhiban. It appears that at some 
remote period a colony from the capital 
of king Mesha (Dibon-Moab) crossed the 
Jordan and fixed itself at the gates of Jeru- 
salem at Silwan. The memory of this 
migration is still preserved ; and I am 
assured by the people themselves that 
many of their number are installed in 
other villages round Jerusalem" (quoted 
by Henderson, Palestine). 

Silver, used for a great variety of pur- 
poses, as may be judged from the frequent 
references to it in Scripture. It first ap- 
pears in commerce in Gen. 13:2; 23 : 15, 
16. It was largely employed for making 
vessels for the sanctuary in the wilderness 
(Ex. 26:19; 27:17; Num. 7:13, 19; 
10:2). There is no record of its having 
been found in Syria or Palestine. It was 
brought in large quantities by foreign 
merchants from abroad, from Spain and 
India and other countries probably. 

Sirverling (Isa. 7:23). Literally the 
words are " at a thousand of silver " — i.e., 
" pieces of silver," or shekels. 

Sim^'eon — hearing. (1. ) The second son 
of Jacob by Leah (Gen. 29 : 33). He was 
associated with Levi in the terrible act of 
vengeance against Hamor and the Shechem- 
ites (34 : 25, 26). He was detained by 
Joseph in Egypt as a hostage (42 : 24). 
His father, when dying, pronounced a 
malediction against him (49 : 5-7). The 
words in the Authorized Version (49 : 6), 
"they digged down a wall," ought to be, 
as correctly rendered in the Revised Ver- 
sion, " they houghed an ox," 

(2.) An aged saint who visited the 
temple when Jesus was being presented 
before the Lord, and uttered lofty words 



of thanksgiving and of prophecy (Luke 
2 : 29-35). 

(3.) One of the ancestors of Joseph 
(Luke 3 : 30). 

(4.) Surnamed Niger — i.e., "black," per- 
haps from his dark complexion — a teacher 
of some distinction in the church of An- 
tioch (Acts 13 : 1-3). It has been supposed 
that this was the Simon of Gyrene who 
bore Christ's cross. Note the number of 
nationalities represented in the church at 
Antioch. 

(5. ) James (Acts 15 : 14) thus designates 
the apostle Peter {q.v.). 

Sim^eon, The tribe of, was "divided 
and scattered " according to the prediction 
in Gen. 49 : 5-7. They gradually dwindled 
in number, and sank into a position of in- 
significance among the other tribes. They 
decreased in the wilderness by about two- 
thirds (comp. Num. 1 : 23; 26 : 14). Moses 
pronounces no blessing on this tribe. It 
is passed by in silence (Deut. 33). 

This tribe received as their portion a 
part of the territory already allotted to 
Judah (Josh. 19 : 1-9). It lay in the south- 
west of the land, with Judah on the east 
and Dan on the north ; but whether it 
was a compact territory or not cannot be 
determined. The svibsequent notices of 
this tribe are but few (1 Chr. 4 : 24-43). 
Like Reuben on the east of Jordan, this 
tribe had little influence on the history of 
Israel. 

Simmon, the abbreviated form of Simeon. 
(1.) One of the twelve apostles, called the 
Canaanite (Matt. 10 : 4 ; Mark 3 : 18). This 
word " Canaanite " does not mean a native 
of Canaan, but is derived from the Syriac 
word Kanean or Kaneniah, which was the 
name of a Jewish sect. The Revised Ver- 
sion has " Canansean ; " marg., "or Zealot " 
He is also called "Zelotes" (Luke 6:15; 
Acts 1:13; R.V., "the Zealot"), because 
previous to his call to the apostleship he 
had been a member of the fanatical sect of 
the Zealots. There is no record regarding 
him. 

(2.) The father of Judas Iscariot (John 
6:71; 13:2, 26). 

(3.) One of the brothers of our Lord 
(Matt. 13:55; Mark 6: 3). 



SIMRI 



632 



SIN 



(4, ) A Pharisee in whose house " a woman 
of the city which was a sinner " anointed 
our Lord's feet with ointment (Luke 7 : 
36-38). 

(5. ) A leper of Bethany, in whose house 
Mary anointed our Lord's head with oint- 
ment " as he sat at meat " (Matt. 26 : 6-13; 
Mark 14 : 3-9). 

(6.) A Jew of Cyrene, in North Africa, 
then a province of Libya. A hundred 
thousand Jews from Palestine had been 
settled in this province by Ptolemy Soter 
(B.C. 323-285), where by this time they had 
greatly increased in number. They had a 
synagogue in Jerusalem for such of their 
number as went thither to the annual 
feasts. Simon Avas seized by the soldiers 
as the procession wended its way to the 
place of crucifixion as he was passing by, 
and the heavy cross which Christ from 
failing strength could no longer bear was 
laid on his shoulders. Perhaps they seized 
him because he showed sympathy with 
Jesus. He was the "father of Alexander 
and Rufus " (Matt. 27 : 32). Possibly this 
Simon may have been one of the "men of 
Cyrene" who preached the word to the 
Greeks (Acts 11 : 20). 

(7.) A sorcerer of great repute for his 
magical arts among the Samaritans (Acts 
8 : 9-11). He afterwards became a pro- 
fessed convert to the faith under the 
preaching of Philip the deacon and evan- 
gelist (12, 13). His profession was, how- 
ever, soon found to be hollow. His con- 
duct called forth from Peter a stern rebuke 
(8 : 18-23). From this moment he disap- 
pears from the Church's history. The term 
"Simony," as denoting the purchase for 
money of spiritual offices, is derived from 
him. 

(8.) A Christian at Joppa, a tanner by 
trade, with whom Peter on one occasion 
lodged (Acts 9 : 43). 

(9.) Simon Peter (Matt. 4 : 18). See 
Petek. 

Sim''ri — watchman — a Levite of the fam- 
ily of Merari (1 Chr. 26 : 10). 

Sin is ' ' any want of conformity unto or 
transgression of the law of God " (1 John 
3:4; Rom. 4 : 15), in the inward state and 
habit of the soul, as well as in the outward 



conduct of the life, whether by omission or 
commission (Rom. 6:12-17; 7:5-24). It 
is ' ' not a mere violation of the law of our 
constitution, nor of the system of things, 
but an offence against a personal lawgiver 
and moral governor who vindicates his 
law with penalties. The soul that sins is 
always conscious that his sin is (1) in- 
trinsically vile and polluting, and (2) that 
it justly deserves punishment, and calls 
down the righteous wrath of God. Hence 
sin carries with it two inalienable char- 
acters — (1) ill-desert, guilt [rcatus)', and 
(2) pollution {macula)." — Hodge's Outlines. 

The moral character of a man's actions is 
determined by the moral state of his heart. 
The disposition to sin, or the habit of the 
soul that leads to the sinful act, is itself 
also sin (Rom. 6 : 12-17 ; Gal. 5 : 17 ; James 
1 : 14, 15). 

The origin of sin is a mystery, and must 
for ever remain such to us. It is plain 
that for some reason God has permitted 
sin to enter this world, and that is all we 
know. His permitting it, however, in no 
way makes God the author of sin. 

Adam's sin (Gen. 3 : 1-6) consisted in his 
yielding to the assaults of temptation and 
eating the forbidden fruit. It involved in 
it— (1) the sin of unbelief, virtually making 
God a liar ; and (2) the guilt of disobedience 
to a positive command. By this sin he 
became an apostate from God, a rebel in 
arms against his Creator. He lost the 
favour of God and communion with him; 
his whole nature became depraved, and he 
incurred the penalty involved in the cove- 
nant of works. 

Original sin. " Our first parents being 
the root of all mankind, the guilt of their 
sin was imputed, and the same death in 
sin and corrupted nature were conveyed to 
all their posterity, descending from them 
by ordinary generation." Adam was con- 
stituted by God the federal head and re- 
presentative of all his posterity, as he was 
also their natural head, and therefore when 
he fell they fell with him (Rom. 5 : 12-21; 
1 Cor. 15 : 22-45). His probation was their 
probation, and his fall their fall. Because 
of Adam's first sin all his posterity came 
into the world in a state of sin and con- 



SIN 



633 



SIN 



demnation — i.e., (1) a state of moral cor- 
ruption, and (2) of guilt, as having judi- 
cially imputed to them the guilt of Adam's 
first sin. 

"Original sin" is freqiiently and pro- 
perly used to denote only the moral corrup- 
tion of their whole nature inherited by all 
men from Adam, This inherited moral 
corruption consists in — (1) the loss of 
original righteousness ; and (2) the presence 
of a constant proneness to evil, which is 
the root and origin of all actual sin. It is 
called " sin " (Rom. 6 : 12, 14, 17; 7 : 5-17), 
the "flesh " (Gal. 5 : 17, 24), " lust " (James 
1 : 14, 15), the " body of sin " (Rom. 6 : 6), 
"ignorance," "blindness of heart," "alien- 
ation from the life of God" (Eph. 4:18, 
19). It influences and depraves the whole 
man, and its tendency is still downward 
to deeper and deeper corruption, there re- 
maining no recuperative element in the 
soul. It is a total depravity, and it is also 
universally inherited by all the natural de- 
scendants of Adam (Rom. 3 : 10-23 ; 5 : 12- 
21; 8:7). Pelagians deny original sin, 
and regard man as by nature morally and 
spiritually well; semi - Pelagians regard 
him as morally sick ; Augustinians, or, as 
they are also called, Calvinists, regard 
man as described above, spiritually dead 
(Eph. 2:1; lJohn3:14). 

The doctrine of original sin is proved — 
(1. ) Erom the fact of the universal sinfulness 
of men. "There is no man that sinneth 
not" (1 Kings 8:46; Isa. 53:6; Ps. 130: 
3; Rom. 3:19, 22, 23; Gal. 3:22). (2.) 
Erom the total depravity of man. All 
men are declared to be destitute of any 
principle of spiritual life; man's apostasy 
from God is total and complete (Job 15 : 
14-16; Gen. 6:5, 6). (3.) Erom its early 
manifestation (Ps. 58:3; Prov. 22:15). 
(4.) It is proved also from the necessity, 
absolutely and universally, of regeneration 
(John 3:3; 2 Cor. 5:17). (5.) Erom the 
universality of death (Rom. 5 : 12-20). 

Various kinds of sin are mentioned — (1.) 
"Presumptuous sins," or as literally ren- 
dered, "sins with an uplifted hand "—I.e., de- 
fiant acts of sin, in contrast with ' ' errors " 
or " inadvertencies " (Ps. 19 : 13). (2. ) " Se- 
cret " — i.e., hidden sins (19 : 12) ; sins which 



escape the notice of the soul. (3.) "Sin 
against the Holy Ghost" [q.v.), or a "sin 
unto death" (Matt. 12:31, 32; 1 John 
5 : 16), which amounts to a wilful rejection 
of grace. 

Sin, a city in Egypt, called by the Greeks 
Pelusium, which means, as does also the 
Hebrew name, "clayey" or "muddy," so 
called from the abundance of clay found 
there. It is called by Ezekiel (Ezek. 30 : 
15) " the strength of Egypt," thus denoting 
its importance as a fortified city. It has 
been identified with the modern Tineh, "a 
miry place, " where its ruins are to be found. 
Of its boasted magnificence only four red 
granite columns remain, and some few 
fragments of others. 

Sin-offering (Heb. hattdth), the law of, 
is given in detail in Lev. 4-6 : 13 ; 9 : 7-11, 
22-24; 12 : 6-8 ; 15 : 2, 14, 25-30 ; 14 : 19, 31 ; 
Num. 6 : 10-14. On the day of Atonement 
it was made with special solemnity (Lev. 
16 : 5, 11, 15). The blood was then carried 
into the holy of holies and sprinkled on the 
mercy-seat. Sin-offerings were also pre- 
sented at the five annual festivals (Num. 
28, 29), and on the occasion of the con- 
secration of the priests (Ex. 29 : 10-14, 36). 
As each individual — even the most private 
member of the congregation, as well as the 
congregation at large, and the high priest — 
was obliged, on being convicted by his 
conscience of any particular sin, to come 
with a sin-offering, we see thus imj)ressiveh'' 
disclosed the need in which every sinner 
stands of the salvation of Christ, and the 
necessity of making application to it as often 
as the guilt of sin renews itself upon his con- 
science. This resort of faith to the perfect 
sacrifice of Christ is the one way that lies 
open for the sinner's attainment of pardon 
and restoration to peace. And then in the 
sacrifice itself there is the reality of that 
incomparable worth and preciousness which 
were so significantly represented in the sin- 
offering by the sacredness of its blood and 
the hallowed destination of its flesh. With 
reference to this the blood of Christ is 
called emphatically "the precious blood," 
and the blood that "cleanseth from all 
sin " (1 John 1 : 7). 

Sin, Wilderness of, lying between Elim 



SINAI 



634 



SINAITICUS 



and Sinai (Ex. 16 : 1 ; comp. Num. 33 : 11, 
12). This was probably the narrow plain 
of el-Markha, which stretches along the east- 
ern shore of the Red Sea for several miles 
toward the promontory of Rds Mohammed, 
the southern extremity of the Sinaitic 
Peninsula. While the Israelites rested 
here for some days they began to murmur 
on account of the want of nourishment, as 
they had by this time consumed all the 
corn they had brought with them out of 
Egypt. God heard their murmurings, and 
gave them "manna" and then quails in 
abundance. 

Signal — thorny or craggy — called also 
Horeb, the name of the mountain district 
which was reached by the Hebrews in the 
third month after the Exodus. Here they 
remained encamped for about a whole year. 
Their journey from the Red Sea to this 
encampment, including all the windings 
of the route, was about 150 miles. The last 
twenty-two chapters of Exodus, together 
with the whole of Leviticus and Num. 
1-6 : 11, contain a record of all the trans- 
actions which occurred while they were 
here. Erom Rephidim (Ex. 17 : 8-13) the 
Israelites journeyed forward through the 
Wady Solaf and W^dy esh-Sheikh into 
the plain of er-R^thah, "the desert of 
Sinai," about 2 miles long and half a mile 
broad, and encamped there "before the 
mountain." The part of the mountain 
range, a protruding lower bluff, known as 
the Ras SasMeh (Sufsafeh), rises almost 
perpendicularly from this plain, and is in 
all probability the Sinai of history. Dean 
Stanley thus describes the scene: — "The 
plain itself is not broken and uneven and 
narrowly shut in, like almost all others in 
the range, but presents a long retiring 
sweep, within which the people could re- 
move and stand afar off. The cliff, rising 
like a huge altar in front of the whole con- 
gregation, and visible against the sky in 
lonely grandeur from end to end of the 
whole plain, is the very image of the 
'mount that might be touched,' and from 
which the voice of God might be heard far 
and wide over the plain below. " This was 
the scene of the giving of the law, Erom 
the Ras Sufsafeh the law was proclaimed 



to the people encamped below in the plain 
of er-Rahah. During the lengthened 
period of their encampment here the Israel- 
ites passed through a very memorable ex- 
perience. An immense change passed over 
them. They are now an organized nation, 
bound by covenant engagements to serve 
the Lord their God, their ever-present 
divine Leader and Protector. At length, 
in the second month of the second year of 
the Exodus, they move their camp and 
march forward according to a prescribed 
order. After three days they reach the 
"wilderness of Paran," the "et-Tih"— 
i.e., "the desert" — and here they make 
their first encampment. At this time a 
spirit of discontent broke out amongst 
them, and the Lord manifested his dis- 
pleasure by a fire which fell on the encamp- 
ment and inflicted injury on them. Moses 
called the place Taberah [q.v.) — Num. 11 : 
1-3. The journey between Sinai and the 
southern boundary of the Promised Land 
(about 150 miles) at Kadesh was accom- 
plished in about a year (Deut. 1 : 2). (See 
Map facing page 198. ) 

Sinait^icus codex, usually designated 
by the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, 
is one of the most valuable of ancient 
MSS. of the Greek New Testament. On 
the occasion of a third visit to the convent 
of St. Catherine, on Mount Sinai, in 1859, 
it was discovered by Dr. Tischendorf. He 
had on a previous visit in 1844 obtained 
forty-three parchment leaves of the LXX., 
which he deposited in the university lib- 
rary of Leipsic, under the title of the Codex 
Erederico-Augustanus, after his royal pat- 
ron the king of Saxony. In the year re- 
ferred to (1859) the emperor of Russia sent 
him to prosecute his search for MSS., which 
he was convinced were still to be found in 
the Sinai convent. The story of his find- 
ing the manuscript of the New Testament 
has all the interest of a romance. He 
reached the convent on 31st January ; but 
his inquiries appeared to be fruitless. On 
the 4th Eebruary he had resolved to return 
home without having gained his object. 
" On that day, when walking with the pro- 
visor of the convent, he spoke with much 
regret of his ill-success. Returning from 



SINIM 



635 



SISERA 



their promenade, Tischendorf accompanied 
the monk to his room, and there had dis- 
played to him what his companion called 
a copy of the LXX., which he, the ghostly 
brother, owned. The MS. was wrapped 
up in a piece of cloth, and on its being un- 
rolled, to the surprise and delight of the 
critic the very document presented itself 
which he had given up all hope of seeing. 
His object had been to complete the frag- 
mentary LXX. of 1844, which he had 
declared to be the most ancient of all 
Greek codices on vellum that are extant ; 
but he found not only that, but a copy of 
the Greek New Testament attached, of the 
same age, and perfectly complete, not 
wanting a single page or paragraph." This 
precious fragment, after some negotiations, 
he obtained possession of, and conveyed it 
to the Emperor Alexander, who fully ap- 
preciated its importance, and caused it to 
be published as nearly as possible in fac- 
simile, so as to exhibit correctly the ancient 
handwriting. The entire codex consists of 
34Gi folios. Of these 199 belong to the Old 
Testament and 147^ to the New, along 
with two ancient documents called the 
Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of 
Hermas. The books of the New Testa- 
ment stand thus: — the four Gospels, the 
epistles of Paul, the Acts of the Apostles, 
the Catholic Epistles, the Apocalypse of 
John. It is shown by Tischendorf that 
this codex was written in the fourth cen- 
tury, and is thus of about the same age as 
the Vatican codex; but while the latter 
wants the greater part of Matthew and 
sundry leaves here and there besides, the 
Sinaiticus is the only copy of the New 
Testament in uncial characters which is 
complete. Thus it is the oldest extant 
MS. copy of the New Testament. Both 
the Vatican and the Sinai codices were 
probably written in Egypt. 

Si^nim, The land of (Isa. 49 : 12), sup- 
posed by some to mean China, but more 
probably Phoenicia (Gen. 10:17) is in- 
tended. 

Si''nite, an inhabitant of Sin, near Arka 
(Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15). (See Akkite. ) 

Si^on — elevated. (1.) Denotes Mount 
Hermon in Deut. 4 : 48 ; called Sirion by 



the Sidonians, and by the Amorites Shenir 
(Deut. 3 : 9). (See Hermon.) 

(2.) The Greek form of Zion {q.v.) in 
Matt. 21:5; John 12: 15. 

Siph''inoth — fruitful places — some un- 
known place in the south, where David 
found friends when he fled from Saul 
(1 Sam. 30 : 28). 

Si'^rah — retiring — a well from which 
Joab's messenger brought back Abner (2 
Sam. 3 : 26). It is now called ^Ain Sarah, 
and is situated about a mile from Hebron, 
on the road to the north. 

Sir''ion — a breastplate — the Sidonian 
name of Hermon (g.r.)— Deut. 3:9; Ps. 29 : 6. 

Sis^era — order of battle. (1.) The captain 
of Jabin's army ( Judg. 4 : 2), which was 
thoroughly routed and destroyed by the 
army of Barak on the plain of Esdraelon. 
After all was lost he fled to the settlement 
of Heberthe Kenite in the plain of Zaanaim. 
Jael, Heber's wife, received him into her 
tent with apparent hospitality, and "gave 
him butter" {i.e., lebben, or curdled milk) 
" in a lordly dish. " Having drunk the re- 
freshing beverage, he lay down, and soon 
sank into the sleep of the weary. While 
he lay asleep Jael crept stealthily up to 
him, and taking in her hand one of the 
tent pegs, with a mallet she drove it with 
such force through his temples that it en- 
tered into the ground where he lay, and 
"at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he 
bowed, there he fell down dead." 

The iDart of Deborah's song (Judg. 5 : 24- 
27) referring to the death of Sisera, which 
is a "mere patriotic outburst, and does not 
necessarily imply a moral approbation of 
the conduct of Jael (comp. Ps. 83:9)," is 
thus rendered by Professor Roberts {Old 
Testament Revision) : — 

" Extolled above women be Jael, 
The wife of Heber the Kenite, 
Extolled above wonaen in the tent. 
He asked for water, she gave him milk ; 
She brought him cream in a lordly dish. 
She stretched forth her hand to the nail, 
Her right hand to the workman's hammer, 
And she smote Sisera ; she crushed his head, 
She crashed through and transfixed his temples. 
At her feet he curled himself, he fell, he lay still ; 
At her feet he curled himself, he fell ; 
And where he curled himself, there he fell dead." 



SITNAH 



636 



SNARE 



(2.) The ancestor of some of the Neth- 
inim who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
2 : 53 ; Neh. 7 : 55). 

Sit^nah — strife — the second of the two 
wells dug by Isaac, whose servants here 
contended with the Philistines (Gen. 26 : 
21). It has been identified with the modern 
Shutneh, in the valley of Gerar, to the west 
of Rehoboth, about 20 miles south of Beer- 
sheba. 

Sifting, the attitude generally assumed 
in Palestine by those who were engaged in 
any kind of work. " The carpenter saws, 
planes, and hews with his hand-adze, sitting 
on the ground or upon the plank he is 
planing. The washerwoman sits by the 
tub ; and, in a word, no one stands when 
it is possible to sit. Shopkeepers always 
sit, and Levi sitting at the receipt of cus- 
tom (Matt. 9:9) is the exact way to state 
the case." — Thomson, Land and Book. 

Silvan, a Persian word (Assyr. sivanu, 
" bricks "), used after the Captivity as the 
name of the third month of the Jewish 
year, extending from the new moon in 
June to the new moon in July (Esther 
8:9). 

Skin, Coats made of (Gen. 3:21). 
Skins of rams and badgers were used as a 
covering for the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 5 ; 
Num. 4 : 8-14). 

Skull, The place of a. See Golgotha. 

Slave, Jer. 2:14 (A.V.), but not there 
found in the original. In Rev. 18 : 13 the 
word "slaves " is the rendering of a Greek 
word meaning " bodies." The Hebrew and 
Greek words for slave are usually rendered 
simply "servant," "bondman," or "bond- 
servant." Slavery as it existed under the 
Mosaic law has no modern parallel. That 
law did not originate but only regulated 
the already existing custom of slavery (Ex. 
21:20, 21, 26, 27; Lev. 25:44-46; Josh. 
9 : 6-18). The gospel in its spirit and genius 
is hostile to slavery in every form, which 
under its influence is gradually disappear- 
ing from among men. 

Slime (Gen. 11:3; LXX., "asphalt;" 
R.V. marg., "bitumen"). The vale of 
Siddim was full of slime pits (14 : 10). 
Jochebed daubed the "ark of bulrushes" 
with slime (Ex. 2 : 3). (See Pitch.) 



Sling. With a sling and a stone David 
smote the Philistine giant (1 Sam. 17 : 40, 
49). There were 700 Benjamites who were 
so skilled in its use that with the left hand 
they ' ' could sling stones at a hair breadth, 
and not miss " ( Judg. 20 : 16 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 2). 
It was used by the Israelites in war (2 
Kings 3 : 25). (See Arms.) 

The words in Pro v. 26:8, "As he that 
bindeth a stone in a sling," etc. (Authorized 
Version), should rather, as in the Revised 
Version, be "As a bag of gems in a heap 
of stones," etc. 

Smith. The Hebrews were not per- 
mitted by the Philistines in the days of 
Samuel to have a smith amongst them, lest 
they should make them swords and spears 
(1 Sam. 13:19). Thus the Philistines 
sought to make their conquests permanent 
(comp. 2 Kings 24 : 16). 

Smyr^na — myrrh — an ancient city of 
Ionia, on the western coast of Asia Minor, 
about 40 miles to the north of Ephesus. 
It is now the chief city of Anatolia, having 
a mixed population of about 200,000, of 
whom about one-third are professed Chris- 
tians. The church founded here was one 
of the seven addressed by our Lord (Rev. 
2 : 8-11). The celebrated Poly carp, a pupil 
of the apostle John, was in the second cen- 
tury a prominent leader in the church of 
Smyrna. Here he suffered martyrdom, 
A.D. 155. 

Snail. (1.) Heb. Jiomit, among the un- 
clean creeping things (Lev. 11 : 30). This 
was probably the sand-lizard, of which 
there are many species in the wilderness of 
Judea and the Sinai peninsula. 

(2.) Heb. shablul (Ps. 58 : 9), the snail or 
slug proper. Tristram explains the allu- 
sions of this passage by a reference to the 
heat and drought by which the moisture of 
the snail is evaporated. "We find," he 
says, "in all parts of the Holy Land 
myriads of snail-shells in fissures still ad- 
hering by the calcareous exudation round 
their orifice to the surface of the rock, but 
the animal of which is utterly shrivelled 
and wasted — ' melted away.' " 

Snare. The expression (Amos 3 : 5), 
"Shall one take up a snare from the 
earth?" etc. (Authorized Version), ought 



SNOW 



637 



SOLOMON 



to be, as in the Revised Version, " Shall a 
snare spring up from the ground?" etc. 
(See Gin.) 

Sno'w. Common in Palestine in winter 
(Ps. 147 : 16). The snow on the tops of the 
Lebanon range is almost always within 
view throughout the whole year. The word 
is frequently used figuratively by the sacred 
writers (Job 24 : 19 ; Ps. 51 : 7 ; 68 : 14 ; Isa. 
1 : 18). It is mentioned only once in the 
historical books (2 Sam. 23 : 20). It was 
"carried to Tyre, Sidon, and Damascus as 
a luxury, and labourers sweltering in the 
hot harvest-fields used it for the purpose of 
cooling the water which they drank (Pro v. 
25:13; Jer. 18:14). No doubt Herod 
Antipas, at his feasts in Tiberias, enjoyed 
also from this very source the modern 
luxury of ice-water." 

So (Egypt. Sabako), an Ethiopian king 
who brought Egypt under his sway. He 
was bribed by Hoshea to help him against 
the Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser (2 Kings 
17 : 4). This was a return to the policy 
that had been successful in the reign of 
Jeroboam I. (1 Kings 12 : 20). 

Soap (Jer. 2 : 22 ; Mai. 3:2; Heb. bdrith), 
properly a vegetable alkali, obtained from 
the ashes of certain plants, particularly the 
salsola kali (saltwort), which abounds on the 
shores of the Dead Sea and of the Medi- 
terranean. It does not appear that the 
Hebrews were acquainted with what is 
now called "soap," w^hich is a compound 
of alkaline carbonates with oleaginous 
matter. The word " purely " in Isa. 1 : 25 
(R.V., "throughly;" marg., "as with 
lye") is lit. "as with bor." This word 
means "clearness," and hence also that 
which makes clear, or pure, alkali. "The 
ancients made use of alkali mingled with 
oil, instead of soap (Job 9 : 30), and also 
in smelting metals, to make them melt and 
flow more readily and purely." — Gesenius, 
Lex. Heb. 

So'cho— a fence ; hedge — (1 Chr. 4 : 18) = 
So'choh (1 Kings 4:10), Sho'choh (1 
Sam. 17 : 1), Sho'co (2 Chr. 11 : 7), 
Sho'cho (2 Chr. 28 : 18)— a city in the plain 
or lowland of Judah, where the Philistines 
encamped when they invaded Judah after 
their defeat at Michmash. It lay on the 



northern side of the valley of Elah (Wady 
es-Stint). It has been identified with the 
modern Khurhet ShUweikeh, about 14 miles 
south-west of Jerusalem. In this campaign 
Goliath was slain, and the Philistines were 
completely routed. 

Sod^om — burning ; the tcalled — a city in 
the vale of Siddim (Gen. 13 : 10 ; 14 : 1-16). 
The wickedness of its inhabitants brought 
down upon it fire from heaven, by which it 
was destroyed (18 : 16-33 ; 19 : 1-29 ; Deut. 
23 : 17). This city and its awful destruction 
are frequently alluded to in Scripture 
(Deut. 29 : 23 ; 32 : 32 ; Isa. 1 : 9, 10 ; 3 : 9 ; 
13 : 19 ; Jer. 23 : 14; Ezek. 16 : 46-56; Zeph. 
2:9; Matt. 10 : 15 ; Rom. 9 : 29 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 
6, etc.). No trace of it or of the other 
cities of the plain has been discovered, so 
complete was their destruction. Just op- 
posite the site of Zoar, on the south-west 
coast of the Dead Sea, is a range of low 
hills, forming a mass of mineral salt called 
Jebel Usdum, " the hill of Sodom." It has 
been concluded from this and from other 
considerations that the cities of the plain 
stood at the southern end of the Dead Sea. 
Others, however, with much greater prob- 
ability, contend that they stood at the 
northern end of the sea. 

Sod^oma (Rom. 9 : 29 ; R. V., " Sodom " ), 
the Greek form for Sodom. , 

Sod'oznites, those who imitated the 
licentious wickedness of Sodom (Deut. 23 : 
17 ; 1 Kings 14 : 24 ; Rom. 1 : 26, 27). Asa 
destroyed them "out of the land" (1 Kings 
15 : 12), as did also his son Jehoshai^hat 
(22 : 46). 

Solemn meeting (Isa. 1 : 13), the con- 
vocation on the eighth day of the Feast of 
Tabernacles (Lev. 23:36; Num. 29:35). 
It is the name given also to the convoca- 
tion held on the seventh day of the Pass- 
over (Deut. 16 : 8). So great was the de- 
generacy of the times that men came forth 
from these most religious of assemblies 
preiDared to sin with less scruple than be- 
fore (comp. Isa. 58 : 4). 

Sol^omon — peaceful — (Heb. Sheldmoh), 
David's second son by Bathsheba — i.e., the 
first after their legal marriage (2 Sam. 12). 
He was probably born about B.C. 1035 (1 
Chr. 22:5; 29:1). He succeeded his 



SOLOMON 



638 



SOLOMON 



father on the throne in early manhood, 
probably about sixteen or eighteen years of 
age. Nathan, to whom his education was 
intrusted, called him Jedidiah — i.e., "be- 
loved of the Lord" (2 Sam. 12:24, 25). 
He was the first king of Israel "born in 
the purple." His father chose him as his 
successor, passing over the claims of his 
elder sons: "Assuredly Solomon my son 
shall reign after me." His history is re- 
corded in 1 Kings 1-11 and 2 Chr. 1-9. 
His elevation to the throne took place 
before his father's death, and was hastened 
on mainly by Nathan and Bathsheba, in 
consequence of the rebellion of Adonijah 
(1 Kings 1 : 5-40). During his long reign 
of forty years the Hebrew monarchy gained 
its highest splendour. This period has 
well been called the "Augustan age" of 
the Jewish annals. The first half of his 
reign was, however, by far the brighter 
and more prosperoiis ; the latter half was 
clouded by the idolatries into which he fell, 
mainly from his heathen intermarriages (1 
Kings 11 : 1-8 ; 14 : 21, 31). 

Before his death David gave parting in- 
structions to his son (1 Kings 2 ; 1 Chr. 22, 
28, 29). As soon as he had settled himself 
in his kingdom, and arranged the affairs of 
his extensive empire, he entered into an 
alliance with Egypt by the marriage of the 
daughter of Pharaoh (1 Kings 3), of whom, 
however, nothing further is recorded. He 
surrounded himself wdth all the luxuries 
and the external grandeur of an Eastern 
monarch, and his government prospered. 
He entered into an alliance with Hiram, 
king of Tyre, who in many ways greatly 
assisted him in his numerous undertakings. 
(See HiKAM.) 

For some years before his death David 
was engaged in the active work of collect- 
ing materials (1 Chr. 29 : 6-9 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 3- 
7) for building a temple in Jerusalem as a 
permanent abode for the ark of the cove- 
nant. He was not permitted to build the 
house of God (1 Chr. 22 : 8) ; that honour 
was reserved to his son Solomon. (See 
Temple.) 

After the completion of the temple Solo- 
mon engaged in the erection of many other 
buildings of importance in Jerusalem and 



in other parts of his kingdom. Eor the 
long space of thirteen years he was en- 
gaged in the erection of a royal palace on 
Ophel (1 Kings 7 : 1-12). It was 100 cubits 
long, 50 broad, and 30 high. Its lofty roof 
was supported by forty-five cedar pillars, 
so that the hall was like a forest of cedar 
wood, and hence probably it received the 
name of "The House of the Eorest of 
Lebanon." In front of this "house "was 
another building, which was called the 
Porch of Pillars, and in front of this again 
was the "Hall of Judgment," or Throne- 
room (1 Kings 7:7; 10 : 18-20 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 
17-19), "the King's Gate," where he ad- 
ministered justice and gave audience to his 
people. This palace was a building of 
great magnificence and beauty. A portion 
of it was set apart as the residence of the 
queen consort, the daughter of Pharaoh. 
Prom the palace there was a private stair- 
case of red and scented sandal wood which 
led up to the temple. 

Solomon also constructed great works 
for the purpose of securing a plentiful 
supply of water for the city (Eccl. 2 : 4-6). 
He then built Millo (LXX., "Acra") for 
the defence of the city, completing a line of 
ramparts around it (1 Kings 9 : 15, 24 ; 11 : 
27). He erected also many other fortifica- 
tions for the defence of his kingdom at 
various jDoints where it was exposed to the 
assault of enemies (1 Kings 9 : 15-19 ; 2 
Chr. 8 : 2-6). Among his great undertak- 
ings must also be mentioned the building 
of Tadmor (q.v.) in the wilderness as a 
commercial dep6t, as well as a military 
outpost. 

During his reign Palestine enjoyed great 
commercial prosperity. Extensive trafl&c 
was carried on by land with Tyre and 
Egypt and Arabia, and by sea with Spain 
and India and the coasts of Africa, by 
which Solomon accumulated vast stores of 
wealth and of the produce of all nations (1 
Kings 9 : 26-28 ; 10 : 11, 12 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 17, 
18 ; 9 : 21). This was the "golden age " of 
Israel. The royal magnificence and splen- 
dour of Solomon's court were unrivalled. 
He had seven hundred wives and three 
hundred concubines, an evidence at once of 
his pride, his wealth, and his sensuality. 



SOLOMON 



639 



SOLOMON 



The maintenance of his household involved 
immense expenditure. The provision re- 
quired for one day was " thirty measures 
of fine flour, and threescore measures of 
meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen taken 
out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep, 
beside harts, and roebucks, and fallow- 
deer, and fatted fowl " (1 Kings 4 : 22, 23). 

Solomon's reign was not only a period of 
great material prosperity, but was equally 
remarkable for its intellectual activity. 
He was the leader of his people also in 
this uprising amongst them of new intel- 
lectual life. ' ' He spake three thousand 
proverbs : and his songs were a thousand 
and five. And he spake of trees, from the 
cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto 
the hyssop that springeth out of the wall : 
he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of 
creeping things, and of fishes " (1 Kings 4 : 
32, 33). 

His fame was spread abroad through all 
lands, and men came from far and near 
' ' to hear the wisdom of Solomon. " Among 
others thus attracted to Jerusalem was 
"the queen of the south" (Matt. 12:42), 
the queen of Sheba, a country in Arabia 
Telix. "Deep, indeed, must have been 
her yearning, and great his fame, which 
induced a secluded Arabian queen to break 
through the immemorial custom of her 
dreamy land, and to put forth the energy 
required for braving the burdens and perils 
of so long a journey across a wilderness. 
Yet this she undertook, and carried it out 
with safety." (1 Kings 10 : 1-13 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 
1-12. ) She was filled with amazement by 
all she saw and heard : " there was no more 
spirit in her." After an interchange of 
presents she returned to her native land. 

But that golden age of Jewish history 
passed away. The bright day of Solomon's 
glory ended in clouds and darkness. His 
decline and fall from his high estate is a 
sad record. Chief among the causes of his 
decline were his polygamy and his great 
wealth. " As he grew older he spent more 
of his time among his favourites. The 
idle king living among these idle women 
— for 1,000 women, with all their idle and 
mischievous attendants, filled the palaces 
and pleasure-houses which he had built 



(1 Kings 11 : 3) — learned first to tolerate and 
then to imitate their heathenish ways. He 
did not, indeed, cease to believe in the God 
of Israel with his mind. He did not cease 
to offer the usual sacrifices in the temple at 
the great feasts. But his heart was not 
right with God ; his worship became merely 
formal ; his soul, left empty by the dying 
out of true religious fervour, sought to be 
filled with any religious excitement which 
offered itself. Now for the first time a 
worship was publicly set up amongst the 
people of the Lord which was not simply 
irregular or forbidden, like that of Gideon 
(Judg. 8:27), or the Danites (Judg. 18: 
30, 31), but was downright idolatrous." 
(1 Kings 11 : 7 ; 2 Kings 23 : 13.) 

This brought upon him the divine dis- 
pleasure. His enemies prevailed against 
him (1 Kings 11 : 14-22, 23-25, 26-40), and 
one judgment after another fell upon the 
land. And now the end of all came, and 
he died, after a reign of forty years, and 
was buried in the city of David, and " with 
him was buried the short-lived glory and 
unity of Israel." " He leaves behind him 
but one weak and worthless son, to dis- 
member his kingdom and disgrace his 
name." 

"The kingdom of Solomon," says E,aw- 
linson, "is one of the most striking facts 
in the Biblical history. A petty nation, 
which for hundreds of years has with diffi- 
culty maintained a separate existence in the 
midst of warlike tribes, each of which has 
in turn exercised dominion over it and op- 
pressed it, is suddenly raised by the genius 
of a soldier-monarch to glory and greatness. 
An empire is established which extends 
from the Euphrates to the borders of Egypt, 
a distance of 450 miles ; and this empire, 
rapidly constructed, enters almost imme- 
diately on a period of peace which lasts for 
half a century. Wealth, grandeur, archi- 
tectural magnificence, artistic excellence, 
commercial enterprise, a position of dignity 
among the great nations of the earth, are 
enjoyed during this space, at the end of 
which there is a sudden collapse. The rul- 
ing nation is split in twain— the subject- 
races fall off, the pre-eminence lately 
gained being wholly lost — the scene of 




THE DOMINIONS OF SOLOMON. 



SOLOMON 



640 



SOOTHSAYER 



strugg'le, strife, oppression, recovery, in- 
glorious submission, and desperate effort, 
re-commences. '" — Historical Illustrations. 

Sol'omon, Song of, called also, after the 
Vulgate, the " Canticles." It is the "song 
of songs " (1 : 1), as being the finest and 
most precious of its kind ; the noblest song, 
"das Hohelied," as Luther calls it. The 
Solomonic authorship of this book has been 
called in question, but evidences, both in- 
ternal and external, fully establish the 
traditional view that it is the product of 
Solomon's pen. 

It is an allegorical poem setting forth 
the mutual love of Christ and the Church, 
under the emblem of the bridegroom and 
the bride. (Compare Matt. 9 : 15 ; John 
3 : 29 ; Eph. 5 : 23, 27, 29 ; Rev. 19 : 7-9 
21:2, 9; 22:17. Compare also Ps. 45 
Isa. 54 : 4-6 ; 62 : 4, 5 ; Jer. 2 : 2 ; 3 : 1, 20 
Ezek. 16 ; Hos. 2 : 16, 19, 20.) 

Sol'omon's Porch (John 10 : 23 ; Acts 
3 : 11 ; 5 : 12), a colonnade, or cloister prob- 
ably, on the eastern side of the temple. It 
is not mentioned in connection with the 
first temple, but Josephus mentions a 
porch, so called, in Herod's temple {q.v.). 

Son of God. The plural, " sons of 
God," is used (Gen. 6:2, 4) to denote the 
pious descendants of Seth. In Job 1:6; 
38 : 7 this name is applied to the angels. 
Hosea uses the phrase (1 : 10) to designate 
the gracious relation in which men stand 
to God. 

In the New Testament this phrase fre- 
quently denotes the relation into which we 
are brought to God by adoption (Rom. 
8 : 14, 19 ; 2 Cor. 6 : 18 ; Gal. 4 : 5, 6 ; Phil. 
2 : 15 ; 1 John 3 : 1, 2). It occurs thirty- 
seven times in the New Testament as the 
distinctive title of our Saviour. He does 
not bear this title in consequence of his 
miraculous birth, nor of his incarnation, 
his resurrection, and exaltation to the 
Father's right hand. This is a title of 
nature and not of office. The sonship of 
Christ denotes his equality with the Father. 
To call Christ the Son of God is to assert 
his true and proper divinity. The second 
Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal 
relation to the first Person, is the Son of 
God. He is the Son of God as to his 



divine nature, while as to his human na- 
ture he is the Son of David (Rom. 1:3, 4. 
Comp. Gal. 4:4; John 1 : 1-14 ; 5 : 18-25 ; 
10 : 30-38, which prove that Christ was the 
Son of God before his incarnation, and 
that his claim to this title is a claim of 
equality with God). 

When used with reference to creatures, 
whether men or angels, this word is al- 
ways in the plural. In the singular it is 
always used of the second Person of the 
Trinity, with the single exception of Luke 
3 : 38, where it is used of Adam. 

Son of man. (1.) Denotes mankind 
generally, with special reference to their 
weakness and frailty (Job 25 : 6 ; Ps. 8:4; 
144 : 3 ; 146 : 3 ; Isa. 51 : 12, etc.). 

(2. ) It is a title frequently given to the 
prophet Ezekiel, probably to remind him 
of his human weakness. 

(3.) In the New Testament it is used 
forty-three times as a i distinctive title of 
the Saviour. In the Old Testament it is 
used only in Ps. 80 : 17 and Dan. 7 : 13 with 
this application. It denotes the true 
humanity of our Lord. He had a true 
body (Heb. 2:14; Luke 24:39) and a 
rational soul. He was perfect man. 

Songs, of Moses (Ex. 15 ; Num. 21 : 17 ; 
Deut. 32 ; Rev. 15 : 3), Deborah ( Judg. 5), 
Hannah (1 Sam. 2), David (2 Sam. 22, and 
Psalms), Mary (Luke 1 : 46-55), Zacharias 
(Luke 1 : 68-79), the angels (Luke 2 : 13), Sim- 
eon (Luke 2 : 29), the redeemed (Rev. 5:9; 
19), Solomon (see Solomon, Songs of). 

Sooth^sayer, one who pretends to prog- 
nosticate future events. Baalam is so 
called (Josh. 13 : 22 ; Heb. kdsem, a 
"diviner," as rendered 1 Sam. 6:2; ren- 
dered " prudent," Isa. 3 : 2). In Isa. 2 : 6 
and Micah 5:12 (Heb. yonenim — i.e., 
" diviners of the clouds ") the word is used 
of thoiChaldean diviners who studied the 
clouds. In Dan. 2 : 27 ; 5:7 the word is 
the rendering of the Chaldee gazrin — i.e., 
' ' deciders " or " determiners " — here applied 
to Chaldean astrologers, ' ' who, by casting 
nativities from the place of the stars at one's 
birth, and by various arts of computing 
and divining, foretold the fortunes and 
destinies of individuals," — Gesenius, Lex. 
Heb. (See Sorcerek.) 



SOP 



641 



SPIDER 



Sop, a morsel of bread (John 13 : 26 ; 
comp. Ruth 2 ; 14). Our Lord took a piece 
of unleavened bread, and dipping it into 
the broth of bitter herbs at the Paschal 
meal, gave it to Judas. (Comp. Ruth 2 : 14. ) 

So'pater — the father tvho saves — probably 
the same as Sosipater, a kinsman of Paul 
(Rom. 16 : 21), a Christian of the cit}^ of 
Berea who accompanied Paul into Asia 
(Acts 20 : 4-6). 

Sor'cerer, from the Latin sortiarius, 
one who casts lots, or one who tells the lot 
of others. (See Divination'.) 

In Dan. 2:2 it is the rendering of the 
'H.ehvew mekhashphhn — i.e., mutterers, men 
who professed to have power with evil 
spirits. The practice of sorcery exposed to 
severest punishment (Mai. 3:5; Rev. 21 : 
8 ; 22 : 1.5). 

So^rek — choice vine — the name of a val- 
ley, i.e., a torrent-bed, now the Wddy 
Surdr, " valley of the fertile spot," which 
drains the western Judean hills, and flow- 
ing by Makkedah and Jabneel, falls into the 
sea some eight miles south of Joppa. This 
was the home of Delilah, whom Samson 
loved ( Judg. 16 : 4). 

Sosi'pater. (See Sopatek.) 

Sos^thenes — safe in strength — the chief 
rtiler of the synagogue at Corinth, who was 
seized and beaten by the mob in the pres- 
ence of Gallio, the Roman governor, when 
he refused to proceed against Pavil at the 
instigation of the Jews (Acts 18 : 12-17). 
The motives of this assault against Sos- 
thenes are not recorded, nor is it mentioned 
whether it was made by Greeks or Romans. 
Some identify him, but without sufficient 
grounds, with one whom Paul calls " Sos- 
thenes our brother," a convert to the faith 
(1 Cor. 1 : 1). 

South — Heb. N'egeh—th.a.t arid district 
to the south of Palestine through which 
lay the caravan route from Central Pales- 
tine to Egypt (Gen. 12 : 9 ; 13 : 1, 3 ; 46 : 
1-6). "TheNegeb comprised a consider- 
able but irregularly-shaped tract of coun- 
try, its main portion stretching from the 
mountains and lowlands of Judah in the 
north to the mountains of Azazemeh in the 
south, and from the Dead Sea and southern 
Ghor on the east to the Mediterranean on the 



west." In Ezek. 20 : 46 (21 : 1 in Heb.) three 
different Hebrew words are all rendered 
"south. " (1) " Set thy face toward the south" 
[Teman, the region on the right — 1 Sam. 33 : 
24) ; (2) " Drop thy word toward the south" 
[Negeb, the region of dryness — Josh. 15 : 4) ; 
(3) "Prophesy against the forest of the 
south field " {Darom, the region of bright- 
ness—Dent. 33 : 23). In Job 37 : 9 the word 
"south" is literally " chamber," used here 
in the sense of treasury (comp. 38 : 22 ; 
Ps. 135 : 7). This verse is rendered in the 
Revised Version "out of the chamber," 
etc. 

Sov'ereignty of God, his absolute right 
to do all things according to his own good 
pleasure (Dan. 4 : 25, 35 ; Rom. 9 : 1,5-23 ; 
1 Tim. 6 : 15 ; Rev. 4 : 11). 

Spain. Paul expresses his intention 
(Rom. 15 : 24, 28) to visit Spain. There is, 
however, no evidence that he ever carried 
it into effect, although some think that he 
probably did so between his first and second 
imj)risonment. (See Taeshish.) 

Spar^row. Mentioned among the offer- 
ings made by the very poor. Two sparrows 
were sold for a farthing (Matt. 10 : 29), and 
five for two farthings (Luke 12 : 6). The 
Hebrew word thus rendered is tsippor, 
which properly denotes the whole family of 
small birds which feed on grain (Lev. 14 : 4 ; 
Ps. 84:3; 102:7). The Greek word of 
the New Testament is strouthion (Matt. 
10 : 29-31) , which is thus correctly rendered. 

Spi'cery — Heb. nechoth, identified with 
the Arabic naJca'at, the gum tragacanth, 
obtained from the astralagus, of which 
there are about twenty species found in 
Palestine. The tragacanth of commerce 
is obtained from the A. tragacantha. " The 
gum exudes plentifully under the heat of 
the sun on the leaves, thorns, and extremity 
of the twigs. " 

Spi'ces, aromatic substances, of which 
several are named in Ex. 30. They were 
used in the sacred anointing oil (Ex. 25 : 
6 ; 35 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 9 : 29), and in embalming 
the dead (2 Chr. 16:14; Luke 23:56; 
24:1; John 19:39, 40). Spices were 
stored by Hezekiah in his treasure-house 
(2 Kings 20 : 13 ; Isa. 39 : 2). 

Spi^der. The trust of the hypocrite is 

42 



SPIES 



642 



SPRING 



compared to the spider's web or house 
(Job 8 : 14). It is said of the wicked by 
Isaiah that they " weave the spider's web " 
(59:5) — i.e., their works and designs are, 
like the spider's web, vain and useless. 
The Hebrew word here used is ^akkdbish, 
" a swift weaver." 

In Prov. 30 : 28 a different Hebrew word 
[semdmith] is used. It is rendered in the Vul- 
gate by stellio, and in the Revised Version 
by "lizard." It may, however, represent 
the spider, of which there are, it is said, 
about seven hundred species in Palestine. 

Spies. When the Israelites reached 
Kadesh for the first time, and were en- 
camped there, Moses selected twelve spies 
from among the chiefs of the divisions of 
the tribes, and sent them forth to spy the 
land of Canaan (Num. 13), and to bring 
back to him a report of its actual condition. 
They at once proceeded on their important 
errand, and went through the land as far 
north as the district round Lake Merom. 
After about six weeks' absence they re- 
turned. Their report was very discourag- 
ing, and the people were greatly alarmed, 
and in a rebellious spirit proposed to elect 
a new leader and return to Egypt. Only 
two of the spies, Caleb and Joshua, showed 
themselves on this occasion stout-hearted 
and faithful. All their appeals and re- 
monstrances were in vain. Moses an- 
nounced that as a punishment for their 
rebellion they must now wander in the 
wilderness till a new generation should 
arise which would go up and possess the 
land. The spies had been forty days absent 
on their expedition, and for each day the 
Israelites were to be wanderers for a year 
in the desert. (See Eshcol.) 

Two spies were sent by Joshua " secretly " 
— i.e., unknown to the people (Josh. 2 : 1) — 
" to view the land and Jericho " after the 
death of Moses, and just before the tribes 
under his leadership were about to cross 
the Jordan. They learned from Rahab 
{q.v.), in whose house they found a hiding- 
place, that terror had fallen on all the in- 
habitants of the land because of the great 
things they had heard that Jehovah had 
done for them (Ex. 15 : 14-16 ; comp. 23 : 
27 ; Deut. 2 : 25 ; 11 : 25). As the result of 



their mission they reported : ' ' Truly Je- 
hovah hath delivered into our hands all the 
land ; for even all the inhabitants of the 
country do faint because of us. " 

Spike^nard (Heb. nerd), a much-valued 
perfume (Cant. 1 : 12 ; 4 : 13, 14). It was 
"very precious" — i.e., very costly (Mark 
14 : 3 ; John 12 : 3, 5). It is the root of an 
Indian plant, the Nardostachys jatamansi, 
of the family of Valeriance, growing on the 
Himalaya mountains. It is distinguished 
by its having many hairy spikes shooting 
out from one root. It is called by the 
Arabs sunbul Hindi, "the Indian spike." 
In the New Testament this word is the 
rendering of the Greek nardos pistike. The 
margin of the Revised Version in these 
passages has "pistic nard," pistic being 
perhaps a local name. Some take it to 
mean genuine, and others liquid. The most 
probable opinion is that the word pistike 
designates the nard as genuine or faithfully 
prepared. 

Spir'it (Heb. ruah; Gr. pneuma), pro- 
perly wind or breath. In 2 Thess. 2 : 8 it 
means "breath," and in Eccl. 8:8 the 
vital principle in man. It also denotes 
the rational, immortal soul by which man 
is distinguished (Acts 7 : 59 ; 1 Cor. 5:5; 
6 : 20 ; 7 : 34), and the soul in its separate 
state (Heb. 12 : 23), and hence also an ap- 
parition (Job 4 : 15 ; Luke 24 : 37, 39), an 
angel (Heb. 1 : 14), and a demon (Luke 4 : 
36 ; 10 : 20). This word is used also meta- 
phorically as denoting a tendency (Zech. 
12 : 10 ; Luke 13 : 11). 

In Rom. 1 : 4, 1 Tim. 3 : 16, 2 Cor. 3 : 
17, 1 Pet. 3 : 18, it designates the divine 
nature. 

Spirit, Holy. See Holy Ghost. 

Sponge occurs only in the narrative of 
the crucifixion (Matt. 27 : 48 ; Mark 15 : 36 ; 
John 19 : 29). It is ranked as a zoophyte. 
It is found attached to rocks at the bottom 
of the sea. 

Spouse (Cant. 4:8-12; Hos. 4:13, 14) 
may denote either husband or wife, but in 
the Scriptures it denotes only the latter. 

Spring (Heb. 'am, "the bright open 
source — the eye of the landscape "). To 
be carefully distinguished from "well" 

{q-vX 



STACHYS 



643 



STOICS- 



"Springs" mentioned in Josh. 10:40 
(Heb. 'ashdoth) should rather be "declivi- 
ties" or "slopes" (R.V.) — i.e., the undu- 
lating ground lying between the lowlands 
(the shephelah) and the central range of 
hills. 

Sta^chys — spike ; an ear of corn — a con- 
vert at Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom. 
16 : 9). 

Stac'te (Heb. ndtdph), one of the com- 
ponents of the perfume which was offered 
on the golden altar (Ex. 30:34; R.V. 
marg., " opobalsamiim "). The Hebrew 
word is from a root meaning "to distil," 
and it has been by some interpreted as dis- 
tilled myrrh. Others regard it as the gum 
of the storax tree, or rather shrub, the 
Sty rax officinale. "The Syrians value this 
gum highly, and use it medicinally as an 
emulcent in pectoral complaints, and also 
in perfumery. " 

Star, Morning, a name figuratively 
given to Christ (Rev. 22 : 16 ; comp. 2 Pet. 
1 : 19). When Christ promises that he will 
give the "morning star" to his faithful 
ones, he "promises that he will give to 
them himself, that he will impart to them 
his owTi glory and a share in his own royal 
dominion ; for the star is evermore the 
symbol of royalty (Matt. 2 : 2), being there- 
fore linked with the sceptre (Num. 24 : 17). 
All the glory of the world shall end in 
being the glory of the Church." — Trench's 
Comm. 

Star'gazers (Isa. 47 : 13), those who pre- 
tend to tell what will occur by looking 
upon the stars. The Chaldean astrologers 
"divined by the rising and setting, the 
motions, aspects, colour, degree of light, 
etc., of the stars." 

Stars. The eleven stars (Gen. 37 : 9) ; 
the seven (Amos 5:8); wandering ( Jude 
13) ; seen in the east at the birth of Christ, 
probably some luminous meteors miracu- 
lously formed for this specific purpose 
(Matt. 2 : 2-10) ; stars worshipped (Deut. 
4 : 19 ; 2 Kings 17 : 16 ; 21 : 3 ; Jer. 19 : 13) ; 
spoken of symbolically (Num. 24 : 17 ; Rev. 
1 : 16, 20 ; 12 : 1). (See Astrologers.) 

Starter, Greek word rendered "piece of 
money" (Matt. 17 : 27, A.V. ; and "shekel" 
in R.V.). It was equal to two didrachmas 



( " tribute money, " 17 : 24), or four drachmas, 
and to about 2s. 6d. of our money. (See 
Shekel. ) 

Steel. The "bow of steel " in (A.V.) 2 
Sam. 22 : 35 ; Job 20 : 24 ; Ps. 18 : 34 is in 
the Revised Version "bow of brass " (Heb. 
kesheth-nehiishdh). In Jer. 15 : 12 the same 
word is used, and is also rendered in the 
Revised Version "brass." But more cor- 
rectly it is copper (q.v.), as brass in the or- 
dinary sense of the word (an alloy of copper 
and zinc) was not kno^^^l to the ancients. 

Steph^anas — croiun — a member of the 
church at Corinth, whose family were 
among those the apostle had baptized (1 
Cor. 1 : 16 ; 16 : 15, 17). He has been sup- 
posed by some to have been the "jailer of 
Philippi " (comp. Acts 16 : 33). The First 
Epistle to the Corinthians was written from 
Philippi some six years after the jailer's 
conversion, and he was with the apostle 
there at that time. 

Ste''phen, one of the seven deacons, who 
became a preacher of the gospel. He was 
the first Christian martyr. His personal 
character and history are recorded in Acts 
6. " He fell asleep " wdth a prayer for his 
persecutors on his lips (7 : 60). Devout 
men carried him to his grave (8 : 2). 

It was at the feet of the young Pharisee, 
Saul of Tarsus, that those who stoned him 
laid their clothes (comp. Deut. 17 : 5-7) be- 
fore they began their cruel work. The scene 
which Saul then witnessed and the words 
he heard appear to have made a deep and 
lasting impression on his mind (Acts 22 : 
19, 20). 

The speech of Stephen before the Jewish 
ruler is the first apology for the universalism 
of the gospel as a message to the Gentiles 
as well as the Jews. It is the longest 
speech contained in the Acts, a place of 
prominence being given to it as a defence. 

Stories, a sect of Greek philosophers at 
Athens, so called from the Greek word stoa 
— i.e., a "porch" or "portico," where they 
were wont to assemble (Acts 17 : 18). They 
have been called "the Pharisees of Greek 
paganism." The founder of the Stoics was 
Zeno, who flourished about B.C. 300. He 
taught his disciples that a man's happiness 
consisted in bringing himself into harmony 



STOMACHER 



644 



STONING 



with the course of the universe. They 
were trained to bear evils with indifference, 
and so to be independent of externals. 
Materialism, pantheism, fatalism, and pride 
were the leading features of this philo- 
sophy. 

Stom''acher (Isa. 3:24), an article of 
female attire, probably some sort of girdle 
around the breast. 

Stone. Stones were commonly used for 
buildings, also as memorials of important 
events (Gen. 28:18; Josh. 24:26, 27; 1 
Sam. 7 : 12, etc. ). They were gathered out 
of cultivated fields (Isa. 5:2; comp. 2 
Kings 3 : 19). This word is also used 
figuratively of believers (1 Pet. 2 : 4, 5), 
and of the Messiah (Ps. 118 : 22 ; Isa. 28 : 
16; Matt. 21:42; Acts 4:11, etc.). In 
Dan. 2 : 45 it refers also to the Messiah. 
He is there described as "cut out of the 
rock" {q.v.). 

A "heart of stone " denotes great insens- 
ibility (1 Sam. 25 : 37). 

Stones were set up to commemorate re- 
markable events, as by Jacob at Bethel 
(Gen. 28 : 18), at Padan-aram (35 : 4), and 
on the occasion of parting with Laban (31 : 
45-47) ; by Joshua at the place on the 
banks of the Jordan where the people first 
"lodged" after crossing the river (Josh. 
21 : 8), and also in "the midst of Jordan," 
where he erected another set of twelve 
stones (4 : 1-9) ; and by Samuel at "Eben- 
ezer " (1 Sam. 7 : 12). 

Stones, Precious, Frequently referred 
to (1 Kings 10 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 6 ; 9 : 10 ; Rev. 
18 : 16 ; 21 : 19). There are about twenty 
different names of such stones in the Bible. 
They are figuratively introduced to denote 
value, beauty, durability (Cant. 5 : 14 ; Isa. 
54 : 11, 12 ; Lam. 4 : 7). 

Stork. Heb. hdsiddh, meaning "kind- 
ness," indicating thus the character of the 
bird, which is noted for its affection for its 
young. It is in the list of birds forbidden 
to be eaten by the Levitical law (Lev. 11 : 
19 ; Deut. 14 : 18). It is like the crane, but 
larger in size. Two species are found in 
Palestine — the white, which are dispersed 
in pairs over the whole country ; and the 
black, which live in marshy places and in 
great flocks. They migrate to Palestine 



periodically (about the 22nd of March). 
Jeremiah alludes to this (Jer. 8:7). At 
the appointed time they return with un- 
erring sagacity to their old haunts, and re- 
occupy their old nests. ' ' There is a well- 
authenticated account of the devotion of a 
stork which, at the burning of the town of 
Delft, after repeated and unsuccessful at- 
tempts to carry off her young, chose rather 
to remain and perish with them than leave 
them to their fate. Well might the Romans 
call it the pia avis ! " 

In Job 39 : 13 (A.V.), instead of the ex- 
pression "or wings and feathers unto the 
ostrich " (marg., " the feathers of the stork 
and ostrich"), the Revised "Version has 
"are her pinions and feathers kindly" 
(marg., instead of "kindly," reads "like 
the stork's "). The object of this somewhat 
obscure verse seems to be to point out a 
contrast between the stork, as distinguished 
for her affection for her young, and the 
ostrich, as distinguished for her indiffer- 
ence. 

Zechariah (5 : 9) alludes to the beauty and 
power of the stork's wings. 

Strain at. Simply a misprint for 
" strain out " (Matt. 23 : 24). 

Stran'ger. This word generally denotes 
a person from a foreign land residing in 
Palestine. Such persons enjoyed many 
privileges in common with the Jews, but 
still were separate from them. The rela- 
tion of the Jews to strangers was regu- 
lated by special laws (Deut. 23 : 3 ; 24 : 14- 
21 ; 25 : 5 ; 26 : 10-13). 

A special signification is also sometimes 
attached to this word. In Gen. 23 : 4 it 
denotes one resident in a foreign land ; Ex. 
23 : 19, one who is not a Jew ; Num. 3 : 10, 
one who is not of the family of Aaron ; Ps. 
69 : 8, an alien or an unknown person. 

The Jews were allowed to purchase 
strangers as slaves (Lev. 25 : 44, 45), and to 
take usury from them (Deut. 23 : 20). 

Straw. Used in brick-making (Ex. 5 : 
7-18). Used figuratively in Job 41:27; 
Isa. 11 : 7 ; 25 : 10 ; 65 : 25. 

Stealing. See Theft. 

Ston''ing, a form of punishment (Lev. 
20 : 2 ; 24 : 14 ; Deut. 13 : 10 ; 17 : 5 ; 22 : 21) 
prescribed for certain offences. Of Achan 



STREAM 



645 



SUPH 



(Josh. 7 : 25), Naboth (1 Kings 21), Stephen 
(Acts '7: 59), Paul (Acts 14:19; 2 Cor. 
11 : 25). 

Stream of Egjnpt (Isa. 27 : 12), the Wddy 
el-^Arish, called also "the river of Egypt" 
(Num. 34 : 5; Josh, 15 : 4), and "the brook 
of Egypt" (2 Kings 24:7). It is the 
natural boundary of Egypt. Occasionally 
in winter, when heavy rains have fallen 
among the mountains inland, it becomes a 
turbulent rushing torrent. The present 
boundary between Eg;^'pt and Palestine is 
about midway between el-'Arish and Gaza, 

Street. The street called " Straight " at 
Damascus (Acts 9:11) is "a long broad 
street, running from east to west, about a 
mile in length, and forming the principal 
thoroughfare in the city," In Oriental 
towns streets are usually narrow and ir- 
regular and filthy (Ps, 18 : 42 ; Isa. 10 : 6). 
" It is remarkable," says Porter, "that all 
the important cities of Palestine and Syria 
— Samaria, Csesarea, Gerasa, Bozrah, 
Damascus, Palmyra — had their 'straight 
streets ' running through the centre of the 
city, and lined with stately rows of columns. 
The most perfect now remaining are those 
of Palmyra and Gerasa, where long ranges 
of the columns still stand." — Through Sa- 
maria, etc. 

Stripes as a pimishment were not to 
exceed forty (Deut. 25 : 1-3), and hence 
arose the custom of limiting them to thirty- 
nine (2 Cor, 11 : 24). Paiil claimed the 
privilege of a Roman citizen in regard to 
the infliction of stripes (Acts 16 : 37, 38 ; 
22 : 25-29). Our Lord was beaten with 
stripes (Matt. 27 : 26). 

Subscrip^tions. The subscriptions to 
Paul's epistles are no part of the original. 
In their present form they are ascribed to 
Euthalius, a bishop of the fifth century. 
Some of them are obviously incorrect, 

Sub'urbs, the immediate vicinity of a 
city or town (Num, 35 : 3, 7 ; Ezek. 45 : 2). 
In 2 Kings 23 : 11 the Hebrew word there 
used [parvdrim) occurs nowhere else. The 
Revised Version renders it "precincts." 
The singular form of this Hebrew word 
iparvar) is supposed by some to be the 
same as Par bar {q.v.), which occurs twice 
in 1 Chr. 26 : 18. 



Suc^coth — booths. (1.) The first encamp- 
ment of the Israelites after leaving Rameses 
(Ex, 12:37). (See Pithom.) 

(2.) A city on the east of Jordan, identi- 
fied with Tell Darala, a high mound, a 
mass of debris, in the plain north of Jabbok 
and about one mile from it (Josh, 13 : 27). 
Here Jacob (Gen. 32:17, 30; 33:18), on 
his return from Padan-aram after his inter- 
view with Esau, built a house for himself 
and made booths for his cattle. 

The princes of this city churlishly re- 
fused to afford help to Gideon and his 300 
men when "faint yet pursuing " they fol- 
lowed one of the bands of the fugitive 
Midianites after the great victory at Gilboa, 
After overtaking and routing this band at 
Karkor, Gideon on his return visited the 
rulers of the city -wdth severe punishment. 
"He took the elders of the city, and thorns 
of the wilderness and briers, and with them 
he taught the men of Succoth" (Judg, 8: 
13-17). At this place were erected the 
foundries for casting the metal -work for 
the temple (1 Kings 7 : 46). 

Suc'coth-be^noth — tents of daughters — 
supposed to be the name of a Babylonian 
deity, the goddess Zir-banit, the wife of 
Merodach, worshipped by the colonists in 
Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 30). 

Sukki'ims— (i2(je??ers in tents — ( Vulg. and 
LXX, , ' ' troglodites ; " i.e., cave-dwellers 
in the hills along the Red Sea). Shishak's 
army, with which he marched against Jeru- 
salem, was composed partly of this tribe 
(2 Chr. 12 : 3). 

Sun (Heb. shemesh), first mentioned along 
with the moon as the two great luminaries 
of heaven (Gen. 1 : 14-18). By their mo- 
tions and influence they were intended to 
mark and divide times and seasons. The 
worship of the sun was one of the oldest 
forms of false religion (Job 31 : 26, 27), and 
was common among the Egyptians and 
Chaldeans and other pagan nations. The 
Jews were warned against this form of 
idolatry (Deut. 14:19; 17:3; comp, 2 
Kings 23 : 11 ; Jer. 19 : 13). 

Suph (Deut. 1:1, R.V, ; marg., "some 
ancient versions have the Red Sea," as in 
the A. v.). Some identify it with Suphah 
(Num. 21:14, marg., A.V.) as probably 



SUPHAH 



646 



SYCAMORE 



the name of a place. Others identify it 
with es-zSw/aA = Maaleh-acrabbim (Josh. 
15 : 3), and others again with Zuph (1 Sam. 
9:5). It is most probable, however, that, 
in accordance with the ancient versions, 
this word is to be regarded as simply an 
abbreviation of Yam-suph — i.e., the "Red 
Sea." 

Su^phah (Num. 21 : 14, marg. ; also R. V. ), 
a place at the south-eastern corner of the 
Dead Sea, the Ghor es-Safieh. This name 
is found in an ode quoted from the "Book 
of the Wars of the Lord," probably a collec- 
tion of odes commemorating the triumphs 
of God's people (comp. 21 : 14, 17, 18, 27-30). 

Sup'per, the principal meal of the day 
among the Jews. It was partaken of in 
the early part of the evening (Mark 6 : 21 ; 
John 12:2; 1 Cor. 11:21). (See Lord's 

SUPPEE.) 

Sure^ty, one who becomes responsible 
for another. Christ is the surety of the 
better covenant (Heb. 7 : 22). In him we 
have the assurance that all its provisions 
will be fully and faithfully carried out. 
Solomon warns against incautiously be- 
coming security for another (Pro v. 6 : 1-5 ; 
11:15; 17:18; 20:16). 

Susan''chites, the inhabitants of 
Shushan, who joined the other adversaries 
of the Jews in the attempt to prevent the 
rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 4 : 9). 

Susan^na— Zt'^T/— with other pious women, 
ministered to Jesus (Luke 8 : 3). 

Su^si, the father of Gaddi, who was one 
of the twelve spies (Num. 13 : 11). 

Swariow. (1.) Heb. sis (Isa. 38:14; 
Jer. 8 : 7), the Arabic for the swift, which 
"is a regular migrant, returning in my- 
riads every spring, and so suddenly that 
while one day not a swift can be seen in 
the country, on the next they have over- 
spread the whole land, and fill the air with 
their shrill cry." The swift {cypselus) is 
ordinarily classed with the swallow, which 
it resembles in its flight, habits, and mi- 
gration. 

(2.) Heb. deror — i.e., "the bird of free- 
dom" (Ps. 84:3; Prov. 26:2), properly 
rendered swallow, distinguished for its 
swiftness of flight, its love of freedom, and 
the impossibility of retaining it in cap- 



tivity. In Isa. 38:14 and Jer. 8:7 the 
word thus rendered ( "agitr) properly means 
" crane " (as in the R.V.). 

Swan, mentioned in the list of unclean 
birds (Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:16), is some- 
times met with in the Jordan and the Sea 
of Galilee. 

Swel^ling of Jordan (Jer. 12 : 5), literally 
the "pride "of Jordan (as in R.V.) — i.e., 
the luxuriant thickets of tamarisks, pop- 
lars, reeds, etc., which were the lair of lions 
and other beasts of prey. The reference is 
not to the overflowing of the river banks. 
(Comp. 49 : 19; 50 : 44; Zech. 11 : 3). 

Swine (Heb. hazir), regarded as the 
most unclean and the most abhorred of all 
animals (Lev. 11 : 7 ; Isa. 65 : 4 ; 66 : 3, 17 ; 
Luke 15 : 15, 16). A herd of swine were 
drowned in the Sea of Galilee (Luke 8 : 32, 
33). Spoken of figuratively in Matt. 7:6 
(see Prov. 11 : 22). It is frequently men- 
tioned as a wild animal, and is evidently 
the wild boar (Arab, khanzir), which is 
common among the marshes of the Jordan 
valley (Ps. 80 : 13). 

Sword of the Hebrew was pointed, 
sometimes two-edged, was worn in a sheath, 
and suspended from the girdle (Ex. 32 : 
27; 1 Sam. 31:4; 1 Chr. 21:27; Ps. 149: 
6: Prov. 5:4; Ezek. 16:40; 21:3-5). 

It is a symbol of divine chastisement 
(Deut. 32 : 25 ; Ps. 7 : 12 ; 78 : 62), and of a 
slanderous tongue (Ps. 57 : 4 ; 64 : 3 ; Prov. 
12 : 18). The word of God is likened also 
to a sword (Heb. 4:12; Eph. 6:17; Rev. 
1:16). Gideon's watchword was, "The 
sword of the Lord " ( Judg. 7 : 20). 

Syc'amine tree, mentioned only in 
Luke 17 : 6. It is rendered by Luther 
" mulberry tree " {q.v. ), which is most prob- 
ably the correct rendering. It is found 
of two species— the black mulberry [Morus 
nigra) and the white mulberry [Mourca), 
which are common in Palestine. The silk- 
worm feeds on their leaves. The rearing 
of them is one of the chief industries of 
the peasantry of Lebanon and of other parts 
of the land. It is of the order of the fig-tree. 

Some contend, however, that this name 
denotes the sycamore-fig of Luke 19 : 4. 

Syc^amore, more properly sycomore 
(Heb. shikmoth and shikmim, Gr. si/co- 



SYCHAR 



647 



SYNAGOGUE 



moros), a tree which in its general char- 
acter resembles the fig-tree, while its 
leaves resemble those of the mulberry ; 
hence it is called the fig-mulberry {Fictis 
sycomorus). At Jericho, Zacchseus climbed 
a sycamore-tree to see Jesus as he passed 
by (Luke 19 : 4), This tree was easily de- 
stroyed by frost (Ps. 78 : 47), and therefore 
it is found mostly in the " vale " (1 Kings 
10 : 27 ; 2 Chr. 1 : 15 : in both passages the 
E-.V. has properly "lowland") — i.e., the 
"low country," the shephelah, where the 
climate is mild. Amos (7 : 14) refers to its 
fruit, which is of an inferior character ; so 
also probably Jeremiah (24 : 2). It is to 
be distinguished from our sycamore (the 
Acer pseudo-platanus), which is a species 
of maple often called a plane-tree. 

Sy'char — liar or drunkard (see Isa. 28 : 
1, 7) — has been from the time of the Cru- 
saders usually identified with Sychem or 
Shechem. (John 4 : 5). It has now, however, 
as the result of recent explorations, been 
identified with ^Askar, a small Samaritan 
town on the southern base of Ebal, about " 
a mile to the north of Jacob's well. 

Sy'chem. See Shechem. 

Bye'TLO— opening (Ezek. 29 : 10 ; 30 : 6)— a 
town of Egypt, on the borders of Ethiopia, 
now called Assouan, on the right bank of 
the Nile, notable for its quarries of beauti- 
ful red granite called "syenite." It was 
the frontier town of Egypt in the south, as 
Migdol was in the north-east. 

Syn^agogue (Gr. sunagoge — i.e., "an 
assembly "), found only once in the Author- 
ized Version of Ps. 74 : 8, where the margin 
of Revised Version has "places of assem- 
bly, " which is probably correct ; for while 
the origin of synagogues is unknown, it 
may well be supposed that buildings or 
tents for the accommodation of worshippers 
may have existed in the land from an early 
time, and thus the system of synagogues 
would be gradually developed. 

Some, however, are of opinion that it 
was specially during the Babylonian cap- 
tivity that the system of synagogue wor- 
ship, if not actually introduced, was at least 
reorganized on a systematic plan (Ezek. 8 : 
1; 14:1). The exiles gathered together 
for the reading of the law and the pro- 



phets as they had opportunity, and after 
their return synagogues were established all 
over the land (Ezra 8 : 15 ; Neh. 8 : 2). In 
after years, when the Jews were dispersed 
abroad, wherever they went they erected 
synagogues and kept up the stated services 
of worship (Acts 9 : 20; 13 : 5; 17 : 1; 17 : 
17 ; 18 : 4). The form and internal arrange- 
ments of the synagogue would greatly 
depend on the wealth of the Jews who 
erected it, and on the place where it was 
built. "Yet there are certain traditional 
peculiarities which have doubtless united 
together by a common resemblance the 
Jewish synagogues of all ages and coun- 
tries. The arrangements for the women's 
place in a separate gallery or behind a 
partition of lattice-work; the desk in the 
centre, where the reader, like Ezra in 
ancient days, from his 'pulpit of wood,' 
may ' open the book in the sight of all the 
people and read in the book of the law of 
God distinctly, and give the sense, and 
cause them to understand the reading ' 
(Neh. 8:4, 8) ; the carefully closed ark on 
the side of the building nearest to Jeru- 
salem, for the preservation of the rolls or 
manuscripts of the law; the seats all 
round the building, whence 'the eyes of 
all them that are in the synagogue ' may 
' be fastened ' on him who speaks (Luke 4 : 
20) ; the ' chief seats ' (Matt. 23 : 6) which 
were appropriated to the ' ruler ' or ' rulers ' 
of the synagogue, according as its organiz- 
ation may have been more or less com- 
plete ; " — these were features common to 
all the synagogues. 

Where perfected into a system, the ser- 
vices of the synagogue, which were at the 
same hours as those of the temple, con- 
sisted — (1) of prayer, which formed a kind 
of liturgy — there were in all eighteen 
prayers ; (2) the reading of the Scriptures in 
certain definite portions; and (3) the ex- 
position of the portions read. (See Luke 
4:15, 22; Acts 13: 14.) 

The synagogue was also sometimes used 
as a court of judicature, in which the 
rulers presided (Matt. 10 : 17 ; Mark 5 : 22 ; 
Luke 12:11; 21:12; Acts 13:15; 22:19); 
also as public schools. 

The establishment of synagogues wher- 



SYNTYCHE 



648 



SYROPHENICIAN 



ever the Jews were found in sufficient 
numbers helped greatly to keep alive Is- 
rael's hope of the coming of the Messiah, 
and to i3repare the way for the spread of 
the gospel in other lands. The worship 
of the Christian Church was afterwards 
modelled after that of the synagogue. 

Christ and his disciples frequently taught 
in the synagogues (Matt. 13 : 54 ; Mark 6 : 
2; John 18:20; Acts 13:5, 15, 44; 14:1; 
17:2-4, 10, 17; 18:4, 26; 19:8). 

To be "put out of the synagogue," a 
phrase used by John (9 : 22; 12 : 42; 16 : 2), 
means to be excommunicated. 

Syn^tyche — one who speaks; affable — a 
female member of the church at Philippi, 
whom Paul beseeches to be of one mind 
with Euodias (Phil. 4 : 2, 3). 

Syr^acuse, a city on the south-east 
coast of Sicily, where Paul landed and 
remained three days when on his way to 
Pome (Acts 28 : 12). It was distinguished 
for its magnitude and splendour. It is 
now a small town of some 13,000 inhabi- 
tants. 

Syr'ia (Heb. Aram), the name in the 
Old Testament given to the whole country 
which lay to the north-east of Phoenicia, 
extending to beyond the Euphrates and 
the Tigris. Mesopotamia is called (Gen. 
24 : 10 ; Deut. 23 : 4) Aram-naharaim ( = Syria 
of the two rivers), also Padan-aram (G-en. 
25 : 20). Other portions of Syria were also 
known by separate names, as Aram-maahah 
(1 Chr. 19 : 6), Aram-beth-rehob (2 Sam. 10 : 
6), Aram-zobah (2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8). All these 
separate little kingdoms afterwards became 
subject to Damascus. In the time of the 
Pomans, Syria included also a part of 
Palestine and Asia Minor. 

"From the historic annals now accessible 
to us, the history of Syria may be divided 
into three periods : — ^The first, the period 
when the power of the Pharaohs was dom- 
inant over the fertile fields or plains of 
Syria and the merchant cities of Tyre and 
Sidon, and when such mighty conquerors 
as Thothmes III. and Rameses II. could 
claim dominion and levy tribute from the 
nations from the banks of the Euphrates to 
the borders of the Libyan desert. Second, 
this was followed by a short period of inde- 



pendence, when the Jewish nation in the 
south was growing in jDower, until it reached 
its early zenith in the golden days of 
Solomon ; and when Tyre and Sidon were 
rich cities, sending their traders far and 
wide, over land and sea, as missionaries of 
civilization, while in the north the con- 
federate tribes of the Hittites held back the 
armies of the kings of Assyria. The third, 
and to us most interesting, period is that 
during which the kings of Assyria were 
dominant over the plains of Syria; when 
Tyre, Sidon, Ashdod, and Jerusalem bowed 
beneath the conquering armies of Shal- 
maneser, Sargon, and Sennacherib ; and 
when at last Memphis and Thebes yielded 
to the power of the rulers of Nineveh and 
Babylon, and the kings of Assyria com- 
pleted with terrible fulness the bruising of 
the reed of Egypt so clearly foretold by the 
Hebrew prophets." — Boscawen. 

Syr'iac (2 Kings 18 : 26 ; Ezra 4:7; Dan. 
2:4), more correctly rendered "Aramaic," 
including both the Syriac and the Chaldee 
languages. In the New Testament there 
are several Syriac words, such as "Elo'i, 
Eloi, lama sabachthani ? " (Mark 15 : 34 ; 
Matt. 27:46 gives the Heb. form, "Eli, 
Eli"), "Paca" (Matt. 5:22), "Ephphatha" 
(Mark 7 : 34), "Maran-atha " (1 Cor. 16 : 22). 

A Syriac version of the Old Testament, 
containing all the canonical books, along 
with some apocryphal books (called the 
Peshito — i.e., simple — translation, and not 
a paraphrase), was made early in the second 
century, and is therefore the first Chris- 
tian translation of the Old Testament. It 
was made directly from the original, and 
not from the LXX. Version. The New 
Testament was also translated from Greek 
into Syriac about the same time. It is 
noticeable that this version does not con- 
tain the Second and Third Epistles of John, 
2 Peter, Jude, and the Apocalypse. These 
were, however, translated subsequently and 
placed in the version. (See Version.) 

Sy'rophenician, "a Greek, a Syro- 
phenician by nation " (Mark 7 : 26) — i.e., a 
Gentile born in the Phoenician part of 
Syria. (See Phenicia.) 

When our Lord retired into the border- 
land of Tyre and Sidon (Matt. 15 : 21), a 



TAANACH 



649 



TABERNACLE 



Syro-phcEnician woman came to him, and 
earnestly besought him, in behalf of her 
daughter, who was grievously afflicted with 
a demon. Her faith in him was severely 
tested by his silence (Matt. 15 : 23), refusal 



(24), and seeming reproach that it was not 
meet to cast the children's bread to dogs 
(26). But it stood the test, and her petition 
was graciously granted, because of the great- 
ness of her faith (28). 



Ta'anach — a sandy place — an ancient 
royal city of the Canaanites, on the south- 
western border of the plain of Esdrae- 
lon, 4 miles south of Megiddo. Its king 
was conquered by Joshua (12 : 21). It was 
assigned to the Levites of the family of 
Kohath (17:11-18; 21:25). It is men- 
tioned in the song of Deborah ( Judg. 5 : 
19). It is identified with the small modern 
village of Ta'annHk. 

Tsi'&.nsit'hrsYii'loh.— approach to Shiloh— 
a place on the border of Ephraim (Josh. 
16 : 6), probably the modern T'ana, a ruin 
7 miles south-east of Shechem, on the ridge 
east of the Mukhnah plain. 

Tab'baoth — impressions ; rings — "the 
children of, '^ returned from the Captivity 
(Ezra 2 : 43). 

Tab'bath— -/awows — a town in the tribe 
of Ephraim (Judg. 7 : 22), to the south of 
Bethshean, near the Jordan. 

Ta^beal — goodness of God — the father of 
one whom the kings of Syria and Samaria 
in vain attempted to place on the throne 
of Ahaz (Isa. 7 : 6-14). 

Tabbed, a Persian governor of Samaria, 
who joined others in the attempt to pre- 
vent the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Ezra 
4:7). 

Tab''erah — burning — a place in the wil- 
derness of Paran, where the "fire of the 
Lord " consumed the murmuring Israelites 
(Num. 11:3; Deut. 9:22). It was also 
called Kibroth-hattaavah {q.v.). 

Ta^'bering, playing on a small drum or 
tabret. In Nahum 2 : 7, where alone it 
occurs, it means beating on the breast, as 
players beat on the tabret. 

Tab'ernacle. (1.) A house or dwelling- 
place (Job 5 : 24 ; 18 : 6, etc.). 

(2.) A portable shrine (comp. Acts 19:24) 



containing the image of Moloch (Amos 
5 : 26 ; marg. and E.V., " Siccuth "). 

(3.) The human body (2 Cor. 5:1, 4); a 
tent, as opposed to a permanent dwelling. 

(4.) The sacred tent (Heb. mishkdn, " the 
dwelling-place ") ; the movable tent-temple 
which Moses erected for the service of God, 
according to the "pattern" which God 
himself showed to him on the mount (Ex. 
25 : 9 ; Heb. 8 : 5). It is called " the taber- 
nacle of the congregation, " rather "of meet- 
ing" — i.e., where God promised to meet 
with Israel (Ex. 29:42); the "tabernacle 
of the testimony " (Ex. 38 : 21 ; Num. 1 : 50), 
which does not, however, designate the 
whole structure, but only the enclosure 
which contained the "ark of the testimony " 
(Ex. 25:16, 22; Num. 9:15); the "taber- 
nacle of witness " (Num. 17 : 8) ; the "house 
of the Lord " (Deut. 23 : 18) ; the "temple 
of the Lord " (Josh. 6 : 24) ; a "sanctuary " 
(Ex. 25 : 8). 

A particular account of the materials 
which the people provided for the erection 
and of the building itself is recorded in 
Ex. 25-40. The execution of the plan 
mysteriously given to Moses was intrusted 
to Bezaleel and Aholiab, who were specially 
endowed with wisdom and artistic skill — 
probably gained in Egypt — for this purpose 
(Ex. 35 : 30-35). The people provided ma- 
terials for the tabernacle so abundantly that 
Moses was under the necessity of restrain- 
ing them (36 : 6). These stores, from which 
they so liberally contributed for this pur- 
pose, must have consisted in a great part 
of the gifts which the Egyptians so readily 
bestowed on them on the eve of the Exodus 
(12 : 35, 36). 

The tabernacle was a rectangular enclo- 
sure, in length about 45 feet {i.e., reckoning 



TABERNACLE 



650 



TABERNACLE 



a cubit at 18 inches) and in breadth and 
height aboiit 15. Its two sides and its 
western end were made of boards of acacia 
wood, placed on end, resting in sockets of 
brass, the eastern end being left open (Ex. 
26 : 22). This framework was covered with 
four coverings — the first of linen, in which 
figures of the symbolic cherubim were 
wrought with needlework in blue and 
purple and scarlet threads, and probably 
also with threads of gold (Ex. 26 : 1-6 ; 




THE TABERNACLE IN THE WILDERNESS. 

A. The Tabernacle Covered. I C. Altar of Burnt-Offering. 

B. Brazen Laver. I D. Court of the Tabernacle 



30 : 8-13). Above this was a second cover- 
ing of twelve curtains of black goats'- 
hair cloth, reaching down on the out- 
side almost to the ground (Ex. 26 : 7-11). 
The third covering was of rams' skins dyed 
red, and the fourth was of badgers' skins 
(Heb. tahash — i.e., the dugong, a species of 
seal), Ex. 25 : 5 ; 26 : 14 ; 35 : 7, 23 ; 36 : 19 ; 
39 : 34. 

Internally it was divided by a veil into 
two chambers, the exterior of which was 



called the holy place, also ' ' the sanctuary " 
(Heb. 9 : 2) and the "first tabernacle " (6) ; 
and the interior, the holy of holies, "the 
holy place, " ' ' the holiest, " the ' ' second tab- 
ernacle " (Ex. 28 : 29 ; Heb. 9 : 3, 7). The 
veil separating these two chambers was a 
double curtain of the finest workmanship, 
which was never passed except by the high 
priest once a year, on the great Day of 
Atonement. The holy place was separated 
from the outer court which enclosed the 
tabernacle by a curtain, which hung 
over the six pillars which stood at 
the east end of the tabernacle, and 
by which it was entered. 

The order as well as the typical 
character of the services of the taber- 
nacle are recorded in Heb. 9 ; 10 : 19- 
22. 

The holy of holies, a cube of 10 
cubits, contained the "ark of the testi- 
mony " — i.e., the oblong chest contain- 
ing the two tables of stone, the pot of 
manna, and Aaron's rod that budded. 
The holy place was the western and 
larger chamber of the tabernacle. 
Here were placed the table for the 
shewbread, the golden candlestick, 
and the golden altar of incense. 

Round about the tabernacle was a 
court, enclosed by curtains hung upon 
sixty pillars (Ex. 27 : 9-18). This 
court was 150 feet long and 75 feet 
broad. Within it were placed the 
altar of burnt offering, which mea- 
sured 1\ feet in length and breadth 
and 4| feet high, with horns at the 
four corners, and the laver of brass 
(Ex. 30 : 18), which stood between the 
altar and the tabernacle. 

The whole tabernacle was com- 
pleted in seven months. On the first day 
of the first month of the second year after 
the Exodus, it was formally set up, and 
the cloud of the divine presence descended 
on it (Ex. 30 : 23-38 ; 40 : 9-11). 

It cost 29 talents 730 shekels of gold, 
100 talents 1,775 shekels of silver, 70 talents 
2,400 shekels of brass (Ex. 38 : 24-31). 

The tabernacle was so constructed that 
it could easily be taken down and conveyed 
from place to place during the wanderings 



TABERNACLE 



651 



TABITHA 



in the wilderness. The first encampment 
of the Israelites after crossing the Jordan 
was at Gilgal, and there- the tabernacle re- 
mained for seven years (Josh. 4 : 19), It 
was afterwards removed to Shiloh (Josh. 
18 : 1), where it remained during the time 
of the Judges, till the days of Eli, when the 
ark, having been carried out into the camp 
when the Israelites were at war with the 
Philistines, was taken by the enemy (1 Sam. 
4), and was never afterwards restored to its 




THE TABERNACLE UNVEILED. 

H. The Holy of Holies, containing the Ark (A) of the 
Covenant with the Shechinah (G). 

V. The Veil separating the Holj^ of Holies from the Holy 
Place. 

H P. The Holy Place, containing the Golden Candle- 
stick (C) ; the Table of Shewbread (T) ; and the 
Altar of Incense (N). 

place in the tabernacle. The old tabernacle 
erected by Moses in the wilderness was 
transferred to Nob (1 Sam. 21 : 1), and after 
the destruction of that city by Saul (22 : 9 ; 
1 Chr. 16 : 39, 40), to Gibeon. It is men- 
tioned for the last time in 1 Chr. 21 : 29. 
A new tabernacle was erected by David at 
Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 16 : 1), and 
the ark was brought up from Perez-uzzah 
and deposited in it (1 Chr. 9 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 1 : 4). 



The word thus rendered Cohel) in Ex. 
33 : 7 denotes simply a tent, probably 
Moses' own tent, for the tabernacle was 
not yet erected. 

Tab'ernacles, Feast of, the third of the 
great annual festivals of the Jews (Lev. 
23:33-43). It is also called the "feast of 
ingathering " '(Ex. 23:16; Deut. 16:13). 
It was celebrated immediately after the 
harvest, in the month Tisri, and the 
celebration lasted for eight days (Lev. 
33 : 34). During that period the people 
left their homes and lived in booths 
formed of the branches of trees. The 
sacrifices offered at this time are men- 
tioned in Num. 29 : 13-38. It was at 
the time of this feast that Solomon's 
temple was dedicated (1 Kings 8 : 2). 
Mention is made of it after the return 
from the Captivity. This feast was 
designed (1) to be a memorial of the 
wilderness wanderings, when the 
people dwelt in booths (Lev. 23:43), 
and (2) to be a harvest thanksgiving 
(Neh. 8 : 9-18). The Jews, at a later 
time, introduced two appendages to 
the original festival — viz., (1) that of 
drawing water from the Pool of Si- 
loam, and pouring it upon the altar 
(John 7 : 2, 37), as a memorial of the 
water from the rock in Horeb ; and 
(2) of lighting the lamps at night, a 
memorial of the pillar of fire by night 
during their wanderings. 

" The feast of Tabernacles, the har- 
vest festival of the Jewish Church, 
was the most popular and important 
festival after the Captivity. At Jeru- 
salem it was a gala day. It was to 
the autumn pilgrims, who arrived on 
the 14th (of the month Tisri, the 
feast beginning on the 15th) day, like 
entrance into a silvan city. Roofs and court- 
yards, streets and squares, roads and gar- 
dens, were green with boughs of citron and 
myrtle, palm and \\411ow. The booths re- 
called the pilgrimage through the wilder- 
ness. The ingathering of fruits prophesied 
of the spiritual harvest." — Valling's Jesus 
Christ, p. 133. 

Tabltha (in Greek called Dorcas) — 
gazelle — a disciple at Joppa. She was dis- 



TABLES 



652 



TAHAPANES 



tinguished for her alms-deeds and good 
works. Peter, who was sent for from 
Lydda on the occasion of her death, prayed 
over the dead body, and said, "Tabitha, 
arise. " And she opened her eyes and sat up ; 
and Peter "gave her his hand, and raised 
her up ; and calling the saints and widows, 
he presented her alive " (Acts 9 : 36-43). 

Tabbies (Mark 7 : 4) means banqueting- 
couches or benches, on which the Jews re- 
clined when at meals. This custom, along 
with the use of raised tables like ours, was 
introduced among the Jews after the Cap- 
tivity. Before this they had, properly 
speaking, no table. That which served the 
purpose was a skin or piece of leather spread 
out on the carpeted floor. Sometimes a 
stool was placed in the middle of this skin. 
(See Abkaham's bosom ; Banquet ; Meals.) 

Ta'bor— a height. (1.) Nom'- Jebel et-Tur, 
a cone-like prominent mountain, 11 miles 
west of the Sea of Galilee. It is about 
1,843 feet high. The view from the summit 
of it is said to be singularly extensive and 
grand. This is alluded to in Ps. 89 : 12 ; 
Jer. 46 : 18. It was here that Barak en- 
camped before the battle with Sisera {q.v.) 
— Judg. 4 : 6-14. There is an old tradition, 
which, however^ is unfounded, that it was 
the scene of the transfiguration of our Lord. 
(See Hermon.) "The prominence and iso- 
lation of Tabor, standing, as it does, on the 
border-land between the northern and south- 
ern tribes, between the mountains and the 
central plain, made it a place of note in all 
ages, and evidently led the psalmist to as- 
sociate it with Hermon — the one emblem- 
atic of the south, the other of the north. " 
There are some who still hold that this was 
the scene of the transfiguration {q.v.). 

(2.) A town of Zebulun (1 Chr. 6 : 77). 

(3.) The "plain of Tabor" (1 Sam. 10 : 3) 
should be, as in the Revised Version, "the 
oak of Tabor." This was probably the 
AUon-bachuth of Gen. 35 : 8. 

Tato''let, probably a string of beads worn 
round the neck (Ex. 35 : 22 ; Num. 31 : 50). 
In Isa. 3 : 20 the Hebrew word means a 
perfume-box, as it is rendered in the Re- 
vised Version. 

Tato'ret (Heb. toph), a timbrel {q.v.) or 
tambourine, generally played by women 



(Gen. 31 : 27 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 18 : 6). In Job 
17:6 the word (Heb. topheth) "tabret" 
should be, as in the Revised Version, "an 
abhorring" (marg., "one in whose face they 
spit ; " lit., "a spitting in the face "). 

Tab'rimon— ^ooc? is Himmon— the father 
of Benhadad, king of Syria (1 Kings 15: 
18). 

Tach'es, hooks or clasps by which the 
tabernacle curtains were connected (Ex. 26 ; 
6, 11, 33 ; 35 : 11). 

Tach'monite = Hach'^monite, a name 
given to Jashobeam (2 Sam. 23 : 8 ; comp. 
1 Chr. 11 : 11). 

Tack^'ling (Isa. 33 : 23), the ropes attached 
to the mast of a ship. In Acts 27 : 19 this 
word means generally the furniture of the 
ship or the "gear" (27:17), all that could 
be removed from the ship. 

Tad^mor— paZm— a city built by Solomon 
"in the wilderness" (2 Chr. 8:4). In 1 
Kings 9 : 18, where the word occurs in the 
Authorized Version, the Hebrew text and 
the Revised Version read " Tamar," which 
is properly a city on the southern border of 
Palestine and toward the wilderness (comp. 
Ezek. 47:19; 48:28). In 2 Chr. 8:14 
Tadmor is mentioned in connection with 
Hamath-zobah. It is called Palmyra by 
the Greeks and Romans. It stood in the 
great Syrian wilderness — 176 miles from 
Damascus and 130 from the Mediterranean 
— and was the centre of a vast commercial 
traffic with Western Asia. It was also an 
important military station. (See Solomon. ) 
"Remains of ancient temples and palaces, 
surrounded by splendid colonnades of white 
marble, many of which are yet standing, 
and thousands of prostrate pillars, scattered 
over a large extent of space, attest the an- 
cient magnificence of this city of palms, 
surpassing that of the renowned cities of 
Greece and Rome." 

Tahap^anes = Tah' panhes — Tehaph'- 
nehes (called "Daphne" by the Greeks, now 
Tell Defenneh), an ancient Egyptian city, 
on the Tanitic branch of the Nile, about 16 
miles from Pelusium. The Jews from Jeru- 
salem fled to this place after the death of 
Gedaliah {q.v.), and settled there for a time 
(Jer. 2 : 16 ; 43 : 7 ; 44 : 1 ; 46 : 14). A plat- 
form of brick -work, which there is every 



TAHPENES 



653 



TALITHA 




RUINS OF TADMOR. 



reason to believe was the pavement at the 
entry of Pharaoh's palace, has been discov- 
ered at this place. ' ' Here, " says the discov- 
erer, Mr. Petrie, "the ceremony described 
by Jeremiah [43 : 8-10 ; ' ' brick-kiln "— t. e. , 
pavement of brick] took place before the 
chiefs of the fugitives assembled on the plat- 
form, and here Nebuchadnezzar spread his 
royal pavilion." 

Tah'penes, the wife of Pharaoh, who 
gave her sister in marriage to Hadad the 
Edomite (1 Kings 11 : 19, 20). 

Tah'tim-hod'shi— ^/ie land of the newly 
inhabited— {2 Sam. 24 : 6). It is conjectured 
that, instead of this word, the reading 
should be, "the Hittites of Kadesh," the 
Hittite capital, on the Orontes. It was 
apparently some region east of the Jordan 
and north of Gilead. 

Tale. (1.) Heb. toTcMn, "a task," as 
weighed and measured out = tally — i.e., the 
number told off ; the full number (Ex. 5 : 



In 



18 ; see 1 Sam. 18 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 9 : 28). 
Ezek. 45 : 11 rendered "measure." 

(2.) Heb. Mgeh, "a thought;" "medita- 
tion " (Ps. 90 : 9) ; meaning properly " as a 
whisper of sadness," which is soon over, or 
"as a thought." The LXX. and Vulgate 
render it "spider;" the Authorized Ver- 
sion and Revised Version, "as a tale " that 
is told. In Job 37 : 2 this word is rendered 
"sound ; " Revised Version margin, "mut- 
tering ; " and in Ezek. 2 : 10, " mourning. " 

Talent of silver contained 3,000 shekels 
(Ex. 38 : 25, 26), and was equal to 94f lbs. 
avoirdupois. The Greek talent, however, 
as in the LXX., was only 82^ lbs. It was 
in the form of a circular mass, as the He- 
brew name MJcMr denotes. A talent of 
gold was double the weight of a talent of 
silver (2 Sam. 12:30). Parable of the 
talents (Matt. 18 : 24 ; 25 : 15). 

Tali'tha cu'mi (Mark 5 : 41), a Syriac or 
Aramaic expression, meaning, " Little maid, 



TALMAI 



654 



TARSHISH 



arise." Peter, who was present when the 
miracle was wrought, recalled the actual 
words used by our Lord, and told them to 
Mark. 

TaVmsii— abounding in furrows. (1. ) One 
of the Anakim of Hebron, who were slain 
by the men of Judah under Caleb (Num. 
13 : 22 ; Josh. 15 : 14 ; Judg. 1 : 10). 

(2. ) A king of Geshur, to whom Absalom 
fled after he had put Amnon to death 
(2 Sam. 3:3; 13 : 37). His daughter, Ma- 
achah, was one of David's wives, and the 
mother of Absalom (1 Chr. 3 : 2). 

Tal''inon — oppressed. (1. ) A Levite por- 
ter (1 Chr. 9 : 17 ; Neh. 11 : 19). 

(2. ) One whose descendants returned with 
Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Ezra 2 : 41 ; Neh. 
7 : 45) ; probably the same as (1). 

Ta^mar — palm. (1.) A place mentioned 
by Ezekiel (47 : 19 ; 48 : 28), on the south- 
eastern border of Palestine. Some suppose 
this was "Tadmor" {q.v.). 

(2.) The daughter-in-law of Judah, to 
whose eldest son, Er, she was married (Gen. 
38 : 7). After her husband's death, she was 
married to Onan, his brother (19), and on 
his death, Jiidah promised to her that his 
third son, Shelah, would become her hus- 
band. This promise was not fulfilled, and 
hence Tamar's revenge and Judah's great 
guilt (38 : 12-30). 

(3. ) A daughter of David (2 Sam. 13 : 1-32 ; 
1 Chr. 3 : 9), whom Amnon shamefully out- 
raged and afterwards " hated exceedingly," 
thereby illustrating the law of human nature 
noticed even by the heathen, "Proprium 
humani ingenii est odisse quem laeseris " — 
i.e., "It is the property of human nature 
to hate one whom you have injured." 

(4. ) A daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. 14 : 
27). 

Tam^arisk. Heb. 'eshel (Gen. 21 : 33 ; 
1 Sam. 22 : 6 ; 31 : 13, in the R. V. ; but in 
A. v., "grove," "tree"); Arab. asaZ. Seven 
species of this tree are found in Palestine. 
It is a "very graceful tree, with long 
feathery branches and tufts closely clad 
with the minutest of leaves, and surmounted 
in spring with spikes of beautiful pink blos- 
soms, which seem to envelop the whole 
tree in one gauzy sheet of colour " (Tris- 
tram's JVat. Hist.). 



Tam^muz, a corruption of Dumuzi, the 
Accadian sun -god (the Adonis of the 
Greeks), the husband of the goddess Ishtar. 
In the Chaldean calendar there was a month 
set apart in honour of this god — the month 
of June to July, the beginning of the summer 
solstice. At this festival, which lasted six 
days, the worshippers, vdth loud lamenta- 
tions, bewailed the funeral of the god — they 
sat " weeping for Tammuz " (Ezek. 8 : 14). 

The name, also borrowed from Chaldea, 
of one of the months of the Hebrew cal- 
endar. 

Tanhu''ineth — consolation — a Netoph- 
athite ; one of the captains who supported 
Gedaliah (2 Kings 25 : 23 ; Jer. 40 : 8). 

Tan'is (Ezek. 30 : 14, marg. ). See Zoan. 

Tap^puah — apple -region. (1.) A town 
in the valley or lowland of Judah ; formerly 
a royal city of the Canaanites (Josh. 12 : 17 ; 
15 : 34). It is now called Tuffilh, about 
12 miles west of Jerusalem. 

(2.) A town on the border of Ephraim 
(Josh. 16 : 8). The " land " of Tappuah fell 
to Manasseh, but the "city" to Ephraim 
(17:8). 

(3. ) En-tappuah — the well of the apple 
— probably one of the springs near Yassuf 
(Josh. 17 : 7). 

Ta'rah — stopping ; station — an encamp- 
ment of the Hebrews in the wilderness 
(Num. 33 : 27, 28). 

Tares, the bearded darnel, mentioned 
only in Matt. 13 : 25-30. It is the LoUum 
temulentum, a species of rye-grass, the seeds 
of which are a strong soporific poison. It 
bears the closest resemblance to wheat till 
the ear appears, and only then the differ- 
ence is discovered. It grows plentifully in 
Syria and Palestine. 

Tar^get (1 Sam. 17 : 7, A.V., after the 
LXX. and Vulg.), a kind of small shield. 
The margin has " gorget, " a piece of armour 
for the throat. The Revised Version more 
correctly renders the Hebrew word {kidon) 
by "javelin." The same Hebrew word is 
used in Josh. 8 : 18 (A. V., "spear ; " R. V., 
"javelin ") ; Job 39 : 23 (A. V., "shield ; " 
R.V., "javelin"); 41:29(A.V., "spear;" 
R.V., "javelin"). 

Tar^shish, a Sanscrit or Aryan word, 
meaning "the sea coast." (1.) One of 



TARSUS 



655 



TAXES 



the "sons "of Javan (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chr. 
1:7). 

(2.) The name of a place which first 
conies into notice in the days of Solomon. 
The question as to the locality of Tarshish 
has given rise to not a little discussion. 
Some think there was a Tarshish in the 
East, on the Indian coast, seeing that 
"ships of Tarshish" sailed from Ezion- 
geber, on the Red Sea (1 Kings 9 : 26 ; 
22 : 48 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 21). Some, again, argue 
that Carthage was the place so named. 
There can be little doubt, however, that 
this is the name of a Phoenician port in 
Spain, between the two mouths of the 
Guadalquivir (the name given to the river 
by the Arabs, and meaning "the great 
wMy " or water-course). It was founded 
by a Carthaginian colony, and was the 
farthest western harbour of Tyrian sailors. 
It was to this port Jonah's ship was about 
to sail from Joppa. It has well been 
styled " the Peru of Tyrian adventure ; " it 
abounded in gold and silver mines. 

It appears that this name also is used 
without reference to any locality. " Ship)S 
of Tarshish " is an expression sometimes 
denoting simply ships intended for a long 
voyage (Isa. 23 : 1, 14), ships of a large size 
(sea -going ships), whatever might be the 
j)ort to which they sailed. Solomon's ships 
were so styled (1 Kings 10 : 22 ; 22 : 49). 

Tar'sus, the chief city of Cilicia. It was 
distinguished for its wealth and for its 
schools of learning, in which it rivalled, nay, 
excelled even Athens and Alexandria, and 
hence was spoken of as "no mean city." 
It was the native j^lace of the Apostle 
Paul (Acts 21 : 39). It stood on the banks 
of the river Cydnus, about 12 miles north 
of the Mediterranean. It is said to have 
been founded by Sardanapalus, king of 
Assyria. It is now a filthy, ruinous Turkish 
town, called Tersous. (See Paul.) 

Tar'tak — prince of darkness — one of the 
gods of the Arvites, who colonized part of 
Samaria after the deportation of Israel by 
Shalmaneser (2 Kings 17 : 21). 

Tar'tan, an Assyrian word, meaning 
' ' the commander-in-chief. " (1. ) One of Sen- 
nacherib's messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings 
18 : 17). 



(2. ) One of Sargon's generals (Isa. 20 : 1). 

Tat'nai— (/i/f— a Persian governor (Heb. 
peJidh — i.e., "satrap;" modern "pasha") 
"on this side the river" — i.e., of the whole 
tract on the west of the Euphrates. This 
Hebrew title pehdh is given to governors 
of provinces generally. It is given to 
Nehemiah (5 : 14) and to Zerubbabel (Hag. 
1:1). It is sometimes translated ' ' captain " 
(1 Kings 20 : 24 ; Dan. 3 : 2, 3), sometimes 
also " deputy " (Esther 8 : 9 ; 9 : 3). With 
others, Tatnai oiDposed the rebuilding of the 
temple (Ezra 5:6); but at the command of 
Darius, he assisted the Jews (6 : 1-13). 

Tav'erns, The three, a place on the great 
" Appian Way, " about 11 miles from Rome, 
designed for the reception of travellers, as 
the name indicates. Here Paul, on his 
way to Rome, was met by a band of Ro- 
man Christians (Acts 28 : 15). The " Tres 
Tabernce was the first mansio or mutatio — 
that is, halting -place for relays — from 
Rome, or the last on the way to the city. 
At this point three roads run into the Via 
Appia — that from Tusculum, that from 
Alba Longa, and that from Antium ; so 
necessarily here would be a halting-place, 
which took its name from the three shops 
there — the general store, the blacksmith's, 

and the refreshment-house TresTabernse 

is translated as Three Taverns, but it more 
correctly means three shops " (Forbes's 
Footsteps of St. Paul, p. 22). 

Taxes, first mentioned in the command 
(Ex. 30 : 11-16) that every Jew from 
twenty years and upward should pay an 
annual tax of "half a shekel for an offer- 
ing to the Lord." This enactment was 
faithfully observed for many generations 
(2 Chr. 24:6; Matt. 17:24). 

Afterwards, when the people had kings 
to reign over them, they began, as Samuel 
had warned them (1 Sam. 8 : 10-18), to pay 
taxes for civil purposes (1 Kings 4:7; 9 : 
13 ; 12 : 4). Such taxes, in increased amount, 
were afterwards paid to the foreign princes 
that ruled over them. 

In the New Testament the payment of 
taxes, imposed by lawful rulers, is enjoined 
as a duty (Rom. 13 : 1-7 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 13, 14). 
Mention is made of the tax {tclos) on mer- 
chandise and travellers (Matt. 17 : 25) ; the 



TAXING 



656 



TEMAN 



annual tax {phoros) on property (Luke 20 : 
22; 23:2); the poll-tax (A;msos, "tribute," 
Matt. 17 : 25 ; 22 : 17 ; Mark 12 : 14) ; and 
the temple-tax (" tribute money " = two 
drachmas = half shekel, Matt. 17 : 24-27 ; 
comp. Ex. 30 : 13). (See Teibute.) 

Tax'ing (Luke 2 : 2; E. V., " enrolment "), 
"when Cyrenius was governor of Syria," 
is simply a census of the people, or an en- 
rolment of them with a view to their taxa- 
tion. The decree for the enrolment was 
the occasion of Joseph and Mary's going 
up to Bethlehem. It has been argued by 
some that Cyrenius {q.v.) was governor of 
Cilicia and Syria both at the time of our 
Lord's birth and some years afterwards. 
This decree for the taxing referred to the 
whole Roman world, and not to Judea 
alone. (See Census.) 

Te^beth (Esther 2 : 16), a word probably 
of Persian origin, denoting the cold time 
of the year ; used by the later Jews as de- 
noting the tenth month of the year. As- 
syrisbXi tebituv, "rain." 

Teil tree (an old name for the lime-tree, 
the tilia), Isa. 6 : 13, the terebinth, or tur- 
pentine-tree, the Pistacia terehinthus of 
botanists. The Hebrew word here used 
{ildh) is rendered oak {q.v.) in Gen. 35 : 4; 
Judg. 6 : 11, 19 ; Isa. 1 : 29, etc. In Isa. 
61 : 3 it is rendered in the plural " trees ; " 
Hos. 4:13, "elm" (E.V., "terebinth"). 
In 1 Sam. 17 : 2, 19 it is taken as a proper 
name, " Elah " (R. V. marg., " terebinth "). 

"The terebinth of Mamre, or its lineal 
successor, remained from the days of Abra- 
ham till the fourth century of the Christ- 
ian era, and on its site Constantine erected 
a Christian church, the ruins of which 
still remain." 

This tree "is seldom seen in clumps or 
groves, never in forests, but stands isolated 
and weird -like in some bare ravine or on a 
hill-side where nothing else towers above 
the low brushwood " (Tristram). 

Te^'kel—iveighed (Dan. 5 : 27). 

Teko'a, Teko^ ah— pitching of tents; 
fastening down— a, town of Judah, about 
12 miles south of Jerusalem, and visible 
from the city. From this place Joab pro- 
cured a "wise woman," who pretended to 
be in great affliction, and skilfully made 



her case known to David. Her address to 
the king was in the form of an apologue, 
similar to that of Nathan (2 Sam. 12 : 1-6). 
The object of Joab was, by the intervention 
of this woman, to induce David to bring 
back Absalom to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 14 : 2, 
4, 9). 

This was also the birth-place of the pro- 
phet Amos (1 : 1). 

It is now the village of Tek'A^a, on the 
top of a hill among ruins, 5 miles south 
of Bethlehem, and close to Beth-haccerem 
(" Herod's mountain "). 

Tel-a''bib — hill of corn — a place on the 
river Chebar, the residence of Ezekiel 
(Ezek. 3 : 15). The site is unknown. 

Tela^im — young lambs — a place at which 
Saul gathered his army to fight against 
Amalek (1 Sam. 15 : 4) ; probably the same 
as Telem (2). 

Telas^sar or Thelasar (Isa. 37:12; 2 
Kings 19 : 12), a province in the south-east 
of Assyria, probably in Babylonia. Some 
have identified it with Tel Afer, a place in 
Mesopotamia, some 30 miles from Sinjar. 

Te^lem — oppression. (1.) A porter of 
the temple in the time of Ezra (10 : 24). 

(2.) A town in the southern border of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 24) ; probably the same 
as Telaim. 

Tel-hare^sha — hill of the wood — a place 
in Babylon from which some captive Jews 
returned to Jerusalem (Ezra 2 : 59 ; Neh. 
7 : 61). 

Tel-me^'lah — hill of salt — a place in 
Babylon from which the Jews returned 
{id.). 

Te'ma — south; desert — one of the sons 
of Ishmael, and father of a tribe so called 
(Gen. 25 : 15; 1 Chr. 1 : 30; Job 6 : 19; Isa. 
21 : 14 ; Jer. 25 : 23) which settled at a place 
to which he gave his name, some 250 miles 
south-east of Edom, on the route between 
Damascus and Mecca, in the northern part 
of the Arabian peninsula, toward the Sy- 
rian desert ; the modern Teyma\ 

Teaman — id. (1.) A grandson of Esau, 
one of the " dukes of Edom " (Gen. 36 : 11, 
15, 42). 

(2.) A place in Southern Idumea, the 
land of "the sons of the east," frequently 
mentioned in the Old Testament. It was 



TEMANITE 



657 



TEMPLE 



noted for the wisdom of its inhabitants 
(Amos 1:12; Obad. 8; Jar. 49:7; Ezek. 
25 : 13). It was divided from the hills of 
Paran by the low plain of Arabah (Hab. 
3:3). 

Te''manite — a man of Teman — the de- 
signation of Eliphaz, one of Job's three 
friends (Job 2: 11; 22:1). 

Teme'iii, one of the sons of Ashur, the 
father of Tekoa (1 Chr. 4 : 6). 

Tem'ple, first used of the tabernacle, 
which is called "the temple of the Lord" 
(1 Sam. 1 : 9). In the New Testament the 
word is used figuratively of Christ's human 
body (John 2 : 19, 21). Believers are called 
" the temple of God " (1 Cor. 3 : 16, 17). The 
Church is designated "an holy temple in 
the Lord" (Eph. 2:21). Heaven is also 
called a temple (Rev. 7 : 5). We read also 
of the heathen "temple of the great god- 
dess Diana " (Acts 19 : 27). 

This word is generally used in Scripture 
of the sacred house erected on the summit of 
Mount Moriah for the worship of God. It 
is called "the temple" (1 Kings 6:17); 
"the temple [P. v., 'house'] of the Lord" 
(2 Kings 11 : 10) ; " thy holy temple " (Ps. 
70:1); "the house of the Lord" (2 Chr. 
23:5, 12); "the house of the God of 
Jacob" (Isa. 2:3); "the house of my 
glory " (60 : 7) ; an " house of prayer " (56 : 
7; Matt. 21:13); "an house of sacrifice" 
(2 Chr. 7:12); "the house of their sanc- 
tuary" (2 Chr. 36:17); "the mountain of 
the Lord's house" (Isa. 2:2); "our holy 
and our beautiful house" (64:11); "the 
holy mount " (27 : 13) ; " the palace for the 
Lord God" (1 Chr. 29:1); "the taber- 
nacle of witness" (2 Chr. 24:6); "Zion" 
(Ps. 74:2; 84:7). Christ calls it "my 
Father's house " (John 2 : 16). 

Tem'ple, Solomon's. Before his death 
David had "with much labour" provided 
materials in great abundance for the build- 
ing of the temple on the summit of Mount 
Moriah (1 Chr. 22:14; 29:4; 2 Chr. 3: 
1), on the east of the city, on the spot 
where Abraham had offered up Isaac (Gen. 
22 : 1-12). In the beginning of his reign 
Solomon set about giving effect to the 
desire that had been so earnestly cherished 
by his father, and prepared additional 



materials for the building. Prom subter- 
ranean quarries at Jerusalem he obtained 
huge blocks of stone for the foundations 
and walls of the temple. These stones 
were prepared for their places in the build- 
ing under the eye of Tyrian master-build- 
ers. He also entered into a compact with 
Hiram 11. , king of Tyre, for the supply of 
whatever else was needed for the work, 
particularly timber from the forests of Leb- 
anon, which was brought in great rafts by 
the sea to Joppa, whence it was dragged 
to Jerusalem (1 Kings 5). As the hill on 
which the temple was to be built did not 
afford sufficient level space, a huge wall of 
solid masonry of great height, in some 
places more than 200 feet high, was raised 
across the south of the hill, and a similar 
wall on the eastern side, and in the spaces 
between were erected many arches and 
pillars, thus raising up the general surface 
to the required level. Solomon also pro- 
vided for a sufficient water supply for the 
temple by hewing in the rocky hill vast 
cisterns, into which water was conveyed by 
channels from the "pools" near Bethle- 
hem. One of these cisterns, the "great 
sea," was capable of containing three mil- 
lions of gallons. The overflow was led off 
by a conduit to the Kidron. 

In all these preparatory undertakings a 
space of about three years was occupied ; 
and now the process of the erection of the 
great building began, under the direction 
of skilled Phoenician builders and work- 
men, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign, 
480 years after the Exodus (1 Kings 6 ; 2 
Chr. 3). Many thousands of labourers 
and skilled artisans were employed in the 
work. Stones prepared in the quarries 
underneath the city (1 Kings 5 : 17, 18) of 
huge dimension (see Quakeies) were 
gradually placed on the massive walls, and 
closely fitted together without any mortar 
between, till the whole structure was com- 
pleted. No sound of hammer or axe or 
any tool of iron was heard as the structure 
arose (6:7). "Like some tall palm the 
noiseless fabric sprang." The building 
was 60 cubits long, 20 cubits wide, and 30 
cubits high. The engineers of the Pales- 
tine Exploration Fund, in their explorations 

43 



TEMPLE 



658 



TEMPLE 



around the temple area, discovered what is 
believed to have been the "chief corner 
stone " of the temple, " the most interest- 
ing stone in the world." It lies at the 
bottom of the south-eastern angle, and is 3 
feet 8 inches high by 14 feet long. It rests 
on the solid rock at a depth of 79 feet 3 
inches below the present surface. (See 
Pinnacle.) In examining the walls the 
engineers were " struck with admiration 
at the vastness of the blocks and the gen- 
eral excellence of the workmanship." 

The internal decorations and ornaments 
of the temple, prepared under the direction 
of Hiram (1 Kings 7 : 13, 14), were of the 
grandest description. In its general form 
the temple was a replica of the wilderness 
tabernacle, its main lines being double the 
length of the corresponding parts of the 
tabernacle. The old "house of God " thus 
in a manner reappears in the new. 

At length, in the autumn of the eleventh 
year of his reign, seven and a half years 
after it had been begun, the temple was 
completed in all its architectural magnifi- 
cence and beauty. Eor thirteen years 
there it stood, on the summit of Moriah, 
silent and unused. The reasons for this 
strange delay in its consecration are un- 
known. At the close of these thirteen 
years preparations for the dedication of 
the temple were made on a scale of the 
greatest magnificence. The ark was sol- 
emnly brought from the tent in which 
David had deposited it to the place pre- 
pared for it in the temple, and the glory- 
cloud, the symbol of the divine presence, 
filled the house. Then Solomon ascended 
a platform which had been erected for him, 
in the sight of all the people, and lifting 
up his hands to heaven poured out his 
heart to God in prayer (1 Kings 8 ; 2 Chr. 
6, 7). The feast of dedication, which lasted 
seven days, followed by the feast of taber- 
nacles, marked a new era in the history of 
Israel. On the eighth day of the feast of 
tabernacles, Solomon dismissed the vast 
assemblage of the people, who returned to 
their homes filled with joy and gladness. 
"Had Solomon done no other service be- 
yond the building of the temi)le, he would 
still have influenced the religious life of 



his people down to the latest days. It was 
to them a perpetual reminder and visible 
symbol of God's presence and protection, a 
strong bulwark of all the sacred traditions 
of the law, a witness to duty, an impulse 
to historic study, an inspiration of sacred 
song, " 

The temple consisted of — (1.) The oracle 
or most holy place (1 Kings 6 : 19 ; 8:6), 
called also the" inner house " (6 : 27), and the 
"holiestof aH"(Heb. 9:3). It Avas 20 cubits 
in length, breadth, and height. It was 
floored and wainscotted with cedar (1 Kings 
,6 : 16), and its walls and floor were overlaid 
with gold (6 : 20, 21, 30). There was a two- 
leaved door between it and the holy place 
overlaid with gold (2 Chr. 4:22); also a 
veil of blue purple and crimson and fine 
linen (2 Chr. 3 : 14 ; comp. Ex. 26 : 33). It 
had no windows (1 Kings 8 : 12). It was 
indeed the dwelling-place of God. (2.) The 
holy place {q.v.) — 1 Kings 8:8-10 — called 
also the ' ' greater house " (2 Chr. 3:5) and the 
" temple" (1 Kings 6 : 17). (3.) The porch or 
entrance before the temple on the east 
(1 Kings 6 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 4; 29 : 7). In the 
porch stood the two pillars Jachin and Boaz 
(1 Kings 7:21; 2 Kings 11:14; 23:3). 
(4.) The chambers, which were built about 
the temple on the southern, western, and 
northern sides (1 Kings 6:5-10). These 
formed a part of the building. 

E-ound about the bixilding were — (1.) The 
court of the priests (2 Chr. 4 : 9), called the 
"inner court " (1 Kings 6 : 36). It contained 
the altar of burnt-offering (2 Chr. 15 : 8), 
the brazen sea (4 : 2-5, 10), and ten la vers 
(1 Kings 7:38, 39). (2.) The great court, 
which surrounded the whole temple (2 
Chr. 4:9). Here the people assembled to 
worship God (Jer. 19 : 14; 26 : 2). 

This temple erected by Solomon was 
many times pillaged during the course of 
its history — (1) 1 Kings 14:25, 26; (2) 
2 Kings 14:14; (3) 2 Kings 16:8, 17, 18; 
(4) 2 Kings 18 : 15, 16. At last it was 
pillaged and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar 
(2 Kings 24 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 7). He burned 
the temple, and carried all its treasures 
with him to Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 9-17 ; 2 
Chr. 36:19; Isa. 64:11). These sacred 
vessels were at length, at the close of the 



TEMPLE 



659 



TEMPLE 



Captivity, restored to the Jews by Cyrus 
(Ezra 1 : 7-11). 

Temple, the Second. After the return 
from captivity, under Zerubbabel (g.r.) and 
the high priest Jeshua, arrangements were 
ahnost immediately made to reorganize 
the long-desolated kingdom. The body of 
pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360, in- 
cluding children, having completed the 
long and dreary journey of some four 
months, from the banks of the Euphrates 
to Jerusalem, Avere animated in all their 
proceedings by a strong religious impulse, 
and therefore one of their first cares was 
to restore their ancient worship by re- 
building the temple. On the invitation of 
Zerubbabel, the governor, who showed 
them a remarkable example of liberality 
by contributing personally 1,000 golden 
darics (probably about £6,000), besides 
other gifts, the people with great enthu- 
siasm poured their gifts into the sacred 
treasury (Ezra 2). Eirst they erected and 
dedicated the altar of Jehovah on the 
exact spot where it had formerly stood, and 
they then cleared away the charred heaps 
of debris which occupied the site of the 
old temple; and in the second month of 
the second 3^ ear (B.C. 535), amid great pub- 
lic excitement and rejoicing (Ps. 106 ; 107 ; 
118), the foundations of the second temple 
Avere laid. A wide interest was felt in 
this great movement, although it was re- 
garded Avith mingled feelings by the spec- 
tators (Hag. 2:3; Zech. 4 : 10). The Sa- 
maritans made proposals for a co-operation 
in the work. Zerubbabel and Jeshua and 
the elders, however, declined all such co- 
operation : Judah must build the temple 
Avithout help. Immediately evil reports 
were spread regarding the Jews. The 
Samaritans sought to ' ' frustrate their pur- 
pose " (Ezra 4 : 5), and sent messengers to 
Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that 
the work was suspended. Seven years 
after this Cyrus died ingloriously, having 
killed himself in Syria when on his way 
back from Egypt to the east, and was 
succeeded by his son Cambyses (b.c. 529- 
522), on whose death the "false Smerdis," 
an impostor, occupied the throne for some 
seven or eight months, and then Darius 



Hystaspes became king (b.c. 522). In the 
second year of this monarch the work of 
rebuilding the temple was resumed and 
carried forward to its completion (Ezra 5 : 
6-17 ; 6 : 1-15), under the stimulus of the 
earnest counsels and admonitions of the 
prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was 
ready for consecration in the spring of B.C. 
516, twenty years after the return from 
captivity. 

This second temple had not the ark, 
the Urim and Thummim, the holy oil, the 
sacred lire, the tables of stone, the pot of 
manna, and Aaron's rod. As in the taber- 
nacle, there was in it only one golden lamjD 
for the holy place, one table of shewbread, 
and the incense altar, with golden censers, 
and many of the vessels of gold that had 
belonged to Solomon's temple that had 
been carried to Babylon but restored by 
Cyrus (Ezra 1 : 7-11). 

This second temple also differed from the 
first in that, while in the latter there were 
numerous "trees planted in the courts 
of the Lord," there were none in the 
former. The second temple also had for 
the first time a space, being a part of the 
outer court, provided for proselytes who 
were worshippers of Jehovah, although not 
subject to the laws of Judaism. 

The temple, when completed, was con- 
secrated amid great rejoicings on the part 
of all the people (Ezra 6 : 16), although 
there were not wanting outward evidences 
that the Jews were no longer an independ- 
ent people, but were subject to a foreigrn 
power. 

Hag. 2 : 9 is rightly rendered in the Re- 
vised Version, "The latter glory of this 
house shall be greater than the former," 
instead of, " The glory of this latter house," 
etc., in the Axithorized Version. The 
temi^le, during the different periods of its 
existence, is regarded as but one house, 
the one only house of God (comp. 2 : 3). 
The glory here predicted is spiritual glory 
and not material splendour. "Christ 
himself, present bodily in the temple on 
Mount Zion during his life on earth, pres- 
ent spiritually in the Church now, present 
in the holy city, the heavenly Jerusalem, 
of which he is the temple, calling forth 



TEMPLE 



660 



TEMPLE 



spiritual worship and devotion is the 

glory here predicted " (Perowne). 

Temple, Herod's. The temple erected 
by the exiles on their return from Babylon 
had stood for about five hundred years, 
when Herod the Great became king of 
Judea. The building had suffered con- 
siderably from natural decay as well as 
from the assaults of hostile armies, and 
Herod, desirous of gaining the favour of 
the Jews, proposed to rebuild it. This 
offer was accepted, and the work was be- 
gun (B.C. 18), and carried out at great 
labour and expense, and on a scale of sur- 
passing splendour. The main part of the 
building was completed in ten years, but the 
erection of the outer courts and the embel- 
lishment of the whole were carried on during 
the entire period of our Lord's life on earth 
(John 2 : 16, 19-21), and the temple was com- 
pleted only A.D. 65. But it was not long 
permitted to exist. Within forty years after 
our Lord's cnicifixion, his prediction of its 
overthrow was accomplished (Luke 19 : 
41-44). The Roman legions took the city 
of Jerusalem by storm, and notwithstand- 
ing the strenuous efforts Titus made to 
preserve the temple, his soldiers set fire to 
it in several places, and it was utterly de- 
stroyed (a.D. 70), and was never rebuilt. 

Several remains of Herod's stately tem- 
ple have by recent explorations been 
brought to light. It had two courts — one 
intended for the Israelites only, and the 
other, a large outer court, called "the 
court of the Gentiles," intended for the 
use of strangers of all nations. These two 
courts were separated by a low wall, as 
Josephus states, of some 41 feet high, with 
thirteen openings. Along the top of this 
dividing wall were placed at regular inter- 
vals pillars, bearing in Greek an inscription 
to the effect that no stranger was, on the 
pain of death, to pass from the court of 
the Gentiles into that of the Jews. At 
the entrance to a graveyard at the north- 
western angle of the Haram wall, a stone 
was discovered by M. Ganneau in 1871, built 
into the wall, bearing the following in- 
scription in Greek capitals : "No stranger 
is to enter within the partition wall and 
enclosure around the sanctuary. Whoever 



is caught will be responsible to himself for 
his death, which will ensue." 

There can be no doubt that the stone 
thus discovered was one of those originally 
placed on the boundary wall which sepa- 
rated the Jews from the Gentiles, of which 
Josephus speaks. 

It is of im^portance to notice that the 
word rendered "sanctuary " in the inscrip- 
tion was used in a specific sense of the inner 
court, the court of the Israelites, and is the 
word rendered "temple" in John 2:15 
and Acts 21 : 28, 29. When Paul speaks of 
the middle wall of partition (Eph. 2 : 14), 
he probably makes allusion to this dividing 
wall. Within this partition wall stood 
the temple proper, consisting of — (1) the 
court of the women, 8 feet higher than the 
outer court; (2) 10 feet higher than this 
court was the court of Israel ; (3) the 
court of the priests, again 3 feet higher; 
and lastly (4) the temple floor, 8 feet above 
that ; thus in all 29 feet above the level of 
the outer court. 

The summit of Mount Moriah, on which 
the temple stood, is now occupied by the 
Haram esh-Sherif — i.e., "the sacred en- 
closure." This enclosure is about 1,500 
feet from north to south, with a breadth 
of about 1,000 feet, covering in all a space 
of about 35 acres. About the centre of the 
enclosure is a raised platform, 16 feet above 
the surrounding space, and paved with 
large stone slabs, on which stands the Mo- 
hammedan mosque called Kubbet es-Sahkra 
— i.e., the "Dome of the Rock," or the 
Mosque of Omar. This mosque covers the 
site of Solomon's temple. In the centre of 
the dome there is a bare projecting rock, 
the highest part of Moriah, measuring 60 
feet by 40, standing 6 feet above the floor 
of the mosque, called the sahJcra — i.e., 
"rock." Over this rock the altar of burnt- 
offerings stood. It was the threshing- 
floor of Araunah the Jebusite. The exact 
position on this "sacred enclosure" which 
the temple occupied has not been yet de- 
finitely ascertained. Some affirm that 
Herod's temple covered the site of Solo- 
mon's temple and palace, and in addition 
enclosed a square of 300 feet at the south- 
western angle. The temple courts thus are 



TEMPTATION 



661 



TERAH 



supposed to have occupied the southern 
portion of the "enclosure," forming in all 
a square of more than 900 feet. It is 
argued by others that Herod's temple oc- 
cupied a square of 600 feet at the south- 
west of the "enclosure." 

Tempta^tion. (1.) Trial ; a being put to 
the test. Thus God "tempted [Gen. 22: 
1; E-.V., 'did prove'] Abraham;" and 
afflictions are said to tempt — i.e., to try — 
men '(James 1:2, 12 ; comp. Deut. 8 : 2), 
putting their faith and patience to the test. 
(2.) Ordinarily, however, the word means 
solicitation to that which is evil, and hence 
Satan is called "the tempter" (Matt. 4: 
3). Our Lord was in this way tempted in 
the wilderness. That temptation was not 
internal, but by a real, active, subtle being. 
It was not self-sought. It was submitted 
to as an act of obedience on his part. 
" Christ was led, driven. An unseen per- 
sonal force bore him a certain violence is 
implied in the words " (Matt. 4 : 1-11). 

The scene of the temptation of our 
Lord is generally supposed to have been 
the mountain of Quarantania (g.^■.), "a high 
and precipitous wall of rock, 1,200 or 1,500 
feet above the plain west of Jordan, near 
Jericho. " 

Temptation is common to all (Dan. 12 : 
10 ; Zech. 13 : 9 ; Ps. 66 : 10 ; Luke 22 : 31, 
40; Heb. 11 : 17; James 1 : 12; 1 Pet. 1:7; 
4:12). We read of the temptation of 
Joseph (Gen. 39), of David (2 Sam. 24; 1 
Chr. 21), of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 32:31), of 
Daniel (Dan. 6), etc. So long as we are 
in this world we are exposed to temptations, 
and need ever to be on our watch against 
them. 

Tent. (1.) Heb. 'ohel (Gen. 9:21, 27). 
This word is used also of a dwelling or 
habitation (1 Kings 8 : 66 ; Isa. 16 : 5 ; Jer. 
4:20), and of the temple (Ezek. 41:1). 
When used of the tabernacle, as in 1 Eangs 
1 : 39, it denotes the covering of goat's hair 
which was placed over the mishcdn. 

(2. ) Heb. mishcdn (Cant. 1 : 8), used also 
of a dwelling (Job 18:21; Ps. 87:2), the 
grave (Isa. 22 : 16 ; comp. 14 : 18), the tem- 
ple (Ps. 46 : 4 ; 84 : 2 ; 132 : 5), and of the 
tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 9 ; 26 : 1 ; 40 : 9 ; Num. 
1:50, 53; 10:11). When distinguished 



from ''ohel, it denotes the twelve interior 
curtains which lay upon the framework of 
the tabernacle {q.v.). 

(3.) Heb. kubbdh (Num. 25:8), a dome- 
like tent devoted to the impure worship of 
Baal-peor. 

(4. ) Heb. succdh (2 Sam. 11 : 11), a tent 
or booth made of green boughs or branches 
(see Gen. 33:17; Lev. 23:34, 42; Ps. 18: 
11; Jonah 4:5; Isa. 4:6; Neh. 8:15-17, 
where the word is variously rendered). 

Jubal was "the father of such as dwell 
in tents " (Gen. 4 : 20). The patriarchs 
were "dwellers in tents" (Gen. 9:21, 27; 
12:8; 13:12; 26:17); and during their 
wilderness wanderings all Israel dwelt in 
tents (Ex. 16:16; Deut. 33:18; Josh. 7: 
24). Tents have always occupied a prom- 
inent place in Eastern life (1 Sam. 17 : 
54; 2 Kings 7:7; Ps. 120:5; Cant. 1:5). 
Paul the apostle's occupation was that of 
a tent-maker (Acts 18:3); i.e., perhaps a 
maker of tent cloth. 

Tenth deal — i.e., the tenth part of an 
ephah (as in the P.V.), equal to an omer 
or six pints. The recovered leper, to com- 
plete his purification, was required to bring 
a trespass, a sin, and a burnt offering, and 
to present a meal offering, a tenth deal or 
an omer of flour for each, with oil to make 
it into bread or cakes (Lev. 14 : 10, 21 ; 
comp. Ex. 16:36; 29:40). 

Te''rah — the wanderer; loiterer — for some 
unknown reason emigrated with his family 
from, his native mountains in the north to 
the plains of Mesopotamia. He had three 
sons — Haran, Nahor, and Abraham — and 
one daughter, Sarah. He settled in "Ur 
of the Chaldees," where his son Haran 
died, leaving behind him his son Lot. 
Nahor settled at Haran, a place on the 
way to Ur. Terah afterwards migrated 
with Abraham (probably his youngest son) 
and Lot (his grandson), together with 
their families, from Ur, intending to go 
Avith them to Canaan; but he tarried at 
Haran, where he spent the remainder of 
his days, and died at the age of two hun- 
dred and five years (Gen. 11 : 24-32 ; Josh. 
24 : 2). What a wonderful part the de- 
scendants of this Chaldean shepherd have 
played in the history of the world ! 





TERAH 




662 


TERESH 


Terah. 


1 
Haran. 

i 


OT. 


1 
Nahor. 

1 
Bethuel. 


1 
Abraham. 


Iscah, Milcah, L 


1 

1 

(Of Hagar.) 

1 
cah. Ishmael. 


(Of Sarah.) 




Laban, Rebei 


1 


Moab, 


Ammon. 


Isaac. 

1 




1 1 
Leah, Eachel. 


! 1 

Esau, Jacob. 




(Of Leah.) 
1 

1 1 

Reuben, Simeoi 

Levi, Judah, 


(Of Bilhah.) 


1 1 
(Of Zilpah.) (Of Rachel.) 

1 1 




1, Dan, Naphtali. 


1 1 1 i 
Gad, Asher. Joseph, Benjamin. 

i 



Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah. 



Ephraim, Manasseh. 



Ter'aphim 



-givers of prosperity — idols in 
human shape, 
large or small, 
analogous to the 
images of ances- 
tors which were 
revered by the 
Romans. In 
order to deceive 
the guards sent 
by Saul to seize 
David, Michal 
his wife pre- 
pared one of 
the household 
teraphim, put- 
ting on it the 
goat's -hair cap 
worn by sleep- 
ers and inva- 
lids, and laid 
it in a bed, 
covering it with 
a mantle. She 
pointed it out 
to the soldiers, 
and alleged that 
David was con- 
fined to his bed 
by a sudden ill- 
ness (1 Sam. 19: 
13-16). Thus 
she gained time for David's escape. It 




TERAPHIM. 



seems strange to read of teraphim, images 
of ancestors, preserved for superstitious 
purposes, being in the house of David. 
Probably they had been stealthily brought 
by Michal from her father's house. "Per- 
haps," says Bishop Wordsworth, "Saul,' 
forsaken by God and possessed by the 
evil spirit, had resorted to teraphim 
(as he afterwards resorted to witchcraft); 
and God overruled evil for good, and 
made his very teraphim (by the hand 
of his own daughter) to be an instru- 
ment for David's escape. " — Deane's David, 
p. 32. Josiah attempted to suppress this 
form of idolatry (2 Kings 23 : 24). The ephod 
and teraphim are mentioned together in 
Hos. 3:4. It has been supposed by some 
(Cheyne's Hosea) that the "ephod" here 
mentioned, and also in Judg. 8 : 24-27, was 
not the part of the sacerdotal dress so 
called (Ex. 28 : 6-14), but an image of 
Jehovah overlaid with gold or silver (comp. 
Judg. 17, 18 ; 1 Sam. 21 : 9 ; 23 : 6, 9 ; 30 : 7, 
8), and is thus associated with the tera- 
phim. 

Ter'ebinth (R. V. marg. of Deut. 11 : 30, 
etc.), the Pistacia terehinthus of botanists ; 
a tree very common in the south and east 
of Palestine. (See Oak.) 

Te'resh — severe — a eunuch or chamber- 
lain in the palace of Ahasuerus, who con- 
spired with another to murder him. The 
plot was detected by Mordecai, and the 



TERTIUS 



663 



THEOCRACY 



conspirators were put to death (Esther 2 : 
21; 6:2). 

Ter'tius— i^e third — a Roman Christian 
whom Paul employed as his amanuensis 
in writing his epistle to the Romans (16 : 
22). 

TertuI'lus, a modification of " Tertius ; " 
a Roman advocate, whom the Jews em- 
ployed to state their case against Paul in 
the presence of Eelix (Acts 24 : 1-9). The 
charges he adduced against the apostle 
were — " Eirst, that he created disturbances 
among the Romans throughout the empire 
— an offence against the Roman govern- 
ment {crimen majestatis). Secondly, that 
he was a ringleader of the sect of the 
Nazarenes ; disturbed the Jews in the ex- 
ercise of their religion, guaranteed by the 
state ; introduced new gods — a thing pro- 
hibited by the Romans. And thirdly, that 
he attempted to profane the temple ^ — a 
crime which the Jews were permitted to 
punish. " 

Tes'^tament occurs twelve times in the 
New Testament (Heb. 9:15, etc.) as the 
rendering of the Gr. diatheke, which is 
twenty times rendered "covenant "in the 
Authorized Version, and always so in the 
Revised Version. The Vulgate translates 
incorrectly by testamentum, whence the 
names "Old" and "New Testament," by 
which we now designate the two sections 
into which the Bible is divided. (See 
Bible.) 

Tes'timony. (1.) Witness or evidence 
(2 Thess. 1 : 10). 

(2.) The Scriptures, as the revelation of 
God's will (2 Kings 11 : 12 ; Ps. 19 : 7 ; 119 : 
'88 ; Isa. 8 : 16, 20). 

(3. ) The altar raised by the Gadites and 
Reubenites (Josh. 22 : 10). 

Tes^timony, Tabernacle of, the taber- 
nacle, the great glory of which was that it 
contained " the testimony " — i.e., the " two 
tables " (Ex. 38 : 21). The ark in which 
these tables were deposited was called the 
"ark of the testimony" (40:3), and also 
simply the " testimony " (27 : 21 ; 30 : 6). 

Te''trarch, strictly the ruler over the 
fourth part of a province ; but the word 
denotes a ruler of a province generally 
(Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:1, 19; 9:7; Acts 



13 : 1). Herod and Phasael, the sons of 
Antipater, were the first tetrarchs in Pales- 
tine. Herod the tetrarch had the title of 
king (Matt. 14 : 9). 

Thaddae^us — breast — the name of one 
of the apostles (Mark 3:18), called "Leb- 
bseus " in Matt. 10 : 3, and in Luke 6 : 15, 
16, "Judas the brother of James;" while 
John (14:22), probably referring to the 
same person, speaks of "Judas, not Is- 
cariot." These different names all desig- 
nate the same person — viz., Jude or Judas, 
the author of the epistle. 

Tha^hash — a hadget — a son of Nahor, 
Abraham's brother (Gen. 22 : 24). 

Thar^shish (1 Kings 10 : 22 ; 22 : 48). See 
Tarshish. 

The'atre, only mentioned in Acts 19 : 
29, 31. The ruins of this theatre at Ephesus 
still exist, and they show that it was a 
magnificent structure, capable of accom- 
modating some 56,700 persons. It was the 
largest structure of the kind that ever 
existed. Theatres, as places of amuse- 
ment, were unknown to the Jews. 

The''bez — brightness — a place some 11 
miles north-east of Shechem, on the road to 
Scythopolis, the modern Tdbds. Abimelech 
led his army against this place, because of 
its participation in the conspiracy of the 
men of Shechem ; but as he drew near to 
the strong tower to which its inhabitants 
had fled for safety, and was about to set 
fire to it, a woman cast a fragment of mill- 
stone at him, and "all to brake his skull " 
— i. e. , " altogether brake, "etc. His armour- 
bearer thereupon "thrust him through, and 
he died " ( Judg. 9 : 50-55). 

Theft. Punished by restitution, the pro- 
portions of which are noted in 2 Sam. 12 : 6. 
If the thief could not pay the fine, he was to 
be sold to a Hebrew master till he could 
pay (Ex. 22 : 1-4). A night-thief might be 
smitten till he died, and there would be no 
blood-guiltiness for him (22 : 2). A man- 
stealer was to be put to death (21 : 16). All 
theft is forbidden (Ex. 20 : 15 ; 21 : 16 ; Lev. 
19:11; Deut. 5:19; 24:7; Ps. 50:18; 
Zech. 5:3; Matt. 19:18; Rom. 13:9; 
Eph. 4 : 28 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 15). 

Theoc'racy, a word first used by Josephus 
to denote that the Jews were under the 



THEOPHILUS 



664 



THIEVES 



direct government of God himself. The 
nation was in all things subject to the will 
of their invisible King. All the people 
were the servants of Jehovah, who ruled 
over their public and private affairs, com- 
municating to them his will through the 
medium of the prophets. They were the 
subjects of a heavenly, not of an earthly, 
king. They were Jehovah's own subjects, 
ruled directly by him (comp. 1 Sam. 8 : 
6-9). 

Theophllus— Zorer of God— a. Christian, 
probably a Roman, to whom Luke dedi- 
cated both his Gospel (Luke 1 : 3) and the 
Acts of the Apostles (1 : 1). Nothing be- 
yond this is known of him. From the fact 
that Luke applies to him the title "most 
excellent " — the same title Paul uses in ad- 
dressing Eelix (Acts 23:26; 24:3) and 
Festus (26 : 25) — it has been concluded that 
Theophilus was a person of rank, perhaps a 
Roman officer. 

Thessalo^nians, Epistles to the. The 
first epistle to the Thessalonians was the 
first of all Paul's epistles. It was in all 
probability written from Corinth, where 
he abode a "long time" (Acts 18:11, 18), 
early in the period of his residence there, 
about the end of a.d. 52. 

The occasion of its being written was the 
return of Timotheus from Macedonia, bear- 
ing tidings from Thessalonica regarding the 
state of the church there (Acts 18 : 1-5 ; 
1 Thess. 3 : 6). While, on the whole, the 
report of Timothy was encouraging, it also 
showed that divers errors and misiinder- 
standings regarding the tenor of Paul's 
teaching had crept in amongst them. He 
addresses them in this letter with the view 
of correcting these errors, and especially 
for the purpose of exhorting them to purity 
of life, reminding them that their sanctifica- 
tion was the great end desired by God re- 
garding them. 

The subscription erroneously states that 
this epistle was written from Athens. 

The second epistle to the Thessalonians 
was probably also written from Corinth, 
and not many months after the first. 

The occasion of the writing of this epistle 
was the arrival of tidings that the tenor of 
the first epistle had been misunderstood. 



especially with reference to the second ad- 
vent of Christ. The Thessalonians had 
embraced the idea that Paul had taught 
that "the day of Christ was at hand " — that 
Christ's coming was just about to happen. 
This error is corrected (2 : 1-12), and the 
apostle prophetically announces what first 
must take place. " The apostasy " was first 
to arise. Various explanations of this ex- 
pression have been given, but that which 
is most satisfactory refers it to the Church 
of Rome. 

Thessaloni''ca, a large and populous city 
on the Thermaic bay. It was the capital 
of one of the four Roman districts of Mace- 
donia, and was ruled by a prsetor. It 
was named after Thessalonica, the wife of 
Cassander, who built the city. She was so 
called by her father, Philip, because he first 
heard of her birth on the day of his gaining 
a victory over the Thessalians. On his 
second missionary journey, Paul preached 
in the synagogue here — the chief synagogue 
of the Jews in that part of Macedonia — and 
laid the foundations of a church (Acts 17 : 
1-4 ; 1 Thess. 1 : 9). The violence of the 
Jews drove him from the city, when he fled 
to Berea (Acts 17:5-10). The "rulers of 
the city" before whom the Jews "drew 
Jason," with whom Paul and Silas lodged, 
are in the original called politarchai, an 
unusual word, which was found, however, 
inscribed on an arch in Thessalonica. This 
discovery confirms the accuracy of the his- 
torian. Paul visited the church here on a 
subsequent occasion (20:1-3). This city 
long retained its importance. It is the 
most important town of European Turkey, 
under the name of Saloniki, with a mixed 
population of about 85,000. 

Theu'^das — thanksgiving — referred to by 
Gamaliel in his speech before the council 
at Jerusalem (Acts 5 : 36). He headed an 
insurrection against the Roman authority. 
Beyond this nothing is known of him. 

Thick clay (Hab. 2 : 6) is correctly ren- 
dered in the Revised Version "pledges." 
The Chaldean power is here represented as 
a rapacious usurer, accumulating the wealth 
that belonged to others. 

Thieves, The two (Luke 23 : 32, 39-43), 
robbers, rather brigands, probably followers 



THISTLE 



665 



THORN 



of Barabbas. Our Lord's cross was placed 
between those of the "malefactors," to add 
to the ignominy of his position. According 
to tradition, Demas or Dismas was the 
name of the penitent thief hanging on the 
right, and Gestas of the impenitent on the 
left. 

Thistle. (1. ) Heb. hoah (2 Kings 14 : 9 ; 
Job 31 : 40). In Job 41 ": 2 the Hebrew word 
is rendered "thorn," but in the Revised 
Version "hook." It is also rendered 
"thorn" in 2 Chr. 33:11; Pro v. 26:9; 
Cant. 2:2; " brambles " in Isa. 34 : 13. It 
is supposed to be a variety of the wild plum- 
tree, but by some it is regarded as the 
common thistle, of which there are many 
varieties in Palestine. 

(2. ) Heb. dardar, meaning ' ' a plant grow- 
ing luxuriantly " (Gen. 3 : 18 ; Hos. 10 : 8) ; 
Gr. tribolos, "a triple point " (Matt. 7 : 16 ; 
Heb. 6:8," brier," R.V. "thistle "). This 
was probably the star - thistle, called by 
botanists Centaur ea calcitropa, or "cal- 
trops, " a weed common in corn-fields. (See 
Thorns.) 

Thom'as— iwm— one of the twelve (Matt. 
10:3; Mark 3:18, etc.). He was also 
called Didymus (John 11 : 16 ; 14 : 5), which 
is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew 
name. All we know regarding him is re- 
corded in the fourth Gospel (John 11 : 15, 16 ; 
14 : 4, 5 ; 20 : 24, 25, 26-29). Prom the cir- 
cumstance that in the lists of the apostles 
he is always mentioned along with Matthew, 
who was the son of Alphseus (Mark 3 : 18), 
and that these two are always followed by 
James, who was also the son of Alphaeus, 
it has been supposed that these three — 
Matthew, Thomas, and James — were 
brothers. 

Thorn. (L) Heb. hedek (Prov. 15:19), 
rendered "brier" in Micah 7:4. Some 
thorny plant, oi the Solanumianmily, suitable 
for hedges. This is probably the so-called 
"apple of Sodom, " which grows very abund- 
antly in the Jordan valley. " It is a shrubby 
plant, from 3 to 5 feet high, with very 
branching stems, thickly clad with spines, 
like those of the English brier, with leaves 
very large and woolly on the under side, 
and thorny on the midriff." 

(2.) Heb. kotz (Gen. 3:18; Hos. 10:8), 



rendered akantha by the LXX. In the 
New Testament this word akantha is also 
rendered "thorns" (Matt. 7:16; 13:7; 
Heb. 6 : 8). The word seems to denote any 
thorny or prickly plant ( Jer. 12 : 13). It 
has been identified with the Ononis spinosa 
by some. 

(3.). Heb. na'-atzutz (Isa. 7:19; 55:13). 
This word has been interpreted as denoting 
the Zizyphus spina Christi, or the jujube- 
tree. It is supposed by some that the crown 
of thorns placed in wanton cruelty by the 
Roman soldiers on our Saviour's brow be- 
fore his crucifixion was plaited of branches 
of this tree. It overruns a great part of the 
Jordan valley. It is sometimes caUed the 
lotus-tree. ' ' The thorns are long and sharp 
and recurved, and often create a festering 
wound." It often grows to a great size. 
(See Crown of thorns.) 

(4.) Heb. ^dtdd (Ps. 58:9) is rendered in 
the LXX. and Vulgate by Rhamnus, or 
Lycium Europceum, a thorny shrub, which 
is common all over Palestine. Prom its 
resemblance to the box it is frequently 
called the box-thorn. 

Thorn in the flesh (2 Cor. 12:7-10). 
Many interpretations have been given of 
this passage. (1.) Roman Catholic writers 
think that it denotes suggestions to im- 
piety. 

(2. ) Luther, Calvin, and other Reformers 
interpret the expression as denoting tempta- 
tion to unbelief. 

(3.) Others suppose the expression refers 
to "a pain in the ear or head," epileptic 
fits, or, in general, to some severe physical 
infirmity, which was a hindrance to the 
apostle in his work (comp. 1 Cor. 2:3; 
2 Cor. 10 : 10 ; 11 : 30; Gal. 4 : 13, 14 ; 6 : 17). 
With a great amount of probability, it has 
been alleged that his malady was defect of 
sight, consequent on the dazzling light 
which shone around him at his conversion 
— acute ophthalmia. This would account 
for the statements in Gal. 4:14; 2 Cor. 
10 : 10 ; also Acts 23 : 5, and for his generally 
making use of the help of an amanuensis 
(comp. Rom. 16:22, etc.). 

(4. ) Another view which has been main- 
tained is that this "thorn" consisted in 
an infirmity of temper, to which he occa- 



THOUSANDS 



666 



THYINE 



sionally gave way, and which interfered 
with his success (comp. Acts 15 : 39 ; 23 : 
2-5). If we consider the fact, " which the 
experience of God's saints in all ages has 
conclusively established, of the difficulty of 
subduing an infirmity of temper, as well as 
the pain, remorse, and humiliation such an 
infirmity is wont to cause to those who 
groan under it, we may be inclined to be- 
lieve that not the least probable hypothesis 
concerning the ' thorn ' or ' stake ' in the 
flesh is that the loving heart of the apostle 
bewailed as his sorest trial the misfortune 
that, by impatience in word, he had often 
wounded those for whom he would willingly 
have given his life" (Lias's Second Cor., 
Introd. ). 

Thou^sands (Micah' 5 : 2), another name 
for "families " or "clans " (see Num. 1 : 16 ; 
10:4; Josh. 22:14, 21). Several "thou- 
sands "or " families " made up a "tribe." 

Threshing. See Ageicultuee. 

Thresh 'old. (1.) Heb. miphtdn, prob- 
ably a projecting beam at a higher point 
than the threshold proper (1 Sam. 5:4, 5 ; 
Ezek. 9:3; 10:4, 18; 46:2; 47:1); also 
rendered "door" and "door-post." 

(2.) 'Asupptm, pi. (Neh. 12 : 25), rendered 
correctly "storehouses" in the Revised 
Version. In 1 Chr. 26 : 15, 17 the Author- 
ized Version retains the word as a proper 
name, while in the Revised Version it is 
translated "storehouses." 

Throne (Heb. kiss'tj, a royal chair or 
seat of dignity (Deut.' 17 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 7 : 13 ; 
Ps. 45 : 6) ; an elevated seat with a canopy 
and hangings, which cover it. It denotes 
the seat of the high priest in 1 Sam. 1:9; 
4 : 13, and of a provincial governor in Neh. 
3 : 7 and Ps. 122 : 5. The throne of Solomon 
is described at length in 1 Kings 10 : 18-20. 

Thxixa'xa.ira.— perfection (LXX.," truth; " 
Vulg., " Veritas ")— Ex. 28 : 30; Deut. 33 : 8 ; 
Judg. 1:1; 20:18; 1 Sam. 14 : 3, 18 ; 23:9; 
2 Sam. 21 : 1. What the ' ' Urim and Thum- 
mim " were cannot be determined with any 
certainty. All we certainly know is that 
they were a certain divinely-given means 
by which God imparted, through the high 
priest, direction and counsel to Israel when 
these were needed. The method by which 
this was done can be only a matter of mere 



conjecture. They were apparently material 
objects, quite distinct from the breastplate, 
but something added to it after all the stones 
had been set in it — something in addition 
to the breastplate and its jewels. They 
may have been, as some suppose, two small 
images, like the teraphim (comp. Judg. 
17:5; 18:14, 17, 20; Hos. 3:4), which 
were kept in the bag 6f the breastplate, by 
which, in some unknown way, the high 
priest could give forth his divinely -im- 
parted decision when consulted. They were 
probably lost at the destruction of the 
temple by Nebuchadnezzar. They were 
never seen after the return from captivity. 

Thun'der, often referred to in Scripture 
(Job 40 : 9 ; Ps. 77 : 18 ; 104 : 7). James and 
John were called by our Lord "sons of 
thunder " (Mark 3 : 17). In Job 39 : 19, in- 
stead of "thunder," as in the Authorized 
Version, the Revised Version translates 
{ra'^amah) by "quivering main" (marg., 
"shaking"). Thunder accompanied the 
giving of the law at Sinai (Ex. 19 : 16). It 
was regarded as the voice of God (Job 37 : 2 ; 
Ps. 18 : 13 ; 81 : 7 ; comp. John 12 : 29). In 
answer to Samuel's prayer (1 Sam. 12 : 17, 
18), God sent thunder, and "all the people 
greatly feared," for at such a season (the 
wheat-harvest) thunder and rain were al- 
most unknown in Palestine. 

Thyati^ra, a city of Asia Minor, on the 
borders of Lydia and Mysia. Its modern 
name is AJc-hissar — i.e., "white castle." 
Here was one of the seven churches (Rev. 
1 : 11 ; 2 : 18-26). Lydia, the seller of purple, 
or rather of cloth dyed with this colour, 
was from this city (Acts 16 : 14). It was 
and still is famous for its dyeing. Among 
the ruins, inscriptions have been found re- 
lating to the guild of dyers in that city in 
ancient times. 

Thymine wood, mentioned only in Rev. 
18 : 12 among the articles which would cease 
to be purchased when Babylon fell. It was 
called citrus, citron wood, by the Romans. 
It was the Callitris quadrivalvis of botanists, 
of the cone-bearing order of trees, and of 
the cypress tribe of this order. The name 
of this wood is derived from the Greek 
word thuein, "to sacrifice," and it was so 
called because it was burnt in sacrifices, on 



TIBERIAS 



667 



TIGLATH-PILESER 



account of its fragrance. The wood of this 
tree was reckoned very valuable, and was 
used for making articles of furniture by the 
Greeks and Romans. Like the cedars of 
Lebanon, it is disappearing from the forests 
of Palestine. 

Tibc'rias, a city, the modern Tubarieh, 
on the western shore of the Sea of Tiberias. 
It is said to have been founded by Herod 
Antipas (a.d. 16), on the site of the ruins 
of an older city called Rakkath, and to have 
been thus named by him after the Emperor 
Tiberius. It is mentioned only three times 
in the history of our Lord (John 6:1, 23 ; 
21 : 1). 

In 1837 about one-half of the inhabitants 
perished by an earthquake. The popula- 
tion of the city is now about two thousand, 
nearly the one-half being Jews. "We do 
not read that our Lord ever entered this 
city. The reason of this is probably to be 
found in the fact that it was practically a 
heathen city, though standing upon Jewish 
soil, Herod, its founder, had brought to- 
gether the arts of Greece, the idolatry of 
Rome, and the gross lewdness of Asia. 
There were in it a theatre for the performance 
of comedies, a forum, a stadium, a palace 
roofed with gold in imitation of those in 
Italy, statues of the Roman gods, and busts 
of the deified emperors. He who was not 
sent but to the lost sheep of the house of 
Israel might well hold himself aloof from 
such scenes as these" (Manning's Those 
Holy Fields). 

After the fall of Jerusalem (a.d. 70), Tibe- 
rias became one of the chief residences of the 
Jews in Palestine. It was for more than 
three hundred years their metropolis. From 
about A.D. 150 the Sanhedrin settled here, 
and established rabbinical schools, which 
rose to great celebrity. Here the Jeru- 
salem (or Palestinian) Talmud was compiled 
about the beginning of the fifth century. 
To this same rabbinical school also we are 
indebted for the Masora, a " body of tradi- 
tions which transmitted the readings of the 
Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and 
preserved, by means of the vowel-system, 
the pronunciation of the Hebrew. " In its 
original form, and in all manuscripts, the 
Hebrew is written without vowels ; hence. 



when it ceased to be a spoken language, the 
importance of knowing what vowels to in- 
sert between the consonants. This is 
supplied by the Masora, and hence these 
rowels are called the "Masoretic vowel- 
points. " 

Tiberias, Sea of, called also the Sea of 
Galilee [q.v.) and of Gennesaret. In the 
Old Testament it is called the Sea of Chin- 
nereth or Chinneroth. John (21 : 1) is the 
only evangelist who so designates this lake. 
His doing so incidentally confirms the 
opinion that he wrote after the other evan- 
gelists, and at a period subsequent to the 
taking of Jerusalem (a.d. 70). Tiberias 
had by this time become an important city, 
liaving been spared by the Romans, and 
made the capital of the province when Jeru- 
salem was destroyed. It thus naturally 
gave its name to the lake. 

Tibe'rius Caesar — i.e., as known in Ro- 
man history, Tiberius Claudius Nero — only 
mentioned in Luke 3 : 1. He was the step- 
son of Augustus, whom he succeeded on the 
throne, a.d. 14. He was noted for his 
vicious and infamous life. In the fifteenth 
year of his reign John the Baptist entered 
on his public ministry, and under him also 
our Lord taught and suffered. He died 
A.D. 37. He is frequently referred to sim- 
ply as " Csesar " (Matt. 22 : 17, 21 ; Mark 
12 : 14, 16, 17 ; Luke 20 : 22, 24, 25 ; 23 : 2 ; 
John 19 : 12, 13). 

Tib''ni — building of Jehovah — the son of 
Ginath, a man of some position, whom a 
considerable number of the people chose as 
monarch. For the period of four years he 
contended for the throne with Omri (1 Kings 
16 : 15-23), who at length gained the mas- 
tery, and became sole monarch of Israel. 
Tibni was put to death. 

Ti'dal, one of Chedorlaomer's allies, 
styled the " king of nations " (Gen. 14 : 1-10). 
The probability is that the word rendered 
nations, goyyim, denotes the country called 
Gutium or Kurdistan. 

Tig^lath-Pile'ser I. (not mentioned in 
Scripture) was the most famous of the 
monarchs of the first Assyrian empire 
(about B.C. 1110). After his death, for two 
himdred years the empire fell into decay. 
The history of David and Solomon falls 



TIGLATH-PILESER 



668 



TIMOTHEUS 



within this period. He was succeeded by 
his son, Shalmaneser II. 

Tiglath-Pile''ser III., the Assyrian 
throne-name of Pul {q.v.). He appears in 
the Assyrian records as gaining, in the fifth 
year of his reign (about B.C. 741), a victory 
over Azariah (=:Uzziah in 2 Chr. 26:1), 
king of Judah, whose achievements are 
described in 2 Chr. 26 : 6-15. He is first 
mentioned in Scripture, however, as gain- 
ing a victory over Pekah, king of Israel, 
and Hezin of Damascus, who were con- 
federates. He put Hezin to death, and 
punished Pekah by taking a considerable 
portion of his kingdom, and carrying off 
(B.C. 734) a vast number of its inhabitants 
into captivity (2 Kings 15:29; 16:5-9; 
1 Chr. 5 : 6, 26) — the Heubenites, the Gadites, 
and half the tribe of Manasseh — whom he 
settled in Gozan. In the Assyrian annals 
it is further related that, before he returned 
from Syria, he held a court at Damascus, 
and received submission and tribute from 
the neighbouring kings, among whom were 
Pekah of Samaria and "Yahu-khazi [i.e., 
Ahaz], king of Judah " (comp. 2 Kings 16 : 
10-16). 

He was the founder of what is called " the 
second Assyrian empire, " an empire meant 
to embrace the whole world. This was a 
new idea in history. He died B.C. 727, and 
was succeeded by a general of his army, 
who assumed the 
name of Shalman- 
eser IV. 

Tiinae^us — de- 
filed — the father 
of blind Barti- 
maeus (Mark 10: 
46). 

Tim'brel(Heb. 
toph), a small 
drum or tam- 
bourine; a tabret 
{q.v.). The an- 
tiquity of this mu- 
sical instrument 
appears from the 
scriptural allu- 
sions to it (Gen. 31 : 27 ; Ex. 15 : 20 ; Judg. 
11:34, etc.) (See Music) 
Tim^nah — a portion, (1.) A town of 




TAMBOURINE. 



Judah (Josh. 15 : 10). The Philistines took 
possession of it in the days of Ahaz (2 Chr. 
28 : 18). It was about 20 miles west of 
Jerusalem. It has been identified with 
Timnatha of Dan (Josh. 19 : 43), and also 
with Timnath (Judg. 14 : 1, 5). 

(2.) A city in the mountains of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 57) = Tibna near Jeha\ 

(3.) A "duke" or sheik of Edom (Gen. 
36 : 40). 

Tim'nath— Gen. 38:12, 14. (1.) Heb. 
Timnathah, which is appropriately ren- 
dered in the Revised Version, "To Tim- 
nah," a town in Judah. 

(2.) The town where Samson sojourned, 
probably identical with "Timnah" (1) 
(Judg. 14 : 1-18). 

Tini''nath-he''res — portion of the sun — 
where Joshua was buried (Judg. 2 : 9). It 
was "in the mount of Ephraim, in the 
north side of the hill Gaash," 10 miles 
south-west of Shechem. The same as the 
following. 

Tiin''nath-se^rah — remaining portion — 
the city of Joshua in the hill country of 
Ephraim, the same as Timnath -heres 
(Josh. 19 : 50 ; 24 : 30). ' ' Of all sites I have 
seen," says Lieutenant Conder, "none is 
so striking as that of Joshua's home, sur- 
rounded as it is with deep valleys and wild 
rugged hills." Opposite the town is a hill, 
on the northern side of which there are 
many excavated sepulchres. Among these 
is the supposed tomb of Joshua, which is 
said to be " the most striking monument 
in the country." It is a "square chamber 
with five excavations in three of its sides, 
the central one forming a passage leading 
into a second chamber beyond. A great 
number of lamp-niches cover the walls of 
the porch — upwards of two hundred — ar- 
ranged in vertical rows. A single cavity 
with a niche for a lamp has been thought 
to be the resting-place of the warrior-chief 
of Israel." The modern Kefr Hdris, 10 
miles south-west of Shechem. 

Tim'^nite, a man of Timnah. Samson's 
father-in-law is so styled (Judg. 15 : 6). 

Ti^'mon — honouring — one of the seven 
deacons at Jerusalem (Acts 6 : 5). Nothing 
further is known of him. 

Timo^theus, the Greek form of the 



TIMOTHY 



669 



TINKLING 



name of Timothy (Acts 16 : 1, etc. ; the 
R.V. always "Timothy"). 

Tim'othy — honouring God — a young 
disciple who was Paul's companion in 
many of his joumeyings. His mother, 
Eunice, and his grandmother, Lois, are 
mentioned as eminent for their piety (2 
Tim. 1 : 5). We know nothing of his father 
but that he was a Greek (Acts 16 : 1). He 
is first brought into notice at the time of 
Paiil's second visit to Lystra (16 : 2), 
where he probably resided, and where it 
seems he was converted during Paul's 
first visit to that place (1 Tim, 1:2; 2 
Tim. 3 : 11). The apostle having formed 
a high opinion of his "own son in the 
faith," arranged that he should become his 
companion (Acts 16 : 3), and took and cir- 
cumcised him, so that he might conciliate 
the Jews. He was designated to the office 
of an evangelist (1 Tim. 4 : 14), and went 
with Paul in his journey through Phrygia, 
Galatia, and Mysia; also to Troas and 
Philippi and Berea (Acts 17 : 14). Thence 
he followed Paul to Athens, and was 
sent by him with Silas on a mission to 
Thessalonica (17:15; 1 Thess. 3:2). We 
next find him at Corinth (1 Thess. 1 : 1 ; 2 
Thess. 1:1) with Paul. He passes now 
out of sight for a few years, and is again 
noticed as with the apostle at Ephesus 
(Acts 19 : 22), whence he is sent on a mis- 
sion into Macedonia. He accompanied 
Paul afterwards into Asia (20 : 4), where he 
was with him for some time. When the 
apostle was a prisoner at Rome, Timothy 
joined him (Phil. 1 : 1), where it appears 
he also suffered imprisonment (Heb. 13 : 
23). During the apostle's second imprison- 
ment he wrote to Timothy, asking him to 
rejoin him as soon as possible, and to bring 
with him certain things which he had left 
at Troas — his cloak and parchments (2 
Tim. 4 : 13). 

According to tradition, after the apostle's 
death he settled in Ephesus as his sphere 
of labour, and there found a martyr's 
grave. 

Timothy, First Epistle to. Paul in 
this epistle speaks of himself as having left 
Ephesus for Macedonia (1 : 3), and hence 
not Laodicea, as mentioned in the subscrip- 



tion ; but probably Philippi, or some other 
city in that region, was the place where this 
epistle was written. During the interval 
between his first and second imprisonments 
he probably visited the scenes of his former 
labours in Greece and Asia, and then 
found his way into Macedonia, whence he 
wrote this letter to Timothy, whom he had 
left behind in Ephesus. 

It was probably written about a.d. 66 
or 67. 

The epistle consists mainly — (1) of coun- 
sels to Timothy regarding the worship and 
organization of the Church, and the respon- 
sibilities resting on its several members ; 
and (2) of exhortation to faithfulness in 
maintaining the truth amid surrounding 
errors. 

Timothy, Second Epistle to, was 
probably written a year or so after the 
first, and from Rome, where Paul was for 
a second time a prisoner, and was sent to 
Timothy by the hands of Tychicus. In it he 
entreats Timothy to come to him before 
winter, and to bring Mark with him 
(comp. Phil. 2 : 22). He was anticipating 
that "the time of his departure was at 
hand " (2 Tim. 4 : 6), and he exhorts his 
"son Timothy " to all diligence and stead- 
fastness, and to patience under persecution 
(1 : 6-15), and to a faithful discharge of all 
the duties of his office (4 : 1-5), with all the 
solemnity of one who was about to appear 
before the Judge of quick and dead. 

Tin— Heb. ledtl (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 
22 : 18, 20), a metal well known in ancient 
times. It is the general opinion that the 
Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon obtained 
their supplies of tin from the British Isles. 
In Ezek. 27 : 12 it is said to have been 
brought from Tarshish, which was prob- 
ably a commercial emporium supplied with 
commodities from other places. In Isa. 1 : 
25 the word so rendered is generally under- 
stood of lead, the alloy with which the 
silver had become mixed (ver. 22). The 
fire of the Babylonish Captivity would be 
the means of purging out the idolatrous 
alloy that had corrupted the people. 

Tinkling ornaments (Isa. 3 : 18), ank- 
lets of silver or gold, etc., such as are still 
used by women in Syria and the East. 



TIPHSAH 



670 



TITHE 



Tiph'sah — passing over; ford — one of 
the boundaries of Solomon's dominions (1 
Kings 4:24), probably "Thapsacus, a 
great and wealthy town on the western 
bank of the Euphrates," about 100 miles 
north-east of Tadmor. All the land traffic 
between the east and the west passed 
through it. Menahem undertook an ex- 
pedition against this city, and "smote 
Tiphsah and all that were therein" (2 
Kings 15 : 16). This expedition implied a 
march of some 300 miles from Tirzah if by 
way of Tadmor, and about 400 if by way 
of Aleppo ; and its success showed the 
strength of the Israelite kingdom, for it 
was practically a defiance to Assyria. 
Conder, however, identifies this place with 
Khurhet Tafsah, some 6 miles west of 
Shechem. 

Tiaras, the youngest of the sons of Japheth 
(Gen. 10:2; 1 Chr. 1:5). 

Tires. "To tire" the head is to adorn 
it (2 Kings 9 : 30). As a noun the word is 
derived from "tiara, "and is the rendering 
of the Heb, p'er, a "turban" or an orna- 
ment for the head (Ezek. 24:17; KY., 
"headtire;" 24:23). In Isa. 3:18 the 
word sahdronim is rendered "round tires 
like the moon," and in Judg. 8:21, 26 
"ornaments," but in both cases "cres- 
cents " in the Revised Version. 

Tir'hakah, the last king of Egypt of the 
Ethiopian (the fifteenth) dynasty. He 
was the brother-in-law of So {q.v.). He 
probably ascended the throne about B.C. 
692, having been previously king of Ethio- 
pia (2 Kings 19 : 9 ; Isa. 37 : 9). He was 
contemporary with Hezekiah. He was a 
great warrior, and but little is known of 
him. The Assyrian armies under Esar- 
haddon and again under Assurbanipal in- 
vaded Egypt and defeated Tirhakah, who 
afterwards retired into Ethiopia, where he 
died. 

Tir'shatha, a word probably of Persian 
origin, meaning "severity, "denoting a high 
civil dignity. The Persian governor of 
Judea is so called (Ezra 2 : 63 ; Neh. 7 : 
65, 70). Nehemiah is called by this name 
in Neh. 8:9; 10:1, and the "governor" 
(pehah) in 5 : 18. Probably, therefore, 
tirshatha = pehah = the modern pasha. 



Tir''za — pleasantness. (1.) An old royal 
city of the Canaanites, which was destroyed 
by Joshua (Josh. 12 : 24). Jeroboam chose 
it for his residence, and he removed to it 
from Shechem, which at first he made the 
capital of his kingdom. It remained the 
chief residence of the kings of Israel till 
Omri took Samaria (1 Kings 14 : 17 ; 15 : 21 ; 
16 : 6, 8, etc. ). Here Zimri perished amid 
the flames of the palace to which in his de- 
spair he had set fire (1 Kings 16 : 18), and 
here Menahem smote Shallum (15 : 14, 16). 
Solomon refers to its beauty (Cant. 6 : 4). 
It has been identified with the modem 
mud hamlet Tetasir, 11 miles north of 
Shechem. Others, however, would iden- 
tify it with Telluza, a village about 6 miles 
east of Samaria. 

(2.) The youngest of Zelophehad's five 
daughters (Num. 26 : 33; Josh. 17 : 3). 

Tish'bite. Elijah the prophet was thus 
named (1 Kings 17 : 1 ; 21 : 17, 28, etc. ). In 
1 Kings 17 : 1 the word rendered "inhabit- 
ants " is in the original the same as that 
rendered "Tishbite," hence that verse may 
be read as in the LXX., " Elijah the Tish- 
bite of Tishbi in Gilead." Some interpret 
this word as meaning ' ' stranger, " and read 
the verse, " Elijah the stranger from among 
the strangers in Gilead." This designation 
is probably given to the prophet as denot- 
ing that his birthplace was Tishbi, a place 
in Upper Galilee (mentioned in the apo- 
cryphal^ book of Tobit), from which for 
some reason he migrated into Gilead. 
Josephus, the Jewish historian {Ant. 8 : 13, 
2), however, supposes that Tishbi was 
some place in the land of Gilead. It has 
been identified by some with el-Islitib, a 
place some 22 miles due south of the Sea 
of Galilee, among the mountains of Gilead. 

Tis'ri, the first month of the civil year, 
and the seventh of the ecclesiastical year. 
See Ethanim (1 Kings 8 : 2). Called in the 
Assyrian inscriptions Tasaritu — i.e., "be- 
ginning." 

Tithe, a tenth of the produce of the 
earth consecrated and set apart for special 
purposes. The dedication of a tenth to 
God was recognized as a duty before the 
time of Moses. Abraham paid tithes to 
Melchizedek (Gen. 14 : 20 ; Heb. 7:6); and 



TITTLE 



671 



TITUS 



Jacob vowed unto the Lord and said, "Of 
all that thou shalt give me I will surely 
give the tenth unto thee. " 

The first Mosaic law on this subject is 
recorded in Lev. 27 : 30-32. Subsequent 
legislation regulated the destination of the 
tithes (Num. 18:21-24, 26-28; Deut. 12: 
5, 6, 11, 17; 14:22, 23). The paying of 
the tithes was an imjaortant part of the 
Jewish religious worship. In the days of 
Hezekiah one of the first results of the 
reformation of religion was the eagerness 
with which the people brought in their 
tithes (2 Chr. 31:5, 6). The neglect of 
this duty was sternly rebuked by the pro- 
phets (Amos 4:4; Mai. 3 : 8-10). It can- 
not be affirmed that the Old Testament 
law of tithes is binding on the Christian 
Church, nevertheless the principle of this 
law remains, and is incorporated in the 
gospel (1 Cor. 9 : 13, 14) ; and if, as is the 
case, the motive that ought to prompt to 
liberality in the cause of religion and of the 
service of God be greater now than in Old 
Testament times, then Christians ought to 
go beyond the ancient Hebrew in conse- 
crating both themselves and their sub- 
stance to God. 

Every Jew was required by the Levit- 
ical law to pay three tithes of his property 
— (1) one tithe for the Levites ; (2) one for 
the use of the temple and the great feasts ; 
and (3) one for the poor of the land. 

Tit'tle— apom^— (Matt. 5 : 18; Luke 16 : 
17), the minute point or stroke added to 
some letters of the Hebrew alphabet to dis- 
tinguish them from others which they re- 
semble ; hence, the very least point. 

Ti''tus — honourable — was with Paul and 
Barnabas at Antioch, and accompanied 
them to the council at Jerusalem (Gal. 2 : 
1-3 ; Acts 15 : 1), although his name no- 
where occurs in the Acts of the Apostles. 
He appears to have been a Gentile, and to 
have been chiefly engaged in ministering 
to Gentiles ; for Paul sternly refused to 
have him circumcised, inasmuch as in his 
case the cause of gospel liberty was at 
stake. We find him, at a later period, "with 
Paul and Timothy at Ephesus, whence he 
was sent by Paul to Corinth for the pur- 
pose of getting the contributions of the 



church there in behaK of the poor saints 
at Jerusalem sent forward (2 Cor. 8:6; 
12 : 18). He rejoined the apostle when he 
was in Macedonia, and cheered him with 
the tidings he brought from Corinth (7 : 
6-15). After this his name is not men- 
tioned till after Paul's first imprisonment, 
when we find him engaged in the organi- 
zation of the church in Crete, where the 
apostle had left him for this purpose 
(Titus 1 : 5). The last notice of him is in 
2 Tim. 4 : 10, where we find him with Paul 
at Rome during his second imprisonment. 
From Rome he was sent into Dalmatia, 
no doubt on some important missionary 
errand. We have no record of the time or 
the place of his death. 

Titus, Epistle to, was probably written 
about the same time as the first epistle to 
Timothy, vnih. which it has many affini- 
ties. "Both letters were addressed to 
persons left by the writer to preside in 
their respective churches during his , ab- 
sence. Both letters are principally occu- 
pied in describing the qualifications to be 
sought for in those whom they should ap- 
point to offices in the church; and the 
ingredients of this description are in both 
letters nearly the same. Timothy and 
Titus are likewise cautioned against the 
same prevailing corruptions, and in par- 
ticular against the same misdirection of 
their cares and studies. This affinity ob- 
tains not only in the subject of the letters, 
which from the similarity of situation in 
the persons to whom they were addressed 
might be expected to be somewhat alike, 
but extends in a great variety of instances 
to the phrases and expressions. The writer 
accosts his two friends with the same salu- 
tation, and passes on to the business of his 
letter by the same transition (comp. 1 
Tim. 1 : 2, 3 Avith Titus 1 : 1, 5; 1 Tim. 1 : 
4 Avith Titus 1:13, 14; 3:9; 1 Tim. 4: 
12 with Titus 2:7, 15)." — Paley's Horce 
Paulince. 

The date of its composition may be con- 
cluded from the circumstance that it was 
written after Paul's visit to Crete (Titus 
1:5). That visit could not be the one re- 
ferred to in Acts 27 : 7, when Paul was on 
his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where 



TOB 



672 



TONGUES 



he continued a prisoner for two years. We 
may warrantably suppose that after his re- 
lease Paul sailed from Rome into Asia and 
took Crete by the way, and that there he 
left Titus " to set in order the things that 
were wanting." Thence he went to Ephe- 
sus, where he left Timothy, and from Ephe- 
sus to Macedonia, where he wrote Eirst 
Timothy, and thence to Nicopolis in Epi- 
rus, from which place he wrote to Titus, 
about A.D. 66 or 67. 

In the subscription to the epistle it is 
said to have been written from "Nicopolis 
of Macedonia," but no such place is known. 
The subscriptions to the epistles are of no 
avithority, as they are not authentic. 

Tob, The land of, a district on the east 
of Jordan, about 13 miles south-east of the 
Sea of Galilee, to which Jephthah fled 
from his brethren ( Judg. 11 : 3, 5). It was 
on the northern boundary of Perea, be- 
tween Syria and the land of Amnion (2 Sam. 
10 : 6, 8). Its modern name is Taiyiheh. 

Tob-adoni''jah — good is Jehovah, my 
Lord — a Levite sent out by Jehoshaphat 
to instruct the people of Judah in the law 
(2 Chr. 17 : 8). 

HobVsitL— pleasing to Jehovah — the ' ' serv- 
ant," the "Ammonite," who joined with 
those who opposed the rebuilding of Jeru- 
salem after the Exile (Neh. 2:10). He 
was a man of great influence, which he 
exerted in opposition to the Jews, and 
"sent letters" to Nehemiah "to put him 
in fear" (Neh. 6:17-19). "Eliashib the 
priest " prepared for him during Nehemiah's 
absence "a chamber in the courts of the 
house of God, " which on his return grieved 
Nehemiah sore, and therefore he "cast 
forth all the household stuff of Tobiah out 
of the chamber " (13 : 7, 8). 

Tobi''jah — id. — a Levite sent out through 
Judah by Jehoshaphat to teach the people 
(2 Chr. 17 : 8). 

To'chen — measured — a town of Simeon 
(1 Chr. 4 : 32). 

Togar'mah. (1.) A son of Gomer, and 
grandson of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 3). 

(2. ) A nation which traded in horses and 
mules at the fairs of Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 14 ; 
38 : 6) ; probably an Armenian or a Scy- 
thian race ; descendants of (1). 



To'hu, one of Samuel's ancestors (1 Sam. 
1:1). 

Tc'i, a king of Hamath, who sent ' ' Joram 
his son unto King David to salute him," 
when he "heard that David had smitten 
all the host of Hadadezer " (2 Sam. 8 : 9, 
10). Called Tou (1 Chr. 18 : 9, 10). 

To'la — a scarlet worm. (1.) Eldest son 
of Issachar (Gen. 46 : 13). 

(2. ) A judge of the tribe of Issachar who 
"judged " Israel twenty -three years (Judg. 
10 : 1, 2), when he died, and was buried in 
Shamir. He was succeeded by Jair. 

To^lad — productive — a town of Simeon, 
in the south of Judah (1 Chr. 4 : 29). 

To'laites, descendants of Tola (Num. 
26:23; IChr. 7:1, 2). 

Toll, one of the branches of the king of 
Persia's revenues (Ezra 4 : 13; 7 : 24), prob- 
ably a tax levied from those who used the 
bridges and fords and highways. 

Tombs of the Hebrews were generally 
excavated in the solid rock, or were natural 
caves. Mention is made of such tombs in 
Judg. 8 : 32 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 32 ; 2 Kings 9 : 28 ; 
23:30. They were sometimes made in 
gardens (2 Kings 21 : 26 ; 23 : 16 ; Matt. 28 : 
60). They are found in great numbers in 
and around Jerusalem and all over the 
land. They were sometimes whitewashed 
(Matt. 23 : 27, 29). The body of Jesus was 
laid in Joseph's new rock-hewn tomb, in a 
garden near to Calvary. All evidence is 
in favour of the opinion that this tomb 
was somewhere near the Damascus gate, 
and outside the city, and cannot be iden- 
tified with the so-called "holy sepulchre." 
The mouth of such rocky tombs was 
usually closed by a large stone (Heb. golal), 
which* could only be removed by the 
united efforts of several men (Matt. 28 : 2 ; 
comp. John 11 : 39). (See Sepulchre.) 

Tongues, Confu^sion of, at Babel, the 
cause of the early separation of mankind 
and their division into nations. The de- 
scendants of Noah built a tower to prevent 
their dispersion; but God "confounded 
their language " (Gen. 11 : 1-8), and they 
were scattered over the whole earth. Till 
this time "the whole earth was of one 
language and of one speech." (See 
Shinak.) 



TONGUES 



673 



TORTOISE 



Tongues, Gift of, granted on the day 
of Pentecost (Acts 2:4), in fulfilment of a 
promise Christ had made to his disciples 
(Mark 16:17). What this gift actually 
was has been a subject of much discussion. 
Some have argued that it was merely an 
outward sign of the presence of the Holy 
Spirit among the disciples, typifying his 
manifold gifts, and showing that salvation 
was to be extended to all nations. But 
the words of Luke (Acts 2 : 9) clearly show 
that the various peoples in Jerusalem at 
the time of Pentecost did really hear them- 
selves addressed in their own special lan- 
guage with which they were naturally ac- 
quainted (comp. Joel 2 : 28, 29). 

Among the gifts of the Spirit the apostle 
enumerates in 1 Cor. 12:10-14:30, "di- 
vers kinds of tongues" and the "inter- 
pretation of tongues." This "gift" was a 
different manifestation of the Spirit from 
that on Pentecost, although it resembled 
it in many particulars. Tongues were to 
be "a sign to them that believe not." 

Tooth, one of the particulars regarding 
which retaliatory punishment was to be 
inflicted (Ex. 21:24; Lev. 24:20; Deut. 
19:21). "Gnashing of teeth " = rage, 
despair (Matt. 8 : 12; Acts 7 : 54) ; "clean- 
ness of teeth " = famine (Amos 4:6); " chil- 
dren's teeth set on edge " = children suffer- 
ing for the sins of their fathers (Ezek. 
18:2). 

To'paz — Heb. pitddh (Ezek. 28:13; 
E-ev. 21 : 20) — a golden yellow or " green " 
stone brought from Cush or Ethiopia (Job 
28 : 19). It was the second stone in the 
first row in the breastplate of the high 
priest, and had the name of Simeon in- 
scribed on it (Ex. 28 : 17). It is probably 
the chrysolite of the moderns. 

To''phel — lime — a place in the wilder- 
ness of Sinai (Deut. 1 : 1), now identified 
with Tdfyleh or TUfileh, on the west side 
of the Edomitish mountains. 

To'phet = Topheth — from Heb. toph, 
"a drum," because the cries of children 
here sacrificed by the priests of Moloch 
were drowned by the noise of such an in- 
strument; or from taph or toph, meaning 
"to burn," and hence a, place of burning — 
the name of a particular part in the valley 



of Hinnom. "Fire being the most de- 
structive of all elements, is chosen by the 
sacred writers to symbolize the agency 
by which God punishes or destroys the 
wicked. We are not to assume from pro- 
phetical figures that material fire is the 
precise agent to be used. It was not the 
agency employed in the destruction of 

Sennacherib, mentioned in Isa. 30:33 

Tophet properly begins where the Vale of 
Hinnom bends round to the east, having 
the cliffs of Zion on the north, and the 
Hill of Evil Counsel on the south. It 
terminates at Beer 'Ayub, where it joins 
the Valley of Jehoshaphat. The cliffs on 
the southern side especially abound in 
ancient tombs. Here the dead carcasses 
of beasts and every offal and abomination 
were cast, and left to be either devoured 
by that worm that never died or consumed 
by that fire that was never quenched." 
Thus Tophet came to represent the place of 
punishment. (See Hinnom.) 

Torch'es. On the night of his betrayal, 
when our Lord was in the garden of Geth- 
semane, Judas, "having received a band 
of men and officers from the chief priests 
and Pharisees, cometh thither with lanterns 
and torches and weapons " (John 18 : 1-3). 
Although it was the time of full moon, yet 
in the valley of the Kidron "there fell 
great, deep shadows from the declivity of 
the mountain and projecting rocks ; there 
were there caverns and grottoes, into which 
a fugitive might retreat ; finally, there 
were probably a garden-house and tower, 
into whose gloom it might be necessary for 
a searcher to throw light around " (Lange's 
Com.). 

Tor^ments — Gr. hasdnos (Matt. 4 : 24)— 
the " tovTch-stone " of justice; hence in- 
quisition by torture, and then any disease 
which racks and tortures the limbs. It 
would seem that the keepers of prisons 
were employed to torture criminals (Matt. 
18 : 34). 

Tor'toise (Heb. tsdbh). Ranked among 
the unclean animals (Lev. 11 : 29). Land 
tortoises are common in Syria. The LXX. 
renders the word by " land crocodile." The 
word, however, more probably denotes a 
lizard, called by the modern Arabs dhalh. 

44 



TOW 



674 



TREE 



Tow ( Judg. 16 : 9). See Flax. 

Tow'ers, of Babel (Gen. 11 : 4), Edar 
(Gen. 35 : 21), Penuel (Judg. 8 : 9, 17), She- 
chem (9 : 46), David (Cant. 4 : 4), Lebanon 
(7:4), Syene (Ezek. 29:10), Hananeel 
(Zech. 14 : 10), Siloam (Luke 13 : 4). There 
were several towers in Jerusalem (2 Chr. 
26 : 9 ; Ps. 48 : 12). They were erected for 
various purposes, as watch-towers in vine- 
yards (Isa. 5:2; Matt. 21 : 33) and towers 
for defence. 

Towner of the furnaces (Neh. 3 : 11 ; 
12 : 38), a tower at the north-western angle 
of the second wall of Jerusalem. It was 
probably so named from its contiguity to 
the " bakers' street " (Jer. 37 : 21). 

Trachoni^tis — a rugged region — corre- 
sponds to the Heb. Argob {q.v.), the Greek 
name of a region on the east of Jordan 
(Luke 3:1); one of the five Roman prov- 
inces into which that district was divided. 
It was in the tetrarchy of Philip, and is 
now called the Lejah. 

Tradi^tion, any kind of teaching, written 
or spoken, handed down from generation to 
generation. In Mark 7 : 3, 9, 13, Col. 2 : 8, 
this word refers to the arbitrary interpreta- 
tions of the Jews. In 2 Thess. 2 : 15 ; 3:6, 
it is used in a good sense. Peter (1 Pet. 
1 : 18) uses this word with reference to the 
degenerate Judaism of the ' ' strangers scat- 
tered" whom he addresses (comp. Acts 
15 : 10 ; Matt. 15 : 2-6 ; Gal. 1 : 14). 

Trance (Gr. ekstdsis, from which the 
word "ecstasy" is derived) denotes the 
state of one who is ' ' out of himself. " Such 
were the trances of Peter and Paxil — Acts 
10 : 11 ; 11 : 5 ; 22 : 17 — ecstasies, " a preter- 
natural, absorbed state of mind preparing 
for the reception of the vision" — comj). 2 
Cor. 12 : 1-4). In Mark 5 : 42 and Luke 
5: 26 the Greek word is rendered "astonish- 
ment," "amazement " (comp. Mark 16 : 8 ; 
Acts 3 : 10). 

Transfigura^tion, the, of our Lord on 
a "high mountain apart," is described by 
each of the three evangelists (Matt. 17:1-8; 
Mark 9: 2-8; Luke 9 : 28-36). The fullest 
account is given by Luke, who, no doubt, 
was informed by Peter, who was present 
on the occasion. What these evangelists 
record was an absolute historical reality. 



and not a mere vision. The concurrence 
between them in all the circumstances of 
the incident is exact. John seems to allude 
to it also (John 1 : 14). Eorty years after 
the event Peter distinctly makes mention 
of it (2 Pet. 1 : 16-18). In describing the 
sanctification of believers, Paul also seems 
to allude to this majestic and glorious ap- 
pearance of our Lord on the "holy mount " 
(Rom. 12 : 2 ; 2 Cor. 3 : 18). 

The place of the transfiguration was prob- 
ably Mount Hermon {q.v.), and not Mount 
Tabor, as is commonly supposed. 

Treas'ure cities, store cities which the 
Israelites built for the Egyptians (Ex. 1: 
11). (See PiTHOM.) Towns in which the 
treasures of the kings of Judah were kept 
were so designated (1 Chr. 27 : 25). 

Treas^ure houses, the houses or maga- 
zines built for the safe keeping of treasure 
and valuable articles of any kind (Ezra 5 : 
17 ; 7 : 20 ; Neh. 10 : 38 ; Dan. 1 : 2). 

Treas'ury (Matt. 27 : 6 ; Mark 12 : 41 ; 
John 8 : 20). It does not appear that there 
was a separate building so called. The 
name was given to the thirteen brazen 
chests, called "trumpets," from the form 
of the opening into which the offerings of 
the temple worshii)pers were put. These 
stood in the outer "court of the women." 
' ' Nine chests were for the appointed money- 
tribute and for the sacrifice - tribute — i.e., 
money-gifts instead of the sacrifices ; four 
chests for freewill-offerings for wood, in- 
cense, temple decoration, and btimt- offer- 
ings " (Lightfoot's Hor. Heb.). 

Tree of the knowledge of good and 
evil, stood in the midst of the garden of 
Eden, beside the tree of life (Gen. 2, 3). 
Adam and Eve were forbidden to take of 
the fruit which grew upon it. But they 
disobeyed the divine injunction, and so sin 
and death by sin entered our world and 
became the heritage of Adam's posterity. 
(See Adam.) 

Tree of life, stood also in the midst of 
the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:9; 3:22). 
Some writers have advanced the opinion 
that this tree had some secret virtue, Avhich 
was fitted to preserve life. Probably the 
lesson conveyed was that life was to be 
sought by man, not in himself or in his own 



TRESPASS 



675 



TROPHIMUS 



power, but from without, from Him who is 
emphatically the Life (John 1:4; 14 : 6). 
Wisdom is compared to the tree of life 
(Prov. 3 : 18). The " tree of life " spoken 
of in the Book of Revelation (Rev. 2:7; 
22 : 2, 14) is an emblem of the joys of the 
celestial paradise. 

Tresspass offering (Heb. 'dshdm, 
"debt"), the law concerning, given in Lev. 
5 : 14-6 : 7 ; also in Xum. 5 : 5-8. The idea 
of sin as a "debt" pervades this legisla- 
tion. The 'dshdvi, which was always a 
ram, was offered in cases where sins were 
more private. (See Offering.) 

Tribe, a collection of families descending 
from one ancestor. The ' ' twelve tribes " 
of the Hebrews were the twelve collections 
of families which sprang from the sons of 
Jacob. In Matt. 24 : 30 the word has a 
\vider significance. The tribes of Israel 
are referred to as types of the spiritual 
family of God (Rev. 7). (See Kingdom of 
Israel ; of Judah. ) 

Tritoula'tion, trouble or affliction of any 
kind (Deut. 4 : 30 ; Matt. 13 : 21 ; 2 Cor. 
7:4). In Rom. 2:9 "tribulation and 
anguish " are the penal sufferings that shall 
overtake the wicked. In Matt. 24 : 21, 29, 
the word denotes the calamities that were 
to attend the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Trib''ute, a tax imposed by a king on his 
subjects (2 Sam. 20:24; 1 Kings 4:6; 
Rom. 13 : 6). 

In Matt. 17 : 24-27 the word denotes the 
temple rate (the "didrachma," the "half- 
shekel," as rendered by the R.V.) which 
was required to be paid for the supf)ort of 
the temple by every Jew above twenty 
years of age (Ex. 30 : 12 ; 2 Kings 12 : 4 ; 
2 Chr. 24 : 6, 9). It was not a civil but a 
religious tax. 

In Matt. 22:17, Mark 12:14, Luke 
20 : 22, the word may be interpreted as de- 
noting the capitation tax which the Romans 
imposed on the Jewish people. It may, how- 
ever, be legitimately regarded as denoting 
any tax whatever imposed by a foreign 
power on the people of Israel. The " tribute 
money " shown to our Lord (Matt. 22 : 19) 
was the denarius, bearing Ceesar's super- 
scription. It was the tax paid by every 
Jew to the Romans. (See Penny.) 



Trin''ity, a word not found in Scripture, 
but used to express the doctrine of the 
unity of God as subsisting in three distinct 
Persons. This word is derived from the 
Gr. trias, first used by Theophilus (A.D. 
168-183), or from the Lat. trinitas, first 
used by Tertullian (a.d. 220), to express this 
doctrine. 

The propositions involved in the doctrine 
are these : — 1. That God is one, and that 
there is but one God (Deut. 6 : 4 ; 1 Kings 
8:60; Isa. 44:6; Mark 12:29, 32; John 
10:30). 2. That the Father is a distinct 
divine Person {hypostasis, subsistentia, per- 
sona, suppositum intellectuale) — distinct 
from the Son and the Holy Spirit. 3. That 
Jesus Christ was truly God, and yet was a 
Person distinct from the Father and the 
Holy Spirit. 4. That the Holy Spirit is 
also a distinct divine Person. 

Tro'as, a city on the coast of Mj'-sia, in 
the north-west of Asia Minor, named after 
ancient Troy, which was at some little 
distance from it (about 4 miles) to the 
north. Here Paul, on his second mission- 
ary journey, saw the vision of a "man of 
Macedonia," who appeared to him, saying, 
" Come over, and help us " (Acts 16 : 8-11). 
He visited this place also on other occa- 
sions, and on one of these visits he left his 
cloak and some books there (2 Cor. 2 : 12 ; 
2 Tim. 4 : 13). The ruins of Troas extend 
over many miles, the site being now mostly 
covered with a forest of oak trees. The 
modern name of the ruins is Eski Stamhoul 
— i. e. , Old Constantinople. . . - 

Trogyllium, a town on the Avestern 
coast of Asia Minor, where Paul " tarried '" 
when on his way from Assos to Miletus, on 
his third missionary journey (Acts 20 : 5). 

Troph'imus— a foster-child— im Ephe- 
sian who accompanied Paul during a part 
of his third missionary journey (Acts 20 : 4 ; 
21 : 29). He was with Paul in Jerusalem, 
and the Jews, supposing that the apostle 
had brought him with him into the temple, 
raised a tumult which resulted in Paul's 
imprisonment. (See Temple, Herod's.) 
In writing to Timothy, the apostle says, 
"Trophimus have I left at Miletum sick " 
(2 Tim. 4 : 20). This must refer to ■ some 
event not noticed- in the Acts. ' ' 



TRUMPETS 



676 



TYPE 



Trum'pets were of a great variety of 
forms, and were made of divers materials. 
Some were made of silver (Num. 10 : 2), and 
were used only by the priests in announcing 
the approach of festivals and in giving 
signals of war. Some were also made of 
rams' horns (Josh. 6 : 8). They were blown 
at special festivals, and to herald the arrival 
of special seasons (Lev. 23 : 24 ; 25 : 9 ; 1 Chr. 
15 : 24 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 27 ; Ps. 81 : 3 ; 98 : 6). 

"Trumpets " are among the symbols used 
in the Book of Revelation (Rev. 1 : 10 ; 
8:2). (See Horn.) 

Trumpets, Feast of, was celebrated at 
the beginning of the month Tisri, the first 
month of the civil year. It received its 
name from the circumstance that the trum- 
pets usually blown at the commencement of 
each month were on that occasion blown with 
unusual solemnity (Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Num. 
10 : 10 ; 29 : 1-6). It was one of the seven 
days of holy convocation. The special de- 
sign of this feast, which is described in 
these verses, is not known. 

Truth. Used in various senses in Scrip- 
ture. In Prov. 12 : 17, 19, it denotes that 
which is opposed to falsehood. In Isa. 
59 : 14, 15, Jer. 7 : 28, it means fidelity or 
truthfulness. The doctrine of Christ is 
called " the truth of the gospel " (Gal. 2 : 5), 
" the truth " (2 Tim. 3 : 7 ; 4 : 4). Our Lord 
says of himself, "I am the way, and the 
truth "(John 14: 6). 

Tryphe''na and Tryphc'sa, two female 
Christians, active workers, whom Paul 
salutes in his epistle to the Romans (16 : 12). 

Tu^bal. (1.) The fifth son of Japheth 
(Gen. 10 : 2). 

(2.) A nation, probably descended from 
the son of Japheth. It is mentioned by 
Isaiah (66 : 19), along with Javan, and by 
Ezekiel (27 : 13), along with Meshech, among 
the traders with Tyre, also among the con- 
federates of Gog (Ezek. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 1), and 
with Meshech among the nations which 
were to be destroyed (32 : 26). This nation 
was probably the Tiberini of the Greek his- 
torian Herodotus, a people of the Asiatic 
highland west of the Upper Euphrates, the 
southern range of the Caucasus, on the east 
of the Black Sea. 

Tu''bal-cain, the son of Lamech and 



Zillah, ' ' an instructor of every artificer in 
brass and iron" (Gen. 4:22; R.V., "the 
forger of every cutting instrument of brass 
and iron "). 

Tur'tle, Turtle-dove. Its peculiar 
peaceful and gentle habit is often referred to 
in Scripture. A pair was offered in sacrifice 
by Mary at her purification (Luke 2 : 24). 
The pigeon and the turtle-dove were the 
only birds permitted to be offered in sacri- 
fice (Lev. 1:14; 5:7; 14:22; 15:14, 29, 
etc.). The Latin name of this bird, turtur, 
is derived from its note, and is a repetition 
of the Hebrew name tor. Three species 
are found in Palestine — (1) the turtle-dove 
{Turtur auritus), (2) the collared turtle 
(T. risorius), and (3) the palm turtle {T. 
Senegalensis). But it is to the first of these 
species which the various passages of Scrip- 
ture refer. It is a migratory bird (Jer. 
8:7; Cant. 2 : 11, 12). " Search the glades 
and valleys, even by sultry Jordan, at the 
end of March, and not a turtle-dove is to 
be seen. Return in the second week of 
April, and clouds of doves are feeding on 
the clovers of the plain. They stock every 

tree and thicket They overspread the 

whole face of the land." "Immediately 
on its arrival it pours forth from every 
garden, grove, and wooded hill its melan- 
choly yet soothing ditty unceasingly from 
early dawn till sunset. It is from its 
plaintive and continuous note, doubtless, 
that David, pouring forth his heart's sor- 
row to God, compares himself to a turtle- 
dove " (Ps. 74 : 19). 

Tych^icus — chance — an Asiatic Chris- 
tian, a ' ' faithful minister in the Lord " (Eph. 
6 : 21, 22), who, with Trophimus, accom- 
panied Paul on a part of his journey from 
Macedonia to Jerusalem (Acts 20 : 4). He 
is alluded to also in Col. 4 : 7, Titus 3 : 12, 
and 2 Tim. 4 : 12 as having been with Paul 
at Rome, whence he sent him to Ephesus, 
probably for the purpose of building up 
and encouraging the church there. 

Type occurs only once in Scripture (1 Cor. 
10 : 11, A. V. marg. ). The Greek word tupos 
is rendered "print" (John 20:25), "fig- 
ure" (Acts 7:43; Rom. 5:14), "fashion" 
(Acts 7:44), "manner" (Acts 23:25), 
" form " (Rom. 6 : 17), " example " or " en- 



TYRANNUS 



677 



TYRE 



sample" (1 Cor. 10:6, 11; Phil. 3:17; 
1 Thess. 1 : 7 ; 2 Thess. 3 : 9 ; 1 Tim. 4 : 12). 
It properly means a "model " or " pattern " 
or "mould" into which clay or wax was 
pressed, so that it might take the figure or 
exact shape of the mould. The word type 
is generally used to denote a resemblance 
between something present and something 
future, which is called the "antitype." 

Tyran'nus— jormce— a Greek rhetorician, 
in whose "school" at Ephesus Paul dis- 
puted daily for the space of two years with 
those who came to him (Acts 19 : 9). Some 
have supposed that he was a Jew, and that 
his " school " was a private synagogue. 

Tyre — a rock — now es-SUr; an ancient 
Phoenician city, about 23 miles, in a direct 
line, north of Acre, and 20 south of Sidon. 
It was a vast commercial emporium, main- 
taining commercial relations with almost 
all lands — ' ' the crowning city, whose mer- 
chants are princes, and whose traffickers are 
the honourable of the earth. " Sidon was 
the oldest Phoenician city, but Tyre had a 
longer and more illustrious history. The 
commerce of the whole world was gathered 
into the warehouses of Tyre. " Tyrian mer- 
chants were the first who ventured to navi- 
gate the Mediterranean waters ; and they 
founded their colonies on the coasts and 
neighbouring islands of the ^gean Sea, in 
Greece, on the northern coast of Africa, at 
Carthage and other places, in Sicily and 
Corsica, in Spain at Tartessus, and even be- 
yond the pillars of Hercules at Gadeira 
(Cadiz). The Phoenicians exerted an import- 
ant influence upon the early development 
of Greece by acting as a channel of civiliza- 
tion and art, and the nations of Europe are 
indebted to them for their knowledge of that 
greatest of all inventions— the alphabet " 
(Driver's Isaiah), In the time of David a 
friendly alliance was entered into between 
the Hebrews and the Tyrians, who were 
long ruled over by their native kings (2 Sam. 
5 : 11 ; 1 Kings 5 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 3). 

Tyre consisted of two distinct parts — a 
rocky fortress on the mainland, called 
" Old Tyre," and the city, built on a small 
rocky island about half-a-mile distant from 
the shore. It was a place of great strength. 
It was besieged by Shalmaneser, who was 



assisted by the Phoenicians of the main- 
land for five years, and by Nebuchadnezzar 
(B.C. 586-573) for thirteen years, apparently 
without success. It afterwards fell under 
the power of Alexander the Great, after a 
siege of seven months, but continued to 
maintain much of its commercial import- 
ance till the Christian era. It is referred 
to in Matt. 11:21 and Acts 12:20. In 
A.D. 1291 it was taken by the Saracens, 
and has remained a desolate ruin ever 
since. 

"The purple dye of Tyre had a world- 
wide celebrity on account pf the durability 
of its beautiful tints, and its manufacture 
proved a source of abundant wealth to the 
inhabitants of that city. " 

Both Tyre and Sidon "were crowded 
with glass-shops, dyeing and weaving estab- 
lishments ; and among their cunning work- 
men not the least important class were those 
who were celebrated for the engraving of 
precious stones." (2 Chr. 2 : 7, 14.) 

The wickedness and idolatry of this city 
are frequently denounced by the prophets, 
and its final destruction predicted (Isa. 
23 : 1 ; Jer. 25 : 22 ; Ezek. 26 : 2-4 ; 27 : 2 ; 
28 : 2 ; Amos 1 : 9, 10 ; Zech. 9 : 2-4). After 
passing through many vicissitudes, it is 
now only "a cluster of miserable huts, in- 
habited by about 3,500 impoverished Meta- 
welies and Arab Christians, destitute alike 
of education, of arts, and of enterprise, 
carrying on with Egypt a small trade in 
tobacco from the neighbouring hills, and in 
lava millstones from the Hauran." The 
harbour is almost wholly filled up with the 
wreck of the ancient city, which also covers 
the ground for a distance of about 2 miles 
beyond the present town. The soil is 
almost a " mass of ruins " of building stones, 
shafts of pillars, and fragments of marble 
for many feet below the surface. 

Here a church was founded soon after 
the death of Stephen, and Paul, on his 
return from his third missionary journey, 
spent a week in intercourse with the dis- 
ciples there (Acts 21 : 4). Here the scene 
at Miletus was repeated on his leaving 
them. They all, with their wives and 
children, accompanied him to the sea-shore. 
The sea-voyage of the apostle terminated 



Ijlpiwij^^ 

"' ' ' '' 'ill iiii' 




TYROPCEOX 



679 



UR 



at Ptolemais, about 38 miles from Tyre. 
Thence he proceeded on foot to Cassarea 
(Acts 21: 5-8). 

Tyropoe'on Valley {i.e./' Valley of the 
Cheesemongers"), the name given by Jose- 
phus the historian to the valley or rugged 
ravine which in ancient times separated 
Mount Moriah from Mount Zion. This 
valley, now filled up ^vith a vast accumula- 
tion of rubbish, and almost a plain, was 
spanned by bridges, the most noted of which 
was Zion Bridge, which was probably the 
ordinary means of communication between 
the royal palace on Zion and the temple. 
A fragment of the arch {q.v.) of this bridge 



(called "Robinson's Arch"), where it pro- 
jects from the sanctuary wall, was dis- 
covered by Robinson in 1839. This arch 
was destroj^ed by the Romans when Jeru- 
salem was taken. 

The western wall of the temple area rose 
u}) from the bottom of this valley to the 
height of 84 feet, where it was on a level 
with the area, and above this, and as a con- 
tinuance of it, the wall of Solomon's cloister 
rose to the height of about 50 feet, " so that 
this section of the wall would originally 
present to view a stupendous mass of ma- 
sonry, scarcely to be surpassed by any mural 
masonry in the world." 



u 



U'cal, the name of a person to whom 
Agur's words are addressed (Prov. 30 : 1). 

U'lai, the Eidceus of the Greeks ; a river 
of Susiana. It was probably the eastern 
branch of the Choasper {Kcrkhan), which 
divided into two branches some 20 miles 
above the city of Susa. Hence Daniel 
(8 : 2, 16) speaks of standing "between the 
banks of Ulai " — i.e., between the two 
streams of the divided river. 

Um'mali — vicinity — a town of Asher 
(Josh. 19 : 30). 

Unc'tion (1 John 2 : 20, 27; R. V., ' ' anoint- 
ing"). Kings, prophets, and priests were 
anointed, in token of receiving divine grace. 
All beUevers are, in a secondary sense, what 
Christ was in a primary sense, " the Lord's 
anointed. " 

U''nicorn, described as an animal of great 
ferocity and strength (Num. 23 : 22 ; 24 : 8 ; 
Isa. 34 : 7), and untamable (Job 39 : 9). It 
was in reality a two -horned animal; but 
the exact reference of the word so rendered 
{reem) is doubtful. Some have supposed 
it to be the buffalo ; others, the white ante- 
lope, called by the Arabs ri'm. Most prob- 
ably, however, the word denotes the Bos 
primigenius ("primitive ox "), which is now 
extinct all over the world. This was the 
auerochs of the Germans, and the wrws de- 
scribed by Caesar {Gal. Bel., vi. 28) as in- 



habiting the Hercv-nian forest. The word 
thus rendered has been found in an Assyrian 
inscription "written over the wild ox or 
bison, which some also suppose to be the 
animal intended (comp. Deut. 33 : 17 ; Ps. 
22 : 21 ; 29 : 6 ; 92 : 10). 

Vn^ni— afflicted. (1.) A Levite whom 
David appointed to take part in bringing 
the ark up to Jerusalem from the house of 
Obed-edom by playing the psaltery on that 
occasion (1 Chr. 15 : 18, 19). 

(2.) A Levite who returned with Zerub- 
babel from the Captivity (Neh. 12 : 9). 

Uphar'sin — and they divide — one of the 
words written by the mysterious hand on 
the wall of Belshazzar's palace (Dan. 5 : 25). 
It is a pure Chaldean word. "Peres" is 
only a simple form of the same word. 

U'phaz, probably another name for 
Ophir ( Jer. 10 : 9). Some, however, re- 
gard it as the name of an Indian colony in 
Yemen, southern Arabia ; others as a place 
on or near the river Hyphasis (now the 
Ghana), the south-eastern limit of the 
Punjaub. 

Ur — light, or the moon city — a city "of 
the Chaldees," the birthplace of Haran 
(Gen. 11 : 28, 31), the largest city of Shinar 
or northern Chaldea, and the principal 
commercial centre of the country as well 
as the centre of political power. It stood 



URBANE 



680 



UZZAH 



near the mouth of the Euphrates, on its 
western bank, and is represented by the 
mounds (of bricks cemented by bitumen) 
of Mugheir — i.e., "the bitumined," or 
"the town of bitumen," now 150 miles 
from the sea and some 6 miles from the 
Euphrates, a little above the point where 
it receives the Shat el-Hie, an affluent from 
the Tigris. It was formerly a maritime 
city, as the waters of the Persian Gulf 
reached thus far inland. Ur was the port 
of Babylonia, whence trade was carried on 
with the dwellers on the gulf, and with the 
distant countries of India, Ethiopia, and 
Egyj)t. It was abandoned about B.C. 500, 
but long continued, like Erech, to be a 
great sacred cemetery city, as is evident 
from the number of tombs found there. 
(See Abeaham. ) 

Urtoa^ne — polite — a Roman Christian to 
whom Paul sends salutation. He speaks 
of him as his "helper in Christ" (Rom. 
16 : 9). 

U^'ri — enlightened; fiery. (1.) The father 
of Bezaleel (Ex. 31 : 2), who, with Aholiab, 
directed the erection of the tabernacle, 

(2.) The father of Geber (1 Kings 4: 
19). 

(3.) A Levite porter (Ezra 10 : 24). 

Vr\'sih.—the Lord is my light. (1.) A 
Hittite, the husband of Bathsheba, whom 
David first seduced, and then after Uriah's 
death married. He was one of the band 
of David's "mighty men." The sad story 
of the cruel wrongs inflicted upon him by 
David and of his mournful death are simply 
told in the sacred record (2 Sam. 11 : 2-12 : 
26). (See Bathsheba ; David. ) 

(2.) A priest of the house of Ahaz (Isa. 
8:2). 

(3. ) The father of Meremoth, mentioned 
in Ezra 8 : 33. 

U''riel — God is my light. (1.) A Levite 
of the family of Kohath (1 Chr. 6 : 24). 

(2.) The chief of the Kohathites at the 
time when the ark was brought up to Jeru- 
salem (1 Chr. 15 : 5, 11). 

(3.) The father of Michaiah, one of Re- 
hoboam's wives, and mother of Abijah (2 
Chr. 13 : 2). 

Uri'jah — the Lord is my light. (1.) A 
high priest in the time of Ahaz (2 Kings 



16 : 10-16), at whose bidding he constructed 
an idolatrous altar like one the king had 
seen at Damascus. 

(2.) One of the priests who stood at the 
right hand of Ezra's pulpit when he read 
and expounded the law (Neh. 8 : 4). 

(3.) A prophet of Kirjath-jearim in the 
reign of Jehoiakim, king of Judah ( Jer. 26 : 
20-23). He fled into Egypt from the 
cruelty of the king, but having been 
brought back, he was beheaded and his 
body was "cast into the graves of the 
common people. " 

WriTCL— lights — (Vulg. doctrina). See 
Thummim. 

U'sury, the sum paid for the use of 
money, hence interest ; not, as in the mo- 
dern sense, exorbitant interest. The Jews 
were forbidden to exact usury (Lev. 25 : 
36, 37), only, however, in their dealings 
with each other (Deut. 23 : 19, 20). The 
violation of this law was viewed as a great 
crime (Ps. 15 : 5 ; Prov. 28 : 8 ; Jer. 15 : 10). 
After the Return, and later, this law was 
much neglected (Neh. 5 : 7, 10). 

Uz — fertile land. (1.) The son of Aram, 
and grandson of Shem (Gen. 10 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 17). 

(2.) One of the Horite "dukes" in the 
land of Edom (Gen. 36 : 28). 

(3. ) The eldest son of Nahor, Abraham's 
brother (Gen. 22:21, R.V.). 

Uz, The land of, where Job lived (1:1; 
Jer. 25 : 20 ; Lam. 4 : 21), probably some- 
where to the east or south-east of Palestine 
and north of Edom. It is mentioned in 
Scripture only in these three passages. 

U''zal — a loanderer — a descendant of 
Joktan (Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21), the 
founder apparently of one of the Arab 
tribes ; the name also probably of the prov- 
ince they occupied and of their chief city. 

Uz^za — strength — a garden in which 
Manasseh and Amon were buried (2 Kings 
21 : 18, 26). It was probably near the 
king's palace in Jerusalem, or may have 
formed part of the palace grounds. Man- 
asseh may probably have acquired it from 
some one of this name. 

Uz^zah — strength — a son of Abinadab, 
in whose house the men of Kirjath-jearim 
placed the ark when it was brought back 



UZZEN-SHERAH 



681 



UZZIEL 



from the land of the Philistines (1 Sam. 7 : 1). 
He with his brother Ahio drove the cart 
on which the ark was placed M^hen David 
sought to bring it up to Jerusalem, When 
the oxen stumbled, Uzzah, in direct viola- 
tion of the divine law (Num. 4:15), put 
forth his hand to steady the ark, and was 
immediately smitten unto death. The 
place where this occurred was henceforth 
called Perez-uzzah (1 Chr. 13 : 11). David 
on this feared to proceed further, and 
placed the ark in the house of Obed-edom 
the Gittite (2 Sam. 6:2-11; 1 Chr. 13:6- 
13). 

Uz'zen-she'rah, a town probably near 
Beth-horon. It derived its name from the 
daughter of Ephraim (1 Chr. 7 : 24). 

Uz'zi — the Lord is my strength. (1.) The 
son of Bukki, and a descendant of Aaron 
(1 Chr. 6 : 5, 51 ; Ezra 7 : 4). 

(2. ) A grandson of Issachar (1 Chr. 7 : 2, 
3). 

(3. ) A son of Bela, and grandson of Ben- 
jamin (1 Chr. 7 : 7). 

(4.) A Benjamite, a chief in the tribe 
(1 Chr. 9 : 8). 

(5.) A son of Bani. He had the over- 
sight of the Levites after the return from 
captivity (Neh. 11 : 22). 

(6.) The head of the house of Jedaiah, 
one of " the chief of the priests " (Neh. 12 : 
19). 

(7.) A priest who assisted in the dedica- 
tion of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12 : 42). 

Uzzi^ah, a contracted form of Azari''ah 
—the Lord is m,y strength. (1.) One of 
Amaziah's sons, whom the people made 
king of Judah in his father's stead (2 
Kings 14:21; 2 Chr. 26:1). His long 
reign of about fifty -two years was "the 
most prosperous excepting that of Jeho- 
shaphat since the time of Solomon." 
He was a vigorous and able ruler, and 
"his name spread far abroad, even to the 
entering in of Egypt " (2 Chr. 26 : 8, 14). 
In the earlier part of his reign, under the 



influence of Zechariah, he was faithful to 
Jehovah, and "did that which was right 
in the sight of the Lord " (2 Kings 15 : 3 ; 
2 Chr. 26 : 4, 5) ; but toward the close of 
his long life "his heart was lifted up to 
his destruction," and he wantonly invaded 
the priest's office (2 Chr. 26 : 16), and enter- 
ing the sanctuary proceeded to offer in- 
cense on the golden altar. Azariah the 
high priest saw the tendency of such a 
daring act on the part of the king, and 
with a band of eighty priests he withstood 
him (2 Chr. 26:17), saying, "It apper- 
taineth not to thee, Uzziah, to burn in- 
cense. " Uzziah was suddenly struck with 
leprosy while in the act of offering in- 
cense (26 : 19-21), and he was driven from 
the temple and compelled to reside in " a 
several house " to the day of his death (2 
Kings 15:5, 27; 2 Chr. 26:3). He was 
buried in a separate grave "in the field of 
the burial which belonged to the kings " 
(2 Kings 15 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 23). " That lonely 
grave in the royal necropolis would elo- 
quently testify to coming generations that 
all earthly monarchy must bow before the 
inviolable order of the divine will, and 
that no interference could be tolerated 
with that unfolding of the purposes of 
God, which, in the fulness of time, would 
reveal the Christ, the true High Priest and 
King for evermore " (Dr. Green's Kingdom 
of Israel, etc.). 

(2.) The father of Jehonathan, one of 
David's overseers (1 Chr. 27 : 25). 

Uz^ziel — strength of Ood. (1.) One of 
the sons of Kohath, and uncle of Aaron 
(Ex. 6:18; Lev. 10:4). 

(2. ) A Simeonite captain (1 Chr. 4 : 39- 
43). 

(3.) A son of Bela, and grandson of Ben- 
jamin (1 Chr. 7 : 7). 

(4.) One of the sons of Heman (1 Chi% 
25 : 4) ; called also Azareel (18). 

(5.) A son of Jeduthan (2 Chr. 29 : 14). 

(6.) The son of Harhaiah (Neh. 3 : 8). 



VAGABOND 



682 



VEIL 



Vag'a'bond, from Lat. vagabundus, "a 
wanderer," "a fugitive ;" not used opi^ro- 
briously (Gen. 4:12, R.V., "wanderer;" 
Ps. 109:10; Acts 19:13, R.V., "stroll- 
ing"). 

Vajez'atha — purity; ivorthy of honour 
— one of Heman's sons, whom the Jews 
slew in the palace of Shushan (Esther 9 : 9). 

Variey. (1.) Heb. bik'ah, a "cleft" of 
the mountains (Deut. 8:7; 11 : 11 ; Ps. 104 : 
8 ; Isa. 41 : 18) ; also a low plain bounded 
by mountains, as the plain of Lebanon at 
the foot of Hermon around the sources of 
the Jordan (Josh. 11 : 17 ; 12 : 7), and the 
valley of Megiddo (2 Chr. 35 : 22). 

(2. ) '■Emek, " deep ; " "a long, low plain " 
(Job 39:10, 21; Ps. 65:13; Cant. 2:1), 
such as the plain of Esdraelon ; the "valley 
of giants " (Josh. 15 : 8), usually translated 
"valley of Rephaim" (2 Sam. 5:18); of 
Elah (1 Sam. 17 : 2), of Berachah (2 Chr. 
20:26); the king's "dale" (Gen. 14:17); 
of Jehoshaphat (Joel 3 : 2, 12), of Achor 
(Josh. 7 : 24 ; Isa. 65 : 10), Succoth (Ps. 60 : 6), 
Ajalon (Josh. 10 : 12), Jezreel (Hos. 1 : 5). 

(3.) Ge, "a bursting," a "flowing to- 
gether," a narrow glen or ravine, such as 
the valley of the children of Hinnom (2 
Kings 23 : 10) ; of Eshcol (Deut. 1 : 24) ; of 
Sorek ( Judg. 16 : 4), etc. 

The "valley of vision" (Isa. 22:1) is 
usually regarded as denoting Jerusalem, 
which "may be so called," says Barnes 
{Com. on Isa.), "either (1) because there 
were several valleys ivithin the city and 
adjacent to it, as the vale between Mount 
Zion and Moriah, the vale between Mount 
Moriah and Mount Ophel, between these and 
Mount Bezetha, and the valley of Jehosha- 
phat, the valley of the brook Kidron, etc., 
without the walls of the city ; or (2) more 
probably it was called the valley in reference 
to its being compassed loith hills rising to a 
considerable elevation above the city " (Ps. 
125 : 2 ; comp. also Jer. 21 : 13, where Jeru- 
salem is called a " valley "). 

(4.) Heb. nahal, a wady or water-course 
(Gen. 26:19; Cant. 6:11). 



(5.) Heb. shepkeldh. When with the ar- 
ticle prefixed {hash- shepkeldh), a broad swell- 
ing tract of land of many hundred miles 
in area, lying between the central moun- 
tains of Judah and the Mediterranean, and 
extending from Joppa to Gaza (Josh. 10 : 
40, etc.). (See Plain.) 

Vani^ah — meekness — a son of Bani (Ezra 
10 : 36). 

Vash^ni—(7r/i(— called "Joel" in 1 Sam. 
8 : 2, the eldest son of Samuel (1 Chr. 6 : 28, 
R.V., "Joel"). It is conjectured that by 
the oversight of some transcriber the word 
"Joel" has dropped out after "the first- 
born," and that " Vashni" is a corruption 
of the Hebrew word meaning "and the 
second," in this passage. 

Vash^ti — beautiful — the queen of Ahas- 
uerus, who was deposed from her royal 
dignity because she refused to obey the 
king when he desired her to appear in the 
banqueting hall of Shushan the palace 
(Esther 1 : 10-12). (See Esthek. ) 

Veil, vail. (1.) Heb. mitpahath (Ruth 
3:15; marg., "sheet "or "apron;" R.V., 
"mantle"). In Isa. 3 : 22 this word is plu- 
ral, rendered "wimples ; " R. V., " shawls " 
— i.e., wraps. 

(2.) Massekdh (Isa. 25:7; in Isa. 28:20 
rendered "covering "). The word denotes 
something spread out and covering or con- 
cealing something else (comp. 2 Cor. 3: 
13-15). 

(3.) Masveh (Ex. 34:33, 35), the veil on 
the face of Moses. This verse should be 
read, "And when Moses had done speak- 
ing with them, he put a veil on his face," 
as in the Revised Version. When Moses 
spoke to them he was without the veil ; 
only when he ceased speaking he put on the 
veil (comp. 2 Cor. 3 : 13, etc. ). 

(4.) Pdrdheth (Ex. 26:31-35), the veil of 
the tabernacle and the temple, which hung 
between the holy place and the most holy 
(2 Chr. 3 : 14). In the temple a partition 
wall separated these two places. In it 
were two folding - doors, which are sup- 
posed to have been alwaj^s open, the en- 



VERSION 



683 



VERSION 



trance being concealed by the veil which 
the high priest lifted when he entered into 
the sanctuary on the day of Atonement. 
This veil Avas rent w^hen Christ died on the 
cross (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 
23 : 45). 

(5.) Tzd/iph (Gen. 24:65). Rebekah 
"took a vail and covered herself." (See 
also 38 : 14, 19.) Hebrew women generally 
appeared in public without veils (12 : 14 ; 
24:16; 29:10; 1 Sam. 1:12). 

(6.) Radhidh{C2int.z>:l, R.V. "mantle;" 
Isa. 3 : 23). The word probably denotes 
some kind of cloak or wrapper. 

(7.) Mcisdk, the veil which hung before 
the entrance to the holy i^lace (Ex. 26 : 36, 
37). 

Ver'sion, a translation of the holy Scrip- 
tures. This word is not found in the 
Bible, nevertheless, as frequent references 
are made in this work to various ancient 
as well as modern versions, it is fitting that 
some brief account should be given of the 
most important of these. These versions 
are important helps to the right interpre- 
tation of the Word. (See Samaritan Pen- 
tateuch. ) 

1. The Targums. After the return from 
the Captivity, the Jews, no longer familiar 
with the old Hebrew, required that their 
Scriptures should be translated for them 
into the Chaldaic or Aramaic language and 
interpreted. These tx-anslations and para- 
phrases were at first oral, but they were 
afterwards reduced to writing, a,nd thus 
targums — i.e., " versions " or " transla- 
tions " — have come down to us. The chief 
of these are — (1.) The Onkelos Targum — 
i.e., the targum of Akelas = Aquila, a 
targum so called to give it greater popu- 
larity by comparing it with the Greek 
translation of Aquila mentioned below. 
This targum originated about the second 
century after Christ. (2.) The targum of 
Jonathan ben Uzziel comes next to that 
of Onkelos in respect of age and value. It 
is more a paraphrase on the Prophets, 
however, than a translation. Both of these 
targums issued from the Jewish school 
which then flourished at Babylon, 

2. The Greek Versions. (1.) The oldest 
of these is the Septuagint, usually quoted as 



the LXX. This is the oldest and also the 
most important of all the versions. The 
origin of this version is involved in much 
obscurity. It derives its name from the 
popular notion that seventy-two trans- 
lators were employed on it by the direction 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, 
and that it was accomplished in seventy-two 
days, for the use of the Jews residing in 
that country. There is no historical war- 
rant for this notion. It is, however, an 
established fact that this version was made 
at Alexandria ; that it was begun about 280 
B.C., and finished about 200 or 1.50 B.C. ; that 
it was the work of a number of translators 
who differed greatly both in their know- 
ledge of Hebrew and of Greek ; and that 
from the earliest times it has borne the 
name of "The Septuagint" — i.e.. The 
Seventy. 

"This version, with all its defects, must 
be of the greatest interest — (a) as preserv- 
ing evidence for the text far more ancient 
than the oldest Hebrew manuscripts ; 
(6) as the means by which the Greek lan- 
guage was wedded to Hebrew thought, 
and the way prepared for the New Testa- 
ment; (c) because it is the source of the 
great majority of quotations from the Old 
Testament by writers of the New Tes- 
tament ; {d) because it was the version in 
which the Old Testament was studied by 
the fathers of the Eastern Church, and 
indirectly by those of the Western, till Jer- 
ome's new translation [the Vulgate] super- 
seded the old Latin versions made from the 
Septuagint. " 

(2.) Another Greek Version of the Old 
Testament was made (b.c. 117-138) by a 
Jewish proselyte of Pontus called Aquila. 
This translation is distinguished for its 
extreme literalism. 

(3.) About half a century after Aquila, 
Theodotion, a Jewish proselyte of Ephesus, 
produced a version of the Old Testament, 
which seems, however, to be only a re- 
vision of the LXX. This recension is val- 
uable for critical purposes. 

(4. ) Subsequently, about the end of the 
second century, an Ebionite of the name of 
Symmachus also translated the Old Testa- 
ment into Greek. 



VERSION 



684 



VERSION 



These three last versions exist now only 
in fragments found in the Hexapla or six- 
fold version of Origen. 

3. The Syriac Versions were made for 
the use of the Christians in Syria. The 
most important of these is that called the 
Peshito — i.e., the literal version. It con- 
tains both the Old and New Testaments, 
and was probably executed at Edessa about 
the middle of the second century (a.d. 150). 
The New Testament portion, however, is 
incomplete. This is the first version made 
directly from the originals after the time of 
Christ. 

4. The Latin Versions. A Latin version 
of the Scriptures, called the "Old Latin," 
which originated in North Africa, was in 
common use in the time of Tertullian 
(a.d. 150). Of this there appear to have 
been various copies or recensions made. 
That made in Italy, and called the Itala, 
was reckoned the most accurate. This 
translation of the Old Testament seems to 
have been made not from the original He- 
brew but from the LXX. 

This version became greatly corrupted 
by repeated transcription, and to remedy 
the evil Jerome (a.d. 329-420) was requested 
by Damasus, the bishop of Rome, to under- 
take a complete revision of it. It met 
with opposition at first, but was at length, 
in the seventh century, recognized as the 
"Vulgate" version. It appeared in a 
printed form about A.D. 1455, the first book 
that ever issued from the press. The Coun- 
cil of Trent (1546) declared it "authentic." 
It subsequently imderwent various revi- 
sions, but that which was executed (1592) 
under the sanction of Pope Clement VIII. 
was adopted as the basis of all subsequent 
editions. It is regarded as the sacred 
original in the Roman Catholic Church. 
All modern European versions have been 
more or less influenced by the Vulgate. 
This version reads ipsa instead of ipse in 
Gen. 3 : 15, " She shall bruise thy head. " 

5. There are several other ancient ver- 
sions which are of importance for Biblical 
critics, but which we need not mention 
particularly, such as the Ethiopic, in the 
fourth century, from the LXX. ; two 
Egyptian versions, about the fourth cen- 



tury — the Memphitic, circulated in Lower 
Egypt, and the Thebaic, designed for 
Upper Egypt, both from the Greek; the 
Gothic, written in the German language, 
but with the Greek alphabet, by Ulphilas 
(died A.D. 388), of which only fragments of 
the Old Testament remain ; the Armenian, 
about A.D. 400; and the Slavonic, in the 
ninth century, for ancient Moravia. Other 
ancient versions, as the Arabic, the Per- 
sian, and the Anglo-Saxon, may be men- 
tioned. 

6. The history of the English versions 
begins properly with WyckHffe. Portions, 
however, of the Scriptures were rendered 
into Saxon (as the Gospel according to 
John, by Bede, a.d. 735), and also into 
English (by Orme, called the "Ormulum," 
a portion of the Gospels and of the Acts in 
the form of a metrical paraphrase, toward 
the close of the seventh century), long be- 
fore Wyckliffe; but it is to him that the 
honour belongs of having first rendered 
the whole Bible into English (a.d. 1380). 
This version was made from the Vulgate, 
and renders Gen. 3 : 15 after that Version, 
^^ She shall trede thy head." 

This was followed by Tyndale's trans- 
lation (1525-1531) ; Miles Coverdale's (1535- 
1553); Thomas Matthew's (1537)— really, 
however, the work of John Rogers, the 
first martyr under the reign of Queen Mary. 
This was properly the first Authorized 
Version, Henry VIII. having ordered a 
copy of it to be got for every church. This 
took place in less than a year after Tyn- 
dale was martyred for the crime of trans- 
lating the Scriptures. In 1539 Richard 
Taverner published a revised edition of 
Matthew's Bible. The Great Bible, so 
called from its great size, called also Cran- 
mer's Bible, was published in 1539 and 
15G8. In the strict sense, the "Great 
Bible" is "the only authorized version; 
for the Bishops' Bible and the present 
Bible [the A.V.] never had the formal 
sanction of royal authority." Next in 
order was the Geneva version (1557-1560) ; 
the Bishops' Bible (1568) ; the Rheims and 
Douai versions, under Roman Catholic 
auspices (1582, 1609) ; the Authorized Ver- 
sion (1611); and the Revised Version of 



\aLLAGES 



685 



VULTURE 



the New Testament in 1880 and of the Old 
Testament in 1884. 

Villages ( Judg. 5 : 7, 11). The Hebrew 
word thus rendered {perdzon) means habi- 
tations in the open country, unwalled vil- 
lages (Deut. 3 : 5 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 18). Others, 
however, following the LXX. and the 
Vulgate versions, render the word "rul- 
ers." 

Vine, one of the most important pro- 
ducts of Palestine. The first mention of 
it is in the history of Xoah (Gen. 9 : 20). 
It is afterwards frequently noticed both in 
the Old and New Testaments, and in the 
ruins of terraced vineyards there are evi- 
dences that it was extensively cultivated 
by the Jews. It was cultivated in Pales- 
tine before the Israelites took possession 
of it. The men sent out by Moses brought 
with them from the Valley of Eshcol a 
cluster of grapes so large that "they bare 
it between two upon a staff " (Num. 13 : 
23). The vineyards of En-gedi (Cant. 1 : 
14), Heshbon, Sibmah, Jazer, Elealeh (Isa. 
16:8-10; Jer. 48:32, 34), and Helbon 
(Ezek. 27 : 18), as well as of Eshcol, were 
celebrated. 

The Church is compared to a vine (Ps. 
80:8), and Christ says of himself, "I am 
the vine " (John 15 : 1). In one of his 
parables also (Matt. 21 : 33) our Lord com- 
pares his Church to a vineyard which "a 
certain householder planted, and hedged 
round about," etc.). 

Hos. 10 : 1 is rendered in the Revised 
Version, " Israel is a luxuriant vine, which 
putteth forth his fruit," instead of " Israel 
is an empty vine, he bringeth forth fruit 
unto himself," of the Authorized Version. 

Vine of Sodom, referred to only in 
Deut. 32 : 32. Among the many conject- 
ures as to this tree, the most probable is 
that it is the 'osher of the Arabs, which 
abounds in the region of the Dead Sea. 
Its fruit are the so-called "apples of 
Sodom," which, though beautiful to the 
eye, are exceedingly bitter to the taste. 
(See En-gedi.) The people of Israel are 
referred to here by Moses as being utterly 
corrupt, bringing forth only bitter fruit. 

Vin''egar — Heb. hometz, Gr. oxos, Er. 
vin aigre ; i.e., "sour wine." The Hebrew 



word is rendered vinegar in Ps. 69 : 21, a 
prophec}^ fulfilled in the history of the 
crucifixion (Matt. 27 : 34). This was the 
common sour wine (fosca) daily made use 
of by the Roman soldiers. They gave it 
to Christ, not in derision, but from compas- 
sion, to assuage his thirst. Prov. 10 : 26 
shows that there was also a stronger vin- 
egar, which was not fit for drinking. The 
comparison, "vinegar upon nitre," prob- 
ably means " vinegar upon soda " (as in the 
marg. of the R.V.), which then effervesces. 

Vi'ol — Heb. nebel (Isa. 5:12, R.V., 
"lute ; " 14 : 11) — a musical instrument, 
usually rendered "psaJtery " {q.v.). 

Vi'per. In Job 20:16^ Isa. 30:6; 59: 
5, the Heb. word epK'eh is thus rendered. 
The Hebrew word, however, probably de- 
notes a species of pKDisonous serpents known 
by the Arabic name of ''el ephah. Tristram 
has identified it with the sand viper, a 
species of small size common in sandy re- 
gions, and frequently found under stones 
by the shores of the Dead Sea. It is rapid 
in its movements, and highly poisonous. 
In the New Testament echidne is used 
(Matt. 3 : 7 ; 12 : 34 ; 23 : 33) for any poison- 
ous snake. The viper mentioned in Acts 
28 : 3 was probably the vipera aspis, or the 
Mediterranean viper. (See Adder. ) 

Vir''gin. In a prophecy concerning our 
Lord, Isaiah (7 : 14) says, " A virgin [R. V. 
marg., 'the virgin'] shall conceive, and 
bear a son " (comp. Luke 1 : 31-35). 

The people of the land of Zidon are thus 
referred to by Isaiah (23 : 12), " O thou op- 
pressed virgin, daughter of Zidon ; " and of 
the people of Israel, Jeremiah (18 : 13) saj^s, 
"The virgin of Israel hath done a verj' 
horrible thing." 

Vi'sion (Luke 1 : 22), a vivid apparition, 
not a dream (comp. Luke 24 : 23; Acts 26 : 
19; 2 Cor. 12:1). 

Vows, voluntary promises which, when 
once made, were to be kept if the thing 
vowed was right. They were made under 
a great variety of circumstances (Gen. 28 : 
18-22; Lev. 7:16; Num. 30:2-13; Deut. 
23:18; Judg. 11:30, 39; 1 Sam. 1:11; 
Jonah 1 : 16 ; Acts 18 : 18 ; 21 : 23). 

Vul'ture. (1. ) Heb. dd'ah (Lev. 11 : 14). 
In the parallel passage (Deut. 14:13) the 



WAFERS 



686 



WAR 



Hebrew word used is rd'ah, rendered 
* ' glede ; " LXX. , " gups ; " Vulg. , " milvus. " 
A species of ravenous bird, distinguished for 
its rapid flight. "When used without the 
epithet ' red, ' the name is commonly con- 
fined to the black kite. The habits of the 
bird bear out the allusion in Isa. 34 : 15, 
for it is, excepting during the winter three 



months, so numerous everywhere in Pales- 
tine as to be almost gregarious." (See 
Eagle. ) 

(2.) In Job 28 : 7 the Heb. 'appdh is thus 
rendered. The word denotes a clamorous 
and a keen-sighted bird of prey. In Lev. 
11:14 and Deut. 14:13 it is rendered 
"kite" (9. t'.). 



w 



Wa'fers, thin cakes (Ex. 16 : 31 ; 29 : 2, 
23; Lev. 2:4; 7:12; 8:26; Nvim. 6:15, 
19) used in various offerings. 

Wa''ges. Rate of (mentioned only in 
Matt. 20 : 2) ; to be punctually paid (Lev. 
19:13; Deut. 24:14, 15); judgments 
threatened against the withholding of ( Jer. 
22:13; Mai. 3:5; comp. James 5:4); 
paid in money (Matt. 20 : 1-14) ; to Jacob in 
kind (Gen. 29 : 15, 20 ; 30 : 28 ; 31 : 7, 8, 41). 

Wag'gon— Heb. "dghdldh; so rendered 
in Gen. 45 : 19, 21, 27 ; 46 : 5 ; Num. 7 : 3, 
7, 8, but elsewhere rendered " cart " (1 Sam. 
6 : 7, etc. ). This vehicle was used for peace- 
ful piirposes. In Ezek. 23 : 24, however, it 
is the rendering of a different Hebrew word, 
and denotes a war-chariot. 

Wail'ing-place, Jews', a section of the 
western wall of the temple area, where the 
Jews assemble every Friday afternoon to 
bewail their desolate condition (Ps. 79 : 1, 
4, 5). The stones in this part of the wall 
are of great size, and were placed, as is 
generally believed, in the position in which 
they are now found in the time of Solomon. 
' ' The congregation at the wailing- place is 
one of the most solemn gatherings left to 
the Jewish Church, and as the writer gazed 
at the motley concourse he experienced a 
feeling of sorrow that the remnants of the 
chosen race should be heartlessly thrust 
outside the sacred enclosure of their fathers' 
holy temple by men of an alien race and an 
alien creed. Many of the elders, seated 
on the ground, with their backs against the 
wall, on the west side of the area, and with 
their faces turned toward the eternal house, 
read out of their well-thumbed Hebrew 



books passages from the prophetic Avritings, 
such as Isa. 64 : 9-12 " (King's Recent Dis- 
coveries, etc.). The wailing - place of the 
Jews, viewed in its past spiritual and his- 
toric relations, is indeed " the saddest nook 
in this vale of tears." (See Lamentations, 
Book of. ) 

Wall. Cities were surrounded by Walls, 
as distinguished from "unwalled villages" 
(Ezek. 38 : 11 ; Lev. 25 : 29-34). They were 
made thick and strong (Num. 13 : 28 ; Deut. 
3 : 5). Among the Jews walls were built of 
stone, some of those in the temple being of 
great size (1 Kings 6:7; 7:9-12; 20:30; 
Mark 13 : 1, 2). The term is used meta- 
phorically of security and safety (Isa. 26 : 
1 ; 60 : 18 ; Rev. 21 : 12-20). (See Fence. ) 

Wan'dering of the Israelites in the wil- 
derness in consequence of their rebellious 
fears to enter the Promised Land (Num. 
14 : 26-35). They wandered for forty years 
before they were permitted to cross the 
Jordan (Josh. 4 : 19 ; 5 : 6). 

The record of these wanderings is given 
in Num. 33 : 1-49. Many of the stations at 
which they camped cannot now be identi- 
fied. 

Questions of an intricate nature have 
been discussed regarding the "Wander- 
ings," but it is enough for vis to take the 
sacred narrative as it stands, and rest 
assured that " He led them forth by a right 
way " (Ps. 107 : 1-7, 33-35). (See Wilder- 
ness.) 

War. The Israelites had to take posses- 
sion of the Promised Land by conquest. 
They had to engage in a long and bloody 
war before the Catiaanitish tribes Avere 



WARS 



687 



WARD 



finally subdued. Except in the case of 
Jericho and Ai, the war did not become 
aggressive till after the death of Joshua. 
Till then the attack was always first made 
by the Canaanites. Now the measure of 
the iniquity of the Canaanites was full, and 
Israel was employed by God to sweep them 
away from off the face of the earth. In 
entering on this new stage of the war, the 



tribe of Judah, according to divine direc- 
tion, took the lead. 

In the days of Saul and David the people 
of Israel engaged in many wars with the 
nations around, and after the division of 
the kingdom into two they often warred 
with each other. They had to defend them- 
selves also against the inroads of the Egyp- 
tians, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians. 




JEWS WAILING-PLACE. 



The whole history of Israel from first to 
last presents but few periods of peace. 

The Christian life is represented as a 
warfare, and the Christian graces are also 
represented under the figure 'of pieces of 
armour (Eph. 6:11-17; 1 Thess. .5:8; 
2 Tim. 2 : 3, 4). The final blessedness of 
believers is attained as the fruit of victor)^ 
(Rev. 3:21). 



Wars of the Lord, The Book of the 

(Num. 21 : 14, 15), some unknown book so 
called (comp. Gen. 14 : 14-16 ; Ex. 17 : 8-16 ; 
Num. 14 : 40-45 ; 21 : 1-3, 21-25, 33-35 ; 31. 
The wars here recorded might be thus 
designated). 

Ward, a prison (Gen. 40 : 3, 4) ; a watch- 
station (Isa. 21 : 8) ; a guard (Neh. 13 : 
30). 



WASHING 



WAVE 



Wash'ing (Mark 7:1-9). The Jews, 
like other Orientals, used their fingers when 
taking food, and therefore washed their 
hands before doing so, for the sake of clean- 
liness. Here the reference is to the ablu- 
tions prescribed by tradition, according to 
which "the disciples ought to have gone 
down to the side of the lake, washed their 
hands thoroughly, ' rubbing the fist of one 
hand in the hollow of the other, then placed 
the ten finger-tips together, holding the 
hands up, so that any surplus water might 
flow down to the elbow, and thence to the 
ground. ' " To neglect to do this had come 
to be regarded as a great sin — a sin equal 
to the breach of any of the ten command- 




WASHING THE HANDS. 

ments. Moses had commanded washings 
oft, but always for some definite cause; 
but the Jews multiplied the legal observ- 
ance till they formed a large body of pre- 
cepts. To such precepts about ceremonial 
washing Mark here refers. (See Ablution. ) 
Watches, the periods into which the 
time between sunset and sunrise was di- 
vided. They are so called because watch- 
men relieved each other at each of these 
periods. There are frequent references in 
Scripture to the duties of watchmen who 
were appointed to give notice of the ap- 
proach of an enemy (2 Sam. 18 : 24-27 ; 
2 Kings 9 : 17-20 ; Isa. 21 : 5-9). They were 
sometimes placed for this purpose on watch- 



towers (2 Kings 17 : 9 ; 18 : 8). Ministers 
or teachers are also spoken of under this 
title (Jer. 6:17; Ezek. 33:2-9; Heb. 
13 : 17). 

The watches of the night were originally 
three in number — (1) " the beginning of the 
watches " (Lam. 2 : 19) ; (2) " the middle 
watch " ( Judg. 7 : 19) ; and (3) " the morn- 
ing watch" (Ex. 14:24; 1 Sam. 11:11), 
which extended from two o'clock to sun- 
rise. But in the New Testament we read 
of four watches, a division probably intro- 
duced by the Romans (Matt. 14 : 25 ; Mark 
6 : 48 ; Luke 12 : 38). (See Day. ) 

Watch'ings (2 Cor. 6 : 5), lit. "sleepless- 
nesses," the result of "manual labour, 
teaching, travelling, meditating, praying, 
cares, and the like " (Meyer's Com.). 

Walter of jeal'ousy, a phrase employed 
(not, however, in Scripture) to denote the 
water used in the solemn ordeal prescribed 
by the law o:^ Moses (Num. 5 : 11-31) in 
cases of "jealousy." 

Water of purifica^tion, used in cases 
of ceremonial cleansings at the consecra- 
tion of the Levites (Num. 8 : 7). It signi- 
fied, figuratively, that purifying of the 
heart which must characterize the servants 
of God. 

Water of separa'tion, used along with 
the ashes of a red heifer for the ceremonial 
cleansing of persons defiled by contact with 
a dead body (Num. 19). 

Waterspouts (Ps. 42 : 7 ; marg. R. V., 
' ' cataracts " ). If we regard this psalm as de- 
scriptive of David's feelings when banished 
from Jerusalem by the revolt of Absalom, 
this word may denote "waterfalls," inas- 
much as Mahanaim, where he abode, was 
near the Jabbok, and the region abounded 
with rapids and falls. 

Wave offerings, parts of peace-offerings 
were so called, because they were waved by 
the priests (Ex. 29 : 24, 26, 27 ; Lev. 7 : 20-34 ; 
8 : 27 ;" 9 : 21 ; 10 : 14, 15, etc.), in token of a 
solemn special presentation to God. They 
then became the property of the priests. 
The first-fruits — a sheaf of barley — offered 
at the feast of Pentecost (Lev. 23 : 17-20), 
and wheat -bread — the first-fruits of the 
second harvest — offered at the Passover 
(10-14), were wave-offerings. 



WAX 



689 



WHALE 



Wax. Made by melting the combs of 
bees. Mentioned (Ps. 22 : 14 ', 68 : 2 ; 97 : 5 ; 
Micah 1 : 4) in illustration. 

Wean. Among the Hebrews children 
(whom it was customary for the mothers to 
nurse— Ex. 2:7-9; 1 Sam, 1:23; Cant. 
8:1) were not generally weaned till they 
were three or fovir years old. 

Wea^'sel (Heb. Mledh), enumerated 
among unclean animals (Lev. 11 : 29). Some 
think that this Hebrew word rather denotes 
the mole (Spalax typhlus) common in Pales- 
tine. There is no sufficient reason, how- 
ever, to depart from the usual translation. 
The weasel tribe are common also in 
Palestine. 

Weav'ing, weavers. Weaving was an 
art practised in very early times (Ex. 35 : 
35). The Egyptians were specially skilled 
in it (Isa. 19 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 7), and some have 
regarded them as its inventors. 

In the wilderness, the Hebrews practised 
it (Ex. 26 : 1, 7 ; 28 : 4, 39 ; Lev. 13 : 47). 
It is referred to in subsequent times as 
specially the women's work (2 Kings 23 : 7 ; 
Prov. 31 : 13, 24). 

No mention of the loom is found in Scrip- 
ture, but we read of the "shuttle" (Job 
7 : 6), "the pin " of the beam (Judg. 16 : 14), 
" the web " (13, 14), and " the beam " (1 Sam. 
17:7; 2 Sam. 21:19). The rendering, 
"with pining sickness, " in Isa. 38 : 12 ( A. V. ) 
should be, as in the Revised Version, " from 
the loom," or, as in the margin, "from the 
thrum." We read also of the "warp " and 
"woof " (Lev. 13 : 48, 49, 51-53, 58, 59), but 
the Revised Version margin has, instead of 
"warp," "woollen or knitted stuff." 

Week. Erom the beginning, time was 
divided into weeks, each consisting of six 
days of working and one of rest (Gen. 2 : 
2, 3 ; 7 : 10 ; 8 : 10, 12 ; 29 : 28). The refer- 
ences to this division of days becomes after- 
wards more frequent (Ex. 34 : 22 ; Lev. 
12 : 5 ; Num. 28 : 26 ; Deut. 16 : 16 ; 2 Chr. 
8 : 13 ; Jer. 5 : 24 ; Dan. 9 : 24-27 ; 10 : 2, 3). 
It has been found to exist among almost 
all nations. 
Weeks, Feast of. See Pentecost. 
Weights. Reduced to English troy- 
weight, the Hebrew weights were : — 
(1.) The gerah (Lev. 27 : 25 ; Num. 3 : 47), 



a Hebrew word, meaning a grain or kernel, 
and hence a small weight. It was the 
twentieth part of a shekel, and equal to 
12 grains. 

(2.) Bekah (Ex. 38 : 26), meaning "a half " 
— i.e., "half a shekel," equal to 5 penny- 
weight. 

(3.) Shekel, "a weight," only in the Old 
Testament, and frequently in its original 
form (Gen. 23 : 15, 16 ; Ex. 21 : 32 ; 30 : 13, 
15; 38:24-29, etc.). It was equal to 10 
pennyweight. 

(4.) Ma^neli, "a part" or "portion" 
(Ezek. 45 : 12), equal to 60 shekels — i.e., to 
2 lbs. 6 oz. 

(5.) Talent of silver (2 Kings 5 : 22), equal 
to 3,000 shekels— ie., 125 lbs. 

(6. ) Talent of gold (Ex. 25 : 39), double the 
preceding — i.e., 250 lbs. 

Well (Heb. heer), to be distinguished 
from a fountain (Heb. *am). A "beer" 
was a deep shaft, bored far under the rocky 
surface by the art of man, which contained 
water which percolated through the strata 
in its sides. Such wells were those of 
Jacob and Beersheba, etc. (see Gen. 21 : 
19, 25, 30, 31; 24:11; 26:15, 18-25, 32, 
etc.). In the Pentateuch this word heer, so 
rendered, occurs twenty-five times. 

Westward — sea-ward — i.e., toward the 
Mediterranean (Deut. 3 : 27). 

Whale. The Hebrew word tan (plural, 
tannin) is so rendered in Job 7 : 12 (A. V. ; 
but R. v., " sea-monsters "). It is rendered 
by " dragons " in Deut. 32 : 33 ; Ps. 91 : 13 ; 
Jer. 51:34; Ps. 74:13 (marg.," whales;" 
and marg. of R.V., "sea-monsters"); Isa. 
27:1; and "serpent" in Ex. 7:9 (R.V. 
marg., "any large reptile," and so in ver. 
10, 12). The words of Job (7 : 12), uttered 
in bitter irony, where he asks, "Am I a 
sea or a whale ? " simply mean, " Have I a 
wild, untamable nature, like the waves of 
the sea, which must be confined and held 
within bounds, that they cannot pass?" 
"The serpent of the sea — which was but 
the wild, stormy sea itself — wound itself 
around the land, and threatened to swallow 

it up Job inquires if he must be watched 

and plagued like this monster, lest he throw 
the world into disorder" (Davidson's Joh). 

The whale tribe are included under the 

45 



WHEAT 



690 



WILDERNESS 



general Hebrew name tannin (Gen. 1 : 21 ; 
Lam. 4 : 3). "Even the sea-monsters \tan- 
ninim'] draw out the breast." The whale 
brings forth its young alive, and suckles 
them. 

It is to be noticed of the story of Jonah's 
being "three days and three nights in the 
whale's belly," as recorded in Matt. 12 : 40, 
that here the Gr. ketos means properly any 
kind of sea -monster of the shark or the 
whale tribe, and that in the book of Jonah 
(1:17) it is only said that "a great fish" 
was prepared to swallow Jonah. This fish 
may have been, therefore, some great shark. 
The white shark is known to frequent the 
Mediterranean Sea, and is sometimes found 
30 feet in length. 

Wheat, one of the earliest cultivated 
grains. It bore the Hebrew name hittdh, 
and was extensively cultivated in Palestine. 
There are various species of wheat. That 
which Pharaoh saw in his dream was the 
Triticum compositum, which bears several 
ears upon one stalk (Gen. 41 : 5). The "fat 
of the kidneys of wheat " (Deut. 32 : 14), and 
the "finest of the wheat " (Ps. 81 : 16 ; 147 : 
14), denote the best of the kind. It was 
exported from Palestine in great quanti- 
ties (1 Kings 5 : 11 ; Ezek. 27 : 17 ; Acts 
12 : 20). 

Parched grains of wheat were used for 
food in Palestine (Puth 2 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 
17 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 28). The disciples, under 
the sanction of the Mosaic law (Deut. 23 : 
25), plucked ears of corn, and rubbing 
them in their hands, ate the grain un- 
roasted (Matt. 12:1; Mark 2:23; Luke 
6:1). Before any of the wheat -harvest, 
however, could be eaten, the first-fruits had 
to be presented before the Lord (Lev. 23 : 
14). 

Wheel (Heb. galgal ; rendered "wheel" 
in Ps. 83 : 13, and " a rolling thing " in Isa. 
17:13; E.V. in both, "whirling dust"). 
This word has been supposed to mean the 
wild artichoke, which assumes the form of 
a globe, and in autumn breaks away from 
its roots, and is rolled about by the wind in 
some places in great numbers. 

White, a symbol of purity (2 Chr. 5 : 12 ; 
Ps. 51 : 7 ; Isa. 1 : 18 ; Rev. 3 : 18 ; 7 : 14). 
Our Lord, at his transfiguration, appeared 



in raiment "white as the light" (Matt. 
17:2, etc.). ' 

Wid''ows to be treated with kindness 
(Ex. 22 : 22 ; Deut. 14 : 29 ; 16 : 11, 14 ; 24 : 
17, 19-21; 26:12; 27:19, etc.). In the 
New Testament the same tender regard for 
them is inculcated (Acts 6 : 1-6 ; 1 Tim. 5 : 
3-16) and exhibited. 

Wife. The ordinance of marriage was 
sanctioned in Paradise (Gen. 2 : 24 ; Matt. 
19 : 4-6). Monogamy was the original law 
under which man lived, but polj^gamy early 
commenced (Gen, 4 : 19), and continued to 
prevail all down through Jewish history. 
The law of Moses regulated but did not 
prohibit polygamy. A man might have a 
plurality of wives, but a wife could have 
only one husband. 

A wife's legal rights (Ex. 21 : 10) and her 
duties (Prov. 31 : 10-31 ; 1 Tim. 5 : 14) are 
specified. She could be divorced in special 
cases (Deut. 22 : 13-21), but could not divorce 
her husband. Divorce was restricted by 
our Lord to the single caseof adultery (Matt. 
19 : 3-9). The duties of husbands and wives 
in their relations to each other are distinctly 
set forth in the New Testament (1 Cor. 7 : 
2-5 ; Eph. 5 : 22-33 ; Col. 3 : 18, 19 ; 1 Pet. 
3 : 1-7). 

Wil^derness. (1.) Heb. midhhar, denot- 
ing not a barren desert but a district or 
region suitable for pasturing sheep and 
cattle (Ps. 65 : 12 ; Isa. 42 : 11 ; Jer. 23 : 10 ; 
Joel 1 : 19 ; 2 : 22) ; an uncultivated place. 
This word is used of the wilderness of Beer- 
sheba (Gen. 21 : 14), on the southern border 
of Palestine ; the wilderness of the Red 
Sea (Ex. 13 : 18) ; of Shur (15 : 22), a portion 
of the Sinai tic peninsula ; of Sin (17 : 1), 
Sinai (Lev. 7:38), Moab (Dent. 2:8), 
Judah ( Judg. 1 : 16), Ziph, Maon, En-gedi 
(1 Sam. 23:14, 24; 24:1), Jeruel and 
Tekoa (2 Chr. 20:16, 20), Kadesh (Ps. 
29 : 8). 

" The wilderness of the sea " (Isa. 21 : 1). 
Principal Douglas, referring to this expres- 
sion, says: "A mysterious name, which 
must be meant to describe Bab3don (see 
especially ver. 9), perhaps because it became 
the jDlace of discipline to God's people, as 
the wilderness of the Red Sea had been 
(comp. Ezek. 20 : 35). Otherwise it is in 



WILLOWS 



691 



WINDOW 



contrast wdth the symbolic title in Isa. 22 : 1. 
Jerusalem is the "valley of vision, "rich in 
spiritual husbandry ; whereas Babylon, the 
rival centre of influence, is spiritually barren 
and as restless as the sea (com p. 57 : 20). " — 
A Short Analysis of the O.T. 

(2. ) Jeshimon, a desert waste (Deut. 32 : 
10 ; Ps. 68 : 7). 

(3, ) "Ardbdh, the ilame given to the valley 
from the Dead Sea to the eastern branch 
of the Red Sea. In Deut. 1 : 1 ; 2 : 8, it is 
rendered "plain" (R.V., "Arabah"). 

(4.) Tziyydh, a " dry place " (Ps. 78 : 17 ; 
105 : 41). 

(5.) TohH, a "desolate" place — a place 
"waste" or " unocciipied " (Deut. 32:10; 
Job 12:24; comp. Gen. 1:2, "without 
form "). 

The wilderness region in the Sinaitic 
peninsula through which for forty years 
the Hebrews wandered is generally styled 
"the wilderness of the wanderings." This 
entire region is in the form of a triangle, hav- 
ing its base toward the north and its apex 
toward the south. Its extent from north to 
south is about 250 miles, and at its widest 
point it is about 150 miles broad. Through- 
out this vast region of some 1,500 square 
miles there is not a single river. The 
northern part of this triangular peninsula 
is properly the "wilderness of the wan- 
derings " {et-Tih). The western portion of 
it is called the "wilderness of Shur" (Ex. 
15 : 22), and the eastern the "wilderness of 
Par an." 

The "wilderness of Judaea " (Matt. 3 : 1) 
is a wild, barren region, lying between the 
Dead Sea and the Hebron Mountains. It 
is the "Jeshimon" mentioned in 1 Sam. 
23 : 19. 

Wiriows. (1.) Heb. 'ardUm (Lev. 23: 
40 ; Job 40 : 22 ; Isa. 15 : 7 ; 44 : 3, 4 ; Ps. 
137 : 1, 2). This was supposed to be the 
weeping willow, called by Linnseus Salix 
Babylonica, from the reference in Ps. 137. 
This tree is frequently found "on the coast, 
overhanging wells and pools. There is a 
conspicuous tree of this species over a pond 
in the plain of Acre, and others on the 
Phoenician plain." There are several spe- 
cies of the salix in Palestine, but it is not 
indigenous to Babylonia, nor was it culti- 



vated there. Some are of opinion that the 
tree intended is the tamarisk or poplar. 

(2.) Heb. tzaphtzaphah (Ezek. 17:5), 
called by the Arabs the safsaf, the general 
name for the willow. This may be the 
Salix JEgyptica of naturalists. 

Tristram thinks that by the " willow by 
the water-courses," the Nerium oleander, 
the rose-bay oleander, is meant. He says, 
" It fringes the Upper Jordan, dipping its 
wavy crown of red into the spray in the 
rapids under Hermon, and is nurtured by 
the oozy marshes in the Lower Jordan 

nearly as far as to Jericho On the 

Arnon, on the Jabbok, and the Yarmuk it 
forms a continuous fringe. In many of 




BOSE-BAY OLEANDER. 

the streams of Moab it forms a complete 
screen, which the sun's rays can never 
penetrate to evaporate the precious moist- 
ure. The wild boar lies safely ensconced 
under its impervious cover." 

Wim'ple— Isa. 3 : 22— (R.V.," shawls "), 
a wrap or veil. The same Hebrew word is 
rendered "vail" (R.V., "mantle") in 
Ruth 3 : 15. 

Win^dow, properly only an opening in a 
house for the admission of light and air, 
covered with lattice-work, which might be 
opened or closed (2 Kings 1:2; Acts 20: 
9). The spies in Jericho and Paul at 
Damascus were let down from the windows 
of houses abutting on the town wall 



WINDS 



692 



WINE 



(Josh. 2:15; 2 Cor. 11:33). The clouds 
are metaphorically called the "windows 
of heaven " (Gen. 7 : 11 ; Mai. 3 : 10). The 
word thus rendered in Isa. 54 : 12 ought 
rather to be rendered "battlements" 
(LXX., "bulwarks;" R.Y., "pinnacles"), 
or as Gesenius renders it, "notched bat- 
tlements — i.e., suns or rays of the sun"=^ 
having a radiated appearance like the sun. 

Winds, blowing from the four quarters 
of heaven ( Jer. 49 : 36 ; Ezek. 37 : 9 ; Dan. 
8:8; Zech. 2 : 6). The east wind was 
parching (Ezek. 17:10; 19:12), and is 
sometimes mentioned as simply denoting 
a strong wind (Job 27:21; Isa. 27:8). 
This wind prevails in Palestine from Feb- 
ruary to June, as the west wind (Luke 12 : 
54) does from November to February. 
The south was a hot wind (Job 37 : 17 ; 
Luke 12 : 55). It swept over the Arabian 
peninsula. The rush of invaders is figura- 
tively spoken of as a whirlwind (Isa. 21 : 1) ; 
a commotion among the nations of the 
world as a striving of the four winds (Dan. 
7 : 2). The winds are subject to the divine 
power (Ps. 18:10; 135:7). 

Wine. The common Hebrew word for 
wine is yayin, from a root meaning "to 
boil up," "to be in a ferment." Others 
derive it from a root meaning "to tread 
out," and hence the juice of the grape 
trodden out. The Greek word for wine is 
oinos, and the Latin vinum. But besides 
this common Hebrew word, there are 
several others which are thus rendered. 

(L) ^Ashishdh (2 Sam. 6:19; 1 Chr. 16: 
3 ; Cant. 2:5; Hos. 3 : 1), which, however, 
rather denotes a solid cake of pressed grapes, 
or, as in the Revised Version, a cake of 
raisins. 

(2.) 'Asis, "sweet wine," or "new wine," 
the product of the same year (Cant. 8:2; 
Isa. 49 : 26 ; Joel 1 : 5 ; 3 : 18 ; Amos 9 : 13), 
from a root meaning "to tread," hence 
juice trodden out or pressed out, thus re- 
ferring to the method by which the juice 
is obtained. The power of intoxication is 
ascribed to it. 

(3. ) Hometz. See Vinegar. 

(4.) Herrier, Dent. 32 : 14 (rendered "blood 
of the grape"), Isa. 27:2 ("red wine"), 
Ezra 6:9; 7:22; Dan. 5:1, 2, 4. This 



word conveys the idea of "foaming," as in 
the process of fermentation, or when poured 
out. It is derived from the root hdmar, 
meaning "to boil up," and also "to be 
red," from the idea of boiling or becoming 
inflamed. 

(5.) 'Endbh, a grape (Deut. 32 : 14). The 
last clause of this verse should be rendered 
as in the He vised Version, "and of the 
blood of the grape ^enahKl thou drankest 
wine \]iemer\" In Hos. 3 : 1 the phrase in 
Authorized Version, "flagons of wine," is 
in the Revised Version correctly "cakes 
of raisins." (Comp. Gen. 49 : 11 ; Num. 6 : 
3; Deut. 23:24, etc., where this Hebrew 
word is rendered in the plural "grapes.") 

(6.) Mesekh, properly a mixture of wine 
and water with spices that increase its 
stimulating properties (Isa. 5 : 22). Ps. 
75 : 8, " The wine [yayin] is red ; it is full 
of mixture [mcseJch'] ; " Pro v. 23 : 30, " mixed 
wine; " Isa. 65*: 11, "drink offering " (R.V., 
"mingled wine "). 

(7.) Tirosh, properly "must," translated 
"wine" (Deut. 28:51); "new wine" (Pro v. 
3 : 10) ; "sweet wine " (Micah 6 : 15 ; R.V., 
"vintage "). This Hebrew word has been 
traced to a root meaning "to take pos- 
session of," and hence it is supposed that 
tirosh is so designated because in intoxi- 
cating it takes possession of the brain. 
Among the blessings promised to Esau 
(Gen. 27:28) mention is made of "plenty 
of corn and tirosh." Palestine is called 
"a land of corn and tirosh " (Deut. 33 : 28 ; 
comp. Isa. 36 : 17). See also Deut. 28 : 51 ; 
2 Chr. 32:28; Joel 2:19; Hos. 7:5, 
("whoredom and wine [yayin] and new 
wine [tirosh])." 

(8.) Sobhe (root meaning "to drink to 
excess," "to suck up," "absorb"), found 
only in Isa. 1:22, Hos. 4:18 ("their 
drink;" Gesen. and marg. of R.V., "their 
carouse"), and Nah. 1:10 ("drunken as 
drunkards;" lit., "soaked according to 
their drink; " R.V., " drenched, as it were, 
in their drink" — i.e., according to their 
sobhe). 

(9.) Shekdr, "strong drink, " any intoxi- 
cating liquor; from a root meaning "to 
drink deeply," " to be drunken " — a generic 
term applied to all fermented liquors, how- 



WINE 



693 



WINE-PRESS 



ever obtained. Num. 28 : 7, " strong wine " 
(R.V., "strong drink"). It is sometimes 
distinguished from wine — e.g.. Lev. 10:9, 
"Do not drink wine [Tjayiri] nor strong 
drink [shekdr] ; " Num. 6:3; Judg. 13 : 4, 
7 ; Isa. 28 : 7 (in all these places rendered 
"strong drink"). Translated "strong 
drink" also in Isa. 5:11; 24:9; 29:9; 
56 : 12 ; Prov. 20 : 1 ; 31 : 6 ; Micah 2 : 11. 

(10.) Yekcbh (Deut. 16:13, biat in R.V. 
correctly "wine-press"), a vat into which 
the new wine flowed from the press. Joel 
2:24, "their vats;" 3:13, "the fats;" 
Prov. 3:10, " Thy presses shall burst out 
with new wine {tirdshi ; " Hag. 2 : 16 ; Jer. 
48:33, "wine -presses;" 2 Kings 6:27; 
Job. 24 : 11. 

(11.) Shemdrtm (only in plural), "lees " or 
"dregs " of wine. In Isa. 25 : 6 it is ren- 
dered "wine on the lees" — i.e., wine that 
has been kept on the lees, and therefore old 
wine. 

(12.) Mesek, "a mixture," mixed or 
spiced \vine, not diluted with water, but 
mixed with drugs and spices to increase 
its strength, or, as some think, mingled 
with the lees by being shaken (Ps. 75 : 8 ; 
Prov. 23 : 30). 

In Acts 2 : 13 the word gleukos, rendered 
"new wine," denotes properly "sweet 
wine." It must have been intoxicating. 

In addition to wine the Hebrews also 
made use of what they called debash, which 
was obtained by boiling do'WTi must to one- 
half or one-third of its original bulk. In 
Gen. 43 : 11 this word is rendered " honej^" 
It was a kind of syrup, and is called by 
the Arabs at the present day dibs. This 
word occurs in the phrase "a land flow- 
ing with milk and honey " (debash) — Ex. 3 : 
8,17; 13:5; 33:3; Lev. 20:24; Num. 13: 
27. (See Honey.) 

Our Lord miraculously supplied wine at 
the marriage feast in Cana of Galilee 
(John 2 : 1-11). The Rechabites were for- 
bidden the use of wine (Jer. 35). The 
Nazarites also were to abstain from its use 
during the period of their vow (Num. 6 : 1- 
4) ; and those who were dedicated as Naza- 
rites irom their birth were perpetually to 
abstain from it (Judg. 13 : 4, 5 ; Luke 1 : 
15 ; 7 : 33). The priests, too, were for- 



bidden the use of wine and strong drink 
when engaged in their sacred functions 
(Lev. 10:1, 9-11). "Wine is Httle used 
now in the East, from the fact that Mo- 
hammedans are not allowed to taste it, and 
very few of other creeds touch it. When 
it is drunk, water is generally mixed with 
it, and this was the custom in the days of 
Christ also. The people indeed are every- 
where very sober in hot climates ; a 
drunken person, in fact, is never seen" 
(Geikie's Life of Christ). The sin of 
drunkenness, however, must have been 
not uncommon in the olden times, for it is 
mentioned either metaphorically or liter- 
ally more than seventy times in the Bible. 

A drink-offering of wine was presented 
\\dth the daily sacrifice (Ex. 29:40, 41), 
and also with the offering of the first-fruits 
(Lev. 23 : 13), and with various other sacri- 
fices (Num. 15 : 5, 7, 10). 

Wine was used at the celebration of the 
Passover. And when the Lord's Supper 
was instituted, the wine and the unleavened 
bread then on the paschal table were by 
o\ir Lord set apart as memorials of his body 
and blood. 

Several emphatic warnings are given in 
the New Testament against excess in the 
use of wine (Luke 21 : 34 ; Rom. 13 : 13 ; 
Eph. 5 : 18 ; 1 Tim. 3:8; Titus 1 : 7). 

Wine'fat (Mark 12:1). The original 
word [hypolenion) so rendered occurs only 
here in the New Testament. It properly 
denotes the trough or lake [lacus), as it 
was called by the Romans, into which the 
juice of the grapes ran from the trough 
above it. It is here used, however, of the 
whole apparatus. In the parallel passage 
in Matt. 21 : 33 the Greek word lenos is 
used. This properly denotes the upper 
one of the two. vats. (See Wine-press.) 

Wine-press. Consisted of two vats or 
receptacles — (1) a trough (Heb. gath, Gr. 
lenos) into which the grapes were thrown and 
where they were trodden upon and bruised 
(Isa. 16 : 10 ; Lam. 1 : 15 ; Joel 3 : 13) ; and 
(2) a troiTgh or vat (Heb. yekcbh, Gr. hypo- 
Union) into which the juice ran from the 
trough above — the gath (Neh. 13 : 15 ; Job 
24 : 11 ; Isa. 63 : 2, 3 ; Hag. 2 : 16 ; Joel 2 : 
24). Wine -presses are found in almost 



WINNOW 



694 



WITNESS 



every part of Palestine. They are "the 
only sure relics we have of the old days 
of Israel before the Captivity. Between 
Hebron and Beersheba they are found on 
all the hill slopes ; they abound in south- 
ern Judea ; they are no less common in 
the many valleys of Carmel ; and they are 
numerous in Galilee." The "treading of 
the wine-press" is emblematic of divine 
judgment (Isa. 63 : 2 ; Lam. 1 : 15 ; Rev. 
14 : 19, 20). 




WINE-PRESS. 

Win^now. Corn was winnowed — (1.) By 
being thrown up by a shovel against the 
wind. As a rule this was done in the 
evening or during the night, when the west 
wind from the sea was blowing, which was 
a moderate breeze and fitted for the pur- 
pose. The north wind was too strong, and 
the east wind came in gusts. (2.) By the 
use of a fan or van, by which the chaff was 
blown away (Ruth 3:2; Isa. 30 : 24 ; Jer. 
4:11, 12; Matt. 3:12). 

Wise, wisdom, a moral rather than an 
intellectual quality. To be "foolish" is 
to be godless (Ps. 14 : 1 ; comp. Judg. 19 : 
23 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 13). True wisdom is a gift 
from God to those who ask it (Job 28 : 12- 
28; Prov. 3:13-18; Pom. 1:22; 16:27; 
1 Cor. 1:17-21; 2:6-8; James 1:5). 
"Wisdom" in Prov. 1:20; 8:1; 9:1-5 
may be regarded not as a mere personifi- 
cation of the attribute of wisdom, but as a 



divine person, "Christ the power of God 
and the wisdom of God " (1 Cor. 1 : 24). 

In Matt. 11 : 19 it is the personified prin- 
ciple of wisdom that is meant. 

Wise men mentioned in Dan. 2 : 12 in- 
cluded three classes — (1) astrologers, (2) 
Chaldeans, and (3) soothsayers. The word 
in the original {hakamim) probably means 
"medicine men." In Chaldea medicine 
was only a branch of magic. The "wise 
men " of Matt. 2 : 7, who came from the 
East to Jerusalem, were magi from Persia 
or Arabia. 

Witch. Occurs only in Ex. 22 : 18, as the 
rendering of mekhashsMpheh, the feminine 
form of the word, meaning "enchantress " 
(R.V., "sorceress"), and in Deut. 18:10, 
as the rendering of mekhashshepkith, the 
masculine form of the word, meaning "en- 
chanter." 

Witch'craft (1 Sam. 15 : 23 ; 2 Kings 9 : 
22 ; 2 Chr. 33 : 6 ; Micah 5 : 12 ; Nahum 3 : 
4 ; Gal. 5 : 20). In the popular sense of 
the word no mention is made either of 
witches or of witchcraft in Scripture. 

The "witch of En-dor" (1 Sam. 28) was 
a necromancer — i.e., one who feigned to 
hold converse with the dead. The damsel 
with "a spirit of divination " (Acts 16 : 16) 
was possessed by an evil spirit, or, as the 
words are literally rendered, "having a 
spirit, a pithon." The reference is to the 
heathen god Apollo, who was regarded as 
the god of prophecy. 

Wit''ness. More than one witness was 
required in criminal cases (Deut. 17 : 6 ; 
19 : 15). They were the first to execute the 
sentence on the condemned (Deut. 13 : 9 ; 
17 : 7 ; 1 Kings 21 : 13 ; Matt. 27 : 1 ; Acts 
7 : 57, 58). Ealse witnesses were liable to 
punishment (Deut. 19 : 16-21). It was also 
an offence to refuse to bear witness (Lev. 
5:1). 

Witness of the Spirit (Rom. 8 : 16), 
the consciousness of the gracio^^s operation 
of the Spirit on the mind — "a certitude 
of the Spirit's presence and work continu- 
ally asserted within us" — manifested "in 
his comforting us, his stirring us up to 
prayer, his reproof of our sins, his drawing 
us to works of love, to bear testimony be- 
fore the world, " etc. 



WIZARD 



695 



WORD 



Wiz'ard, a pretender to supernatural 
knowledge and power — "a knowing one," 
as the original Hebrew word signifies. 

Such an one was forbidden on pain of 
death to practise his deceptions (Lev. 19 : 
31; 20:6, 27; 1 Sam. 28:3; Isa. 8:19; 
19 : 3). 

Wolf — Heb. zeeh — frequently referred to 
in Scripture as an emblem of treachery 
and cruelty. Jacob's prophecy, "Benja- 
min shall ravin as a wolf " (Gen. 49 : 27), re- 
presents the warlike character of that tribe 
(see Judg. 19-21). Isaiah represents the 
peace of Messiah's kingdom by the words, 
" The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb " 
(Isa. 11 : 6). The habits of the wolf are 
described in Jer. 5:6; Hab. 1:8; Zeph. 
3:3; Ezek. 22:27; Matt. 7:15; 10:16; 
Acts 20 : 29. Wolves are still sometimes 
found in Palestine, and are the dread of 
shepherds, as of old. 

Wo'man was "taken out of man" (Gen. 
2 : 23), and therefore the man has the pre- 
eminence. "The head of the woman is 
the man ; " but yet honour is to be shown 
to the wife, "as unto the weaker vessel" 
(1 Cor. 11 : 3, 8, 9 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 7). Several 
women are mentioned in Scripture as hav- 
ing been endowed with prophetic gifts, 
as Miriam (Ex. 15 : 20), Deborah (Judg. 4 : 
4, 5), Huldah (2 Kings 22:14), Noadiah 
(Neh. 6 : 14), Anna (Luke 2 : 36, 37), and 
the daughters of Philip the evangelist (Acts 
21 : 8, 9). Women are forbidden to teach 
publicly (1 Cor. 14 : 34, 35 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 11, 
12). Among the Hebrews it devolved 
upon women to prepare the meals for the 
household (Gen. 18:6; 2 Sam. 13:8), to 
attend to the work of spinning (Ex. 35 : 
26 ; Prov. 31 : 19), and making clothes (1 
Sam. 2 : 19 ; Prov, 31 : 21), to bring water 
from the well (Gen. 24 : 15 ; 1 Sam. 9 : 11), 
and to care for the flocks (Gen. 29 : 6 ; Ex, 
2 : 16). 

The word "woman," as used in Matt. 
15:28, John 2:4 and 20:13, 15, implies 
tenderness and courtesy and not disrespect. 
Only where revelation is known has woman 
her due place of honour assigned to her. 

Wood. See Eokest. 

Wood-offering (Neh. 10:34; 13:31). 
It would seem that in the time of Nehe- 



miah arrangements were made, jjrobably 
on account of the comparative scarcity of 
wood, by which certain districts were re- 
quired, as chosen by lot, to furnish Avood 
to keep the altar fire perpetually burning 
(Lev. 6 : 13). 

Wool, one of the first materials used for 
making woven cloth (Lev. 13 : 47, 48, 52, 
59 ; 19 : 19). The first-fruit of wool was to 
be offered to the priests (Deut. 18 : 4). The 
law prohibiting the wearing of a garment 
"of divers sorts, as of woollen and linen 
together " (Deut. 22 : 11) may, like some 
other laws of a similar character, have 
been intended to express symbolically the 
separateness and simplicity of God's cove- 
nant people. The wool of Damascus, 
famous for its whiteness, was of great 
repute in the Tyrian market (Ezek. 27 : 18). 

Word, The (Gr. Logos), one of the titles 
of our Lord, found only in the writings of 
John (John 1 : 1-14 ; 1 John 1:1; Rev. 19 : 
13). As such, Christ is the revealer of God. 
His office is to make God known. "No 
man hath seen God at any time ; the only 
begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the 
Father, he hath declared him " (John 1 : 
18). This title designates the divine nature 
of Christ. As the Word, he "was in the 
beginning" and "became flesh." "The 
Word was with God " and "was God," and 
was the Creator of all things (comp. Ps. 33 : 
6; 107:20; 119:89; 147:18; Isa. 40 : 8). 

Word of God (Heb. 4:12, etc.). The 
Bible so called because the writers of its 
several books were God's organs in com- 
municating his will to men. It is his 
"word," because he speaks to us in its 
sacred pages. Whatever the inspired 
writers here declare to be true and binding 
upon us, God declares to be true and bind- 
ing. This word is infallible, because 
written under the guidance of the Holy 
Spirit, and therefore free from all error of 
fact or doctrine or precept. (See Inspiea- 
TiON ; Bible. ) All saving knowledge is 
obtained from the word of God. In the 
case of adults it is an indispensable means 
of salvation, and is efficacious thereunto by 
the gracious influence of the Holy Spirit 
(John 17 : 17 ; Acts 26 : 17, 18 ; 2 Tim. 3 : 
15, 16 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 23). 



WORKS 



696 



WRESTLE 



Works, Good. The old objection against 
the doctrine of salvation by grace, that it 
does away with the necessity of good 
works, and lowers the sense of their im- 
portance (E-om. 6), although it has been 
answered a thousand times, is still alleged 
by many. They say if men are not saved 
by works, then works are not necessary. 
If the most moral of men are saved in the 
same way as the very chief of sinners, then 
good works are of no moment. And more 
than this, if the grace of God is most 
clearly displayed in the salvation of the 
vilest of men, then the worse men are the 
better. 

The objection has no validity. The 
gospel of salvation by grace shows that 
good works are necessary. It is true, un- 
changeably true, that without holiness no 
man shall see the Lord. "Neither adul- 
terers, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunk- 
ards " shall inherit the kingdom of God. 

Works are " good " only when — (1) they 
spring from the principle of love to God. 
The moral character of an act is deter- 
mined by the moral principle that prompts 
it. Eaith and love in the heart are the 
essential elements of all true obedience. 
Hence good works only spring from a be- 
lieving heart — can only be wrought by one 
reconciled to God (Eph. 2 : 10 ; James 2 : 
18 : 22). (2.) Good works have the glory of 
God as their object ; and (3) they have 
the revealed will of God as their only rule 
(Deut. 12 : 32 ; Eev. 22 : 18, 19). 

Good works are an expression of grati- 
tude in the believer's heart (John 14 : 15, 
23 ; Gal. 5 : 6). They are the fruits of the 
Spirit (Titus 2 : 10-12), and thus spring from 
grace, which they illustrate and strengthen 
in the heart. 

Good works of the most sincere believers 
are all imperfect, yet like their persons 
they are accepted through the mediation 
of Jesus Christ (Col. 3 : 17), and so are 
rewarded ; they have no merit intrinsically, 
but are rewarded wholly of grace. 

Works, Covenant of, entered into by 
God with Adam as the representative of 
the human race (comp. Gen. 9 : 11, 12 ; 17 : 
1-21), so styled because perfect obedience 
was its condition, thus distinguishing it 



from the covenant of grace. (See Cove- 
nant OF WOKKS.) 

Worm. (1.) Heb. sds (Isa. 51:8), de- 
notes the caterpillar of the clothes-moth. 

(2.) The manna bred worms (tola^im), but 
on the Sabbath there was not any worm 
{rimmdh) therein (Ex. 16 : 20, 24). Here 
these words refer to caterpillars or larvae, 
which feed on corrupting matter. 

These two Hebrew words appear to be 
interchangeable (Job 25 : 6 ; Isa. 14 : 11). 
Tola''im in some places denotes the cater- 
pillar (Deut. 28 : 39 ; Jonah 4:7), and rim- 
mdh, the larvae, as bred from putridity 
(Job 17 : 14 ; 21 : 26 ; 24 : 20). In Micah 7 : 
17, where it is said, "They shall move out 
of their holes like worms," perhaps serpents 
or "creeping things," or as in the Revised 
Version, "crawling things," are meant. 

The word is used figuratively in Job 25 : 
6 ; Ps. 22 : 6 ; Isa. 41 : 14 ; Mark 9 : 44, 46, 
48 ; Isa. 66 : 24. 

Worm''wood — Heb. la^andh — the Arte- 
misia absinthium of botanists. It is noted 
for its intense bitterness (Deut. 29 : 18 ; 
Prov. 5:4; Jer. 9 : 15 ; Amos 5 : 7). It is 
a type of bitterness — affliction, remorse, 
punitive suffering. In Amos 6 : 12 this 
Hebrew word is rendered "hemlock" 
(R.V., "wormwood"). In the symbolical 
language of the Apocalypse (Rev. 8 : 10, 11) 
a star is represented as falling on the 
waters of the earth, causing the third part 
of the water to turn wormwood. 

The name by which the Greeks desig- 
nated it, absinthion, means " undrinkable. " 
The absinthe of Erance is distilled from a 
species of this plant. The "southern- 
wood " or "old man," cultivated in cottage 
gardens on account of its fragrance, is an- 
other species of it. 

Wor^ship, homage rendered to God, 
which it is sinful (idolatry) to render to 
any created being (Ex. 34 : 14 ; Isa. 2 : 8). 
Such worship was refused by Peter (Acts 
10 : 25, 26) and by an angel (Rev. 22 : 8, 9). 
If Nebuchadnezzar's worship of Daniel 
(2 : 46) meant the paying him divine hon- 
our, it may be inferred, although it is not 
recorded, that Daniel directed him to the 
"God of gods." 

Wrestle (Eph. 6 : 12). See Games. 



WRITING 



697 



YEAR 



Writ'ing. The art of writing must have 
been known in the time of the early Pha- 
raohs. Moses is commanded "to write 
for a memorial in a book " (Ex. 17 : 14) a 
record of the attack of Amalek. Fre- 
quent mention is afterwards made of writ- 
ing (28 : 11, 21, 29, 36 ; 31 : 18 ; 32 : 15, 16 ; 
34 : 1, 28 ; 39 : 6, 14, 30). The origin of 
this art is unknown, but there is reason to 
conclude that in the age of Moses it was 
well known. The inspired books of Moses 
are the most ancient extant writings, al- 
though there are written monuments as 
old as about e.g. 2000. The words ex- 
pressive of "writing," "book," and "ink," 
are common to all the branches or dialects 
of the Semitic language, and hence it has 
been concluded that this art must have 
been known to, the earliest Semites before 
they separated into their various tribes, 
and nations, and families. 

When the Hebrews entered Canaan it 
is evident that the art of writing was 
known to the original inhabitants, as 
appears, e.g., from the name of the city 
Debir having been at first Kirjath-sepher — 
i.e., the "city of the book," or the "book 
town " (Josh. 10 : 38 ; 15 : 15 ; Judg. 1 : 11). 

The first mention of letter-writing is in 
the time of David, who sent a fatal letter 
to Joab by the hands of Uriah (2 Sam. 11 : 
14, 15). Letters are afterwards frequently 
spoken of (1 Kings 21 : 8, 9, 11 ; 2 Kings 
10:1, 2, 6, 7; 19:14; 2 Chr. 21:12-15; 
30:1, 6-9, etc.). 



When the material to be written upon 
was hard, as stone (Ex. 31 : 18 ; 32 : 15 ; 34 : 
1, 4, 28), brass, or plaster (Deut. 27 : 2 ; 
Josh. 8 : 32), an iron tool was used for the 
purpose (Job 19 : 24 ; Ps. 45 : 1 ; Isa. 8:1; 
Jer. 8:8; 17 : 1) ; and when skin or parch- 
ment was used, a reed with ink was em- 
ployed (Jer. 36 : 18 ; 2 Cor. 3 : 3 ; 2 John 
12 ; 3 John 13). The writer's inkhorn was 
suspended at his side (Ezek. 9 : 2, 3). (See 
Roll.) Dr. Thomson {Land and Book), 
describing the modern custom, says : — 
"They do not carry ink now as the pro- 
phets and scribes of old did, but have an 
apparatus consisting of a metal or ebony 
tube for their reed pens, with a cup or 
bulb of the same material attached to the 
upper end for the ink. This they thrust 
through the girdle and carry with them at 
all times. When they are to write a letter, 
for example, they open the lid of the ink 
bulb, draw out a long reed pen from the 
tube, double over the paper, and begin 
from the right side of the page, holding 
the paper in the hand without any sup- 
port. If you wish to be respectful, you 
must take a large sheet, and the lines 
should incline upward toward the left 
corner of the paper. It must be folded 
long, like documents on file, pdaced within 
a neatly-cut envelope made for the occa- 
sion, and the address written across the 
paper. It must he sealed. The open letter 
or paper sent by Sanballat to Nehemiah 
[6 : 5] was an insult. " 



Yarn. Pound only in 1 Kings 10 : 28, 
2 Chr. 1:16. The Heb, word mikveh, i.e., 
"a stringing together," so rendered, rather 
signifies a host, or company, or a string 
of horses. The Authorized Version has : 
" And Solomon had liorses brought out of 
Egypt, and linen yarn: the king's mer- 
chants received the linen yarn at a price ; " 
but the Revised Version correctly renders : 
" And the horses which Solomon had were 
brought out of Egypt ; and the king's mer- 



chants received them in droves, each drove 
at a j)rice." 

Year — Heb. shdndh — meaning "repeti- 
tion" or "revolution" (Gen. 1:14; 5:3). 
Among the ancient Egyptians the year 
consisted of twelve months of thirty days 
each, with five days added to make it a 
complete revolution of the earth round the 
sun. The Jews reckoned the year in two 
ways — (1) according to a sacred calendar, in 
which the year began about the time of 



YESHEBI 



698 



ZABDI 



the vernal equinox, with the month Abib ; 
and (2) according to a civil calendar, in 
which the year began about the time of 
the autumnal equinox, with the month 
Nisan. The month Tisri is now the be- 
ginning of the Jewish year. 

Yesh'ebi, the Hebrew word rendered 
"inhabitants " in Josh. 17:7, but probably 
rather the name of the village Yeshepheh, 
probably Yassuf, 8 miles south of Shechem. 

Yoke. (1. ) Pitted on the neck of oxen 
for the purpose of binding to them the 
traces by which they might draw the 
plough, etc. (Num. 19:2; Deut. 21:3). 
It was a curved piece of wood called 'dZ. 

(2.) In Jer. 27 : 2 ; 28 : 10, 12 the word in 
the Authorized Version rendered "yoke" 
is motdh, which properly means a "staff," 
or as in the Revised Version, "bar." 

These words in the Hebrew are both 



used figuratively of severe bondage, or 
affliction, or subjection (Lev. 26 : 13 ; 1 
Kings 12:4; Isa. 47:6; Lam. 1:14; 3; 
27). In the New Testament the word 
"yoke" is also used to denote servitude 
(Matt. 11 : 29, 30 ; Acts 15 : 10 ; Gal. 5 : 1). 

(3.) In 1 Sam. 11:7, 1 Kings 19:21, 
Job 1 : 3 the word thus translated is 
tzemed, which signifies a pair, two oxen 
yoked or coupled together, and hence in 
1 Sam. 14 : 14 it represents as much land 
as a yoke of oxen could plough in a day, 
like the Latin jugum. In Isa. 5 : 10 this 
word in the plural is translated "acres." 

Yoke-fellow (Phil. 4:3), one of the 
apostle's fellow -labourers. Some have con- 
jectured that Epaphroditus is meant. 
Wyckliffe renders the phrase "the german 
felowe" — i.e., "thee, germane [= genuine] 
comrade." 



Za'anaim — ^vandcrings; the unloading 
of tents — so called probably from the fact 
of nomads in tents encamping amid the 
cities and villages of that region, a place 
in the north-west of Lake Merom, near 
Kedesh, in Naphtali, Here Sisera was 
slain by Jael, "the wife of Heber the 
Kenite, " who had pitched his tent in the 
"plain [E,.V., 'as far as the oak'] of Za- 
anaim " ( Judg. 4 : 11). 

It has been, however, suggested by some 
that, following the LXX. and the Talmud, 
the letter h, which in Hebrew means "in,' 
should be taken as a part of the word fol- 
lowing, and the phrase would then be 
"unto the oak of Bitzanaim," a place 
which has been identified with the ruins 
of Bessum, about half-way between Tiberias 
and Mount Tabor. 

Za^anan- — place of flocks — mentioned 
only in Micah 1 : 11. It may be identified 
with Zenan, in the plain country of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 37). 

Zaanan^nim = Zaanaim (Josh. 19: 
33). 

Za^avan — terror — one of the ' ' dukes of 



Edom" (Gen. 36:27); called also Zavan 
(1 Chr. 1 : 42). 

Za'hsbd—gift. (1.) One of David's val- 
iant men (1 Chr. 11 : 41), the descendant of 
Ahlai, of the "children of Sheshan " (2 : 31). 

(2.) A descendant of Tahath (7 : 21). 

(3. ) The son of Shemath. He conspired 
against Joash, king of Judah, and slew 
him (2 Chr. 24 : 25, 26). He is called also 
Jozachar (2 Kings 12 : 21). 

(4.) Ezra 10: 27. 

(5.) Ezra 10: 33. 

(6.) Ezra 10: 43. 

Zab^bai — wanderer; pure. (1.) Ezra 
10 : 28. 

(2.) The father of Baruch, who "ear- 
nestly rejjaired " part of the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. 3:20; marg., "Zaccai"). 

Zab'bud— r/?/i(— Ezra 8 : 14. 

Zsib^di—gift of Jehovah. (1.) An an- 
cestor of Achan (Josh. 7 : 1, 17, 18). He is 
probably the " Zimri " of 1 Chr. 2 : 6. 

(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 19). 

(3.) Called "the Shephmite," one of 
David's officers, who had charge of his 
vineyards (1 Chr. 27 : 27). 



ZABDIEL 



699 



ZACHARIAS 



(4.) A Levite, one of the sons of Asaph 
(Neh. 11 : 17) ; probably the same as Zichri 
(1 Chr. 9 : 15), and Zaccnr (Neh. 12 : 35). 

Zsib'diel— gift of God. (1.) The father 
of Jashobeam, who was one of David's offi- 
cers (1 Chr. 27 : 2). 

(2.) An overseer of the priests after the 
Captivity (Neh. 11 : 14). 

Za'bud — gift — the son of Nathan, who 
was "king's friend " in - the court of Solo- 
mon (1 Kings 4 : 5). 

Zab^ulon (Matt. 4:13, 15; Rev. 7:8). 
See Zebulun. 

Zsic^cai^pure — one whose "sons" re- 
turned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Ezra 
2:9; Neh. 7 : 14). (See Zabbai. ) 

Zacchae''us — pure — a superintendent of 
customs ; a chief tax-gatherer {puhlicanus) 
at Jericho (Luke 19:1-10). "The collec- 
tion of customs at Jericho, which at this 
time produced and exported a considerable 
quantity of balsam, was undoubtedly an 
important post, and would account for 
Zacchasus being a rich man." Being short 
of stature, he hastened on before the mtil- 
titude who were thronging about Christ 
as he passed through Jericho on his way 
to Jerusalem, and climbed up a sycamore 
tree that he might be able to see him. 
When our Lord reached the spot he looked 
up to the publican among the branches, 
and addressing him by name, told him to 
make haste and come down, as he intended 
that day to abide at his house. This led 
to the remarkable interview recorded by 
the evangelist, and to the striking parable 
of the ten pounds (Luke 19 : 12-27). From 
that day forth Zacchseus doubtless became 
a disciple of Christ, but of his subsequent 
history we have no record. 

Zac'cur — mindful. (1.) Father of Sham- 
mua, who was one of the spies sent out by 
Moses (Niim. 13 : 4). 

(2.) A Merarite Levite (1 Chr. 24 : 27). 

(3. ) A son of Asaph, and chief of one of 
the courses of singers as arranged by David 
(1 Chr. 25 : 2, 10). 

(4.) Son of Imri (Neh. 3:2). 

(5.) A Levite (Neh. 10:12). 

(6.) The son of Mattaniah (Neh. 13 : 13). 

Zachari^ah — remembered hy the Lord. 
(1.) Son of Jeroboam II., king of Israel. 



On the death of his father there was an 
interregnum of ten years, at the end of 
which he succeeded to the throne, which 
he occuiDied only six months, having been 
put to death by Shallum, who usurped the 
throne. "He did that which was evil in 
the sight of the Lord, as his fathers had 
done " (2 Kings 14 : 29 ; 15 : 8-12). In him 
the dynasty of Jehu came to an end. 

(2.) The father of Abi, who was the 
mother of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 2). 

Zachari^as. (1.) A priest of the course 
of Abia, the eighth of the twenty-four 
courses into which the priests had been 
originally divided by David (1 Chr. 23 : 
1-19). Only four of these courses or 
' ' families " of the priests returned from 
the Exile (Ezra 2 : 36-39) ; but they were 
then re-distributed under the old desig- 
nations. The priests served at the temple 
twice each year, and only for a week each 
time. Zacharias's time had come for this 
service. During this period his home would 
be one of the chambers set apart for the 
priests on the sides of the temple ground. 
The offering of incense was one of the 
most solemn parts of the daily worship of 
the temple, and lots were drawn each day 
to determine who should have this great 
honour — an honour which no priest could 
enjoy more than once during his life- 
time. 

While Zacharias ministered at the golden 
altar of incense in the holy place, it was 
announced to him by the angel Gabriel 
that his wife Elisabeth, who was also of a 
priestly family, now stricken in years, 
would give birth to a son who was to be 
called John, and that he would be the 
forerunner of the long-expected Messiah 
(Luke 1 : 12-17). As a punishment for his 
refusing to believe this message, he was 
struck dumb and "not able to speak till 
the day that these things should be per- 
formed " (20). Nine months passed away, 
and Elisabeth's child was born, and when 
in answer to their inquiry Zacharias wrote 
on a " writing tablet," " His name is John," 
his mouth was opened, and he praised 
God (60-79). The child (John the Baptist), 
thus "born out of due time," "waxed 
strong in spirit " (1 : 80). 



ZACHER 



"00 



ZAREPHATH 



(2.) The "son of Barachias," mentioned 
as having been slain between the temple 
and the altar (Matt. 23 : 35 ; Luke 11 : 51). 
"Barachias" here may be another name 
for Jehoiada, as some think. (See Zecha- 
EIAH. ) 

Za''cher — memorial — a son of Jehiel (1 
Chr. 8 : 31 ; 9 : 35) ; called Zechariah (9 : 37). 

Za^dok — righteous. (1. ) A son of Ahitub, 
of the line of Eleazer (2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 
24 : 3), high priest in the time of David (2 
Sam. 20 : 25) and Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 4). He 
is first mentioned as coming to take part 
with David at Hebron (1 Chr. 12 : 27, 28). 
He was probably on this account made 
ruler over the Aaronites (27 : 17). Zadok 
and Abiathar acted as high priests on sev- 
eral important occasions (1 Chr. 15 : 11 ; 2 
Sam. 15 : 24-29, 35, 36) ; but when Adoni- 
jah endeavoured to secure the throne, 
Abiathar went with him, and therefore 
Solomon "thrust him out from being high 
priest," and Zadok, remaining faithful to 
David, became high priest alone (1 Kings 
2 : 27, 35 ; 1 Chr. 29 : 22). He took a prom- 
inent part in securing the succession of 
Solomon to the throne. No further men- 
tion is made of him. He was succeeded 
in his sacred office by his son Azariah (1 
Kings 4:2; comp. 1 Chr. 6 : 3-14). 

(2. ) The father of Jerusha, who was wife 
of King Uzziah, and mother of King 
Jotham (2 Kings 15 : 33 ; 2 Chr. 27 : 1). 

(3.) "The scribe " set over the treasuries 
of the temple by Nehemiah along with a 
priest and a Levite (Neh. 13 : 13). 

(4. ) The sons of Baana, one of those who 
assisted in rebuilding the wall of Jeru- 
salem (Neh. 3 : 4, 29). 

Za''ir — little — a place probably east of 
the Dead Sea, where Joram discomfited 
the host of Edom who had revolted from 
him (2 Kings 8 : 21). 

ZsiVraon— shady. (1.) One of David's 
warriors, called the Ahohite (2 Sam. 23 : 
28) ; called also Ilai (1 Chr. 11 : 29). 

(2.) A wood near Shechem, from which 
Abimelech and his party brought boughs 
and "put them to the hold "of Shechem, 
"and set the hold on fire" (Judg. 9:48). 
Probably that part of Mount Gerizim 
now called Jebel Sulman. (See Salmon.) 



Zalnio''nah — shady — one of the stations 
of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 
33 : 41, 42). 

Zalmun^na, one of the two kings of 
Midian whom the ' ' Lord delivered " into the 
hands of Gideon. He was slain afterwards 
with Zebah (Judg. 8 : 5-21). (See Zebah.) 

Zamzum^mims, a race of giants; "a 
people great, and many, and tall, as the Ana- 
kims" (Deut. 2 : 20, 21). They were overcome 
by the Ammonites, "who called them Zam- 
zummims." They belonged to the Rephaim, 
and inhabited the country afterwards occu- 
pied by the Ammonites. It has been con- 
jectured that they might be Ham-zuzims — 
i.e., Zuzims dwelling in Ham, a place ap- 
parently to the south of Ashteroth (Gen. 
14 : 5), the ancient Rabbath-ammon. 

Zano^ah — marsh. (1.) A town in the 
low country or shepMlah of Judah, near 
Zorah (Josh. 15 : 34). It was re-occupied 
after the return from the Captivity (Neh. 
11 : 30). ZaniVah in Wady Ismail, 10 miles 
west of Jerusalem, occupies probably the 
same site. 

(2. ) A town in the hill country of Judah, 
some 10 miles to the south-west of Hebron 
(Josh. 15 : 56). 

Zaph^nath-paane^ah, the name which 
Pharaoh gave to Joseph when he raised 
him to the rank of prime minister or grand 
vizier of the kingdom (Gen. 41 : 45). This 
is a pure Egyptian word, and has been 
variously explained. Some think it means 
' ' creator, "or " preserver of life. " Brugsch 
interprets it as "governor of the district of 
the place of life " — i.e., of Goshen, the chief 
city of which was Pithom, "the place of 
life." Others explain it as meaning "a 
revealer of secrets," or "the man to whom 
secrets are revealed." 

Zar^'ephath — smelting -shop, "a work- 
shop for the refining and smelting of 
metals " — a small Phoenician town, now 
Sfirafend, about a mile from the coast, 
almost midway on the road between Tyre 
and Sidon. Here Elijah sojourned with a 
poor widow during the "great famine," 
when the "heaven was shut up three years 
and six months " (Luke 4 : 26 ; 2 Kings 7 : 
1-4). It is called Sarepta in the New 
Testament (Luke 4 : 26). 



ZARETAN 



roi 



ZEBOIM 



Zar^etan. When the Hebrews crossed 
the Jordan, as soon as the feet of the 
priests were dipped in the water, the flow 
of the stream was arrested. The j)oint of 
arrest was the "city of Adam beside 
Zaretan," probably near Succoth, at the 
mouth of the Jabbok, some 30 miles up 
the river from where the people were en- 
camped. There the water "stood and 
rose upon an heap." Thus the whole 
space of 30 miles of the river-bed was dry, 
that the tribes might pass over (Josh. 3 : 16, 
17; comp. Ps. 104:3). 

Za''reth-slia^har — the splendour of the 
dawn — a city "in the mount of the valley " 
(Josh. 13 : 19). It is identified with the 
ruins of Zdra, near the mouth of the Wady 
Zerka Main, on the eastern shore of the 
Dead Sea, some 3 miles south of the Callir- 
rhoe. Of this town but little remains. "A 
few broken basaltic columns and pieces of 
wall about 200 yards back from the shore, 
and a ruined fort rather nearer the sea, 
about the middle of the coast line of the 
plain, are all that are left" (Tristram's 
Land of Moal). 

Zar^than, a place near Succoth, in the 
plain of the Jordan, "in the clay ground," 
near which Hiram cast the brazen utensils 
for the temple (1 Kings 7 : 46) ; probably 
the same as Zartan. It is also called 
Zeredathah (2 Chr. 4 : 17). (See Zereda.) 

Zat'thu— a sprout — Neh. 10 : 14. 

Zat^tu — id. — one whose descendants re- 
turned from the Captivity wdth Zerub- 
babel (Ezra 2:8; Neh. 7:13); probably 
the same as Zatthu. 

TtSi'za— plenty — a descendant of Judah 
(1 Chr. 2 : 33). 

Zeal, an earnest temper; may be en- 
lightened (Num. 25:11-13; 2 Cor. 7:11; 
9 : 2), or ignorant and misdirected (Rom. 
10 : 2 ; Phil. 3 : 6). As a Christian grace, it 
must be grounded on right principles and 
directed to right ends (Gal. 4:18). It is 
sometimes ascribed to God (2 Kings 19 : 
31 ; Isa. 9 : 7 ; 37 : 32 ; Ezek. 5 : 13). 

Zeal^ots, a sect of Jews which originated 
with Judas the Gaulonite (Acts 5 : 37). 
They refused to pay tribute to the Romans, 
on the ground that this was a violation of 
the principle that God was the only king of 



Israel. They rebelled against the Romans, 
but were soon scattered, and became a 
lawless band of mere brigands. They were 
afterwards called Sicarii, from their use of 
the sica — i.e., the Roman dagger. 

Zebadi'ah— ^i/i( of Jehovah. (1. ) A son 
of Asahel, Joab's brother (1 Chr. 27 : 7). 

(2.) A Levite who took part as one of 
the teachers in the system of national edu- 
cation instituted by Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 
17 : 7, 8). 

(3.) The son of Ishmael, " the ruler of the 
house of Judah in all the king's matters " 
(2 Chr. 19 : 8-11). 

(4.) A son of Beraiah (1 Chr. 8 : 15). 

(5.) A Korhite porter of the Lord's 
house (1 Chr. 26 : 2). Three or four others 
of this name are also mentioned. 

Ze''bah — man-killer, or sacrifice — one of 
the two kings who led the* vast host of the 
Midianites who invaded the land of Israel, 
and over whom Gideon gained a great and 
decisive victory (Judg. 8). Zebah and 
Zalmunna had succeeded in escaping across 
the Jordan with a remnant of the Midian- 
ite host, but were overtaken at Karkor, 
probably in the Hauran, and routed by 
Gideon. The kings were taken alive and 
brought back across the Jordan ; and con- 
fessing that they had j)ersonally taken part 
in the slaughter of Gideon's brothers, they 
were put to death (comp. 1 Sam. 12 : 11 ; 
Isa. 10 : 26 ; Ps. 83 : 11). 

Zeba^m (Ezra 2:57; Neh. 7:59). 
' ' Pochereth of Zebaim " should be read as 
in the Revised Version, " Pochereth -haz- 
zabaim" ("snaring the antelopes"), prob- 
ably the name of some hunter. 

Zeb''edee, a Galilean fisherman, the 
husband of Salome {q.v.), and the father of 
James and John, two of our Lord's dis- 
ciples (Matt. 4 : 21 ; 27 : 56 ; Mark 15 : 40). 
He seems to have been a man of some 
position in Capernaum, for he had two 
boats (Luke 5:4) and "hired servants" 
(Mark 1 : 20) of his own. No mention is 
made of him after the call of his two sons 
by Jesus. 

Zebo^im — gazelles or roes. (1.) One of 
the "five cities of the plain" of Sodom, 
generally coupled with Admah (Gen. 10 : 
19 ; 14 : 2 ; Deut. 29 : 23 ; Hos. 11 : 8). It 



ZEBUDAH 



702 



ZECHARIAH 



had a king of its own (Shemeber), and was 
therefore a place of some importance. It 
was destroyed along with the other cities 
of the plain. 

(2. ) A valley or rugged glen somewhere 
near Gibeah in Benjamin (1 Sam. 13 : 18). 
It was probably the ravine now bearing the 
name Wddy Shakh-ed-DuVa, or "ravine of 
the hyena, " north of Jericho. 

(3. ) A place mentioned only in Neh, 11 : 
34, inhabited by the Benjamites after the 
Captivity. 

Zebu^dab — given — the wife of Josiah 
and mother of Jehoiakim (2 Kings 23 : 36). 

Ze'bul — habitation — the governor of 
Shechem under Abimelech ( Judg. 9 : 28, 
30, 36). He informed his master of the in- 
tention of the people of Shechem to trans- 
fer their allegiance to the Hivite tribe of 
Hamor. This led to Abimelech's destroy- 
ing the city, when he put its entire popula- 
tion to the sword, and sowed the ruins with 
salt (Judg. 9 : 28-45). 

Zeb^ulonite, the designation of Elon, 
the judge who belonged to the tribe of 
Zebulun (Judg. 12 : 11, 12). 

Zeb^ulun — dwelling — the sixth and 
youngest son of Jacob and Leah (Gen. 30 : 
20). Little is known of his personal his- 
tory. He had three sons (46 : 14). 

Zeb^ulun, Tribe of, numbered at Sinai 
(Num. 1 : 31) and before entering Canaan 
(26 : 27). It was one of the tribes which 
did not drive out the Canaanites, but only 
made them tributary (Judg. 1 : 30). It took 
little interest in public affairs. It responded, 
however, readily to the summons of Gideon 
(6 : 35), and afterwards assisted in enthron- 
ing David at Hebron (1 Chr. 12 : 33, 40). 
Along with the other northern tribes, Zebu- 
lun was carried away into the land of 
Assyria by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 15 : 29). 

In Deborah's song the words, "Out of 
Zebulun they that handle the pen of the 
writer " (Judg. 5 : 14), ought rather to be, as 
in the Revised Version, ' ' They that handle 
the marshal's staff." The word here ren- 
dered "pen" [sMbhet] means properly a 
"rod," "staff," and hence is generally ren- 
dered "tribe." It is here probably "a 
staff" or rod of office, as of a leader or 
chief, a military officer, "who compared 



with his list the men who answered to the 
summons, and then marshalled them in pro- 
cession before the general with his rod of 
office in his hand." 

Zeb^ulun, Lot of, in Galilee, to the north 
of Issachar and south of Asher and Naphtali 
(Josh. 19 : 10-16), and between the Sea of 
Galilee and the Mediterranean. According 
to ancient prophecy this part of Galilee en- 
joyed a large share of our Lord's public 
ministry (Isa. 9 : 1, 2 ; Matt. 4 : 12-16). 

Zechari^ah — Jehovah is renowned or re- 
membered. (1.) A prophet of Judah — the 
eleventh of the twelve minor prophets. 
Like Ezekiel, he was of priestly extrac- 
tion. He describes himself (1:1) as "the 
son of Berechiah." In Ezra 5 : 1 and 6 : 14 
he is called "the son of Iddo," who w^as 
properly his grandfather. His prophetical 
career began in the second year of Darius 
(B.C. 520), about sixteen years after the re- 
turn of the first company from exile. He 
was contemporary with Haggai (Ezra 5 : 1). 

His book consists of two distinct parts — 
(1) chapters 1 to 8, inclusive, and (2) 9 to 
the end. It begins with a preface (1 : 1-6), 
which recalls the nation's past history, for 
the purpose of presenting a solemn warning 
to the present generation. Then follows a 
series of eight visions (1 : 7-6 : 8), succeeding 
one another in one night, which may be re- 
garded as a symbolical history of Israel, 
intended to furnish consolation to the re- 
turned exiles and stir up hope in their 
minds. The symbolical action, the crown- 
ing of Joshua (6 : 9-15), describes how the 
kingdoms of the world become the king- 
dom of God's Christ. 

Chapters 7 and 8, delivered two years 
later, are an answer to the question whether 
the days of mourning for the destruction 
of the city should be any longer kept, and 
an encouraging address to the people, assur- 
ing them of God's presence and blessing. 

The second part of the book (ch. 9-14) 
bears no date. It is probable that a con- 
siderable interval separates it from the first 
part. It consists of two burdens. 

The first burden (ch. 9-11) gives an out- 
line of the course of God's providential 
dealings with his people down to the time 
of the Advent. 



ZECHARIAH 



703 



ZEDEKIAH 



The second burden (ch. 12-14) points out 
the glories that await Israel in " the latter 
day" — the final conflict and triumph of 
God's kingdom. 

(2.) The son or grandson of Jehoiada, the 
tiigh priest in the times of Ahaziah and 
Joash. After the death of Jehoiada he 
boldly condemned both the king and the 
people for their rebellion against God 
(2 Chr. 24 : 20), which so stirred up their 
resentment against him that at the king's 
commandment they stoned him with stones, 
and he died "in the court of the house of 
the Lord " (24 : 21). Christ aUudes to this 
deed of miarder in Matt. 23 : 35, Luke 
11 : 51. (See Zacharias [2]. ) 

(3.) A prophet, who had "understanding 
in the seeing of God," in the time of LTzziah, 
Avho was much indebted to him for his wise 
counsel (2 Chr. 26 : 5). 

Besides these, there is a large number of 
persons mentioned in Scripture bearing this 
name of whom nothing is kno-WTi. 

(4.) One of the chiefs of the tribe of 
Reuben (1 Chr. 5 : 7). 

(5. ) One of the porters of the tabernacle 
(1 Chr. 9 : 21). 

(6.) 1 Chr. 9:37. 

(7.) Two Levites who assisted at the 
bringing up of the ark from the house of 
Obed-edom (1 Chr. 15 : 20-24). 

(8.) A Kohathite Levite (1 Chr. 24 : 25). 

(9.) A Merarite Levite (1 Chr. 26 : 11). 

(10.) The father of Iddo (1 Chr. 27 : 21). 

(11.) One who assisted in teaching the 
law to the people in the time of Jehoshaphat 
(2 Chr. 17 : 7). 

(12.) A Levite of the sons of Asaph 
(2 Chr. 20 : 14). 

(13.) One of Jehoshaphat's sons (2 Chr. 
21 : 2). 

(14.) The father of Abijah, who was the 
mother of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29 : 1). 

(15.) One of the sons of Asaph (2 Chr. 
29 : 13). 

(16.) One of the "rulers of the house of 
God " (2 Chr. 35 : 8). 

(17. ) A chief of the people in the time of 
Ezra, who consulted him about the return 
from capti^nty (Ezra 8 : 16) ; probably the 
same as mentioned in Neh. 8 : 4. 

(18.) Neh. 11:12. 



(19.) Neh. 12:16. 

(20.) Neh. 12:35, 41. 

(2L) Isa. 8:2. 

Ze^dad — side ; sloping place — a to^vn in 
the north of Palestine, near Hamath (Num. 
34 : 8 ; Ezek. 47 : 15). It has been identified 
with the ruins of Sudud, between Emesa 
{Hums) and Baalbec, but that is uncertain. 

Zedeki''ah — righteousness of Jehovah. 
(1.) The last king of Judah. He was the 
third son of Josiah, and his mother's name 
was Hamutal, the daughter of Jeremiah of 
Libnah, and hence he was the brother of 
Jehoahaz (2 Kings 23 : 31 ; 24 : 17, 18). His 
original name was Mattaniah ; but when 
Nebuchadnezzar placed him on the throne 
as the successor to Jehoiachin he changed 
his name to Zedekiah. The prophet Jere- 
miah was his counsellor, yet "he did evil 
in the sight of the Lord " (2 Kings 24 : 
19, 20 ; Jer. 52 : 2, 3). He ascended the 
throne at the age of twenty-one years. The 
kingdom was at that time tributary to 
Nebuchadnezzar ; but, despite the strong 
remonstrances of Jeremiah and others, as 
well as the example of Jehoiachin, he threw 
off the yoke of Babylon, and entered into 
an alliance with Hophra, king of Egypt. 
This brought up Nebuchadnezzar, "with all 
his host " (2 King 25 : 1), against Jerusalem. 
During this siege, which lasted about eigh- 
teen months, "every worst woe befell the 
devoted city, which drank the cup of God's 
fury to the dregs " (2 Kings 25 : 3 ; Lam. 
4 : 4, 5, 10). The city was plundered and 
laid in ruins. Zedekiah and his followers, 
attempting to escape, were made captive 
and taken to Riblah. There, after seeing 
his own children put to death, his own eyes 
were put out, and, being loaded Avith chains, 
he was carried captive (b.c. 588) to Babylon 
(2 Kings 25 : 1-7 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 12 ; Jer. 32 : 4, 5 ; 
34:2,3; 39:1-7; 52:4-11; Ezek. 12:12), 
where he remained a j)risoner — how long is 
unknown — to the day of his death. 

After the fall of Jerusalem, Nebuzar- 
addan was sent to carry out its complete 
destruction. The city was razed to the 
ground. Only a small number of vine- 
dressers and hiisbandmen were permitted to 
remain in the land (Jer. 52 : 16). Gedaliah, 
with a Chaldean guard stationed at Mizpah, 



ZEEB 



704 



ZEPHANIAH 



ruled over Judah (2 Kings 25:22, 23; 
Jer. 40 : 1, 2, 5, 6). 

(2. ) The son of Ctienaanah, a false prophet 
in the days of Ahab (1 Kings 22 : 11, 24 ; 
2 Chr. 18 : 10, 23). 

(3.) The son of Hananiah, a prince of 
Judah in the days of Jehoiakim (Jer. 
36 : 12). 

Ze''eb — the icolf — one of the two leaders 
of the great Midianite host which invaded 
Israel and was utterly routed by Gideon. 
The division of that host, which attempted 
to escape across the Jordan, under Oreb 
and Zeeb, was overtaken by the Ephraim- 
ites, who, in a great battle, completely van- 
quished them, their leaders being taken and 
slain (Judg. 7 : 25; Ps. 83 : 11 ; Isa. 10 : 26). 

Ze^lah — slope; side — a town in Benjamin, 
where Saul and his son Jonathan were 
buried (2 Sam. 21 : 14). It was probably 
Saul's birthplace. 

Ze''lek — cleft — an Ammonite ; one of 
David's valiant men (2 Sam. 23 : 37). 

Zelo'phehad— j^rs^ftorw — of the tribe of 
Manasseh, and of the family of Gilead ; 
died in the wilderness. Having left no 
sons, his daughters, concerned lest their 
father's name should be "done away from 
among his family, " made an appeal to Moses, 
who, by divine direction, appointed it as 
*'a statute of judgment" in Israel that 
daughters should inherit their father's por- 
tion when no sons were left (Num. 27 : 1-11). 
But that the possession of Zelophehad 
might not pass away in the year of jubilee 
from the tribe to which he belonged, it was 
ordained by Moses that his daughters should 
not marry any one out of their father's 
tribe ; and this afterwards became a general 
law (Num. 36). 

Zelo^tes (Luke 6 : 15). See Simon ; 
Zealots. 

Zemara^im. (1.) A town of Benjamin 
(Josh. 18 : 22) ; now the ruin, rather two 
ruins, es-Sumrdh, 4 miles north of Jericho. 

(2. ) Amount in the highlands of Ephraim, 
to the north of Jerusalem (2 Chr. 13 : 4-20). 
Here the armies of Abijah and Jeroboam 
engaged in a bloody battle, which iss\ied in 
the total defeat of the king of Israel, who 
never " recovered strength again," and soon 
after died. 



Zem'^arite, the designation of one of the 
Phoenician tribes (Gen. 10 : 18) who in- 
habited the town of Sumra, at the western 
base of the Lebanon range. 

Zem''ira — vine - dresser — a Benjamite ; 
one of the sons of Becher (1 Chr. 7 : 8). 

Ze^'nas, a disciple called "the lawyer," 
whom Paul wished Titus to bring with him 
(Titus 3 : 13). Nothing more is known of 
him. 

Zephani'^ah — Jehovah has concealed, or 
Jehovah of darkness. (1. ) The son of Cushi, 
and great-grandson of Hezekiah, and the 
ninth in the order of the minor prophets. 
He prophesied in the days of Josiah, king 
of Judah (B.C. 641-610), and was contem- 
porary with Jeremiah, with whom he has 
much in common. 

The book of his prophecies consists of : — 

{a) An introduction (1 : 1-6), announcing 
the judgment of the world, and the judg- 
ment upon Israel, because of their trans- 
gressions. 

(6) The description of the judgment (1 : 
7-18). 

(c) An exhortation to seek God while 
there is still time (2 : 1-3). 

{d) The announcement of judgment on 
the heathen (2 : 4-15). 

(e) The hopeless misery of Jerusalem 
(3:1-7). 

(/) The promise of salvation (3 : 8-20). 

His description of the great day of judg- 
ment in 1 : 14, 15 suggested to Thomas a 
Celano (a.d. 1250) the subject of the famous 
Latin hymn Dies Irce. 

(2.) The son of Maaseiah, the "second 
priest " in the reign of Zedekiah, often men- 
tioned in Jeremiah as having been sent from 
the king to inquire (Jer. 21 : 1) regarding 
the coming woes which he had denounced, 
and to entreat the prophet's intercession 
that the judgment threatened might be 
averted (Jer. 29 : 25, 26, 29 ; 37 : 3 ; 38 : 1, 4 ; 
52 : 24). He, along with some other captive 
Jews, was put to death by the king of 
Babylon "in Piblah in the land of Hamath " 
(2 Kings 25 : 21). 

(3.) A Kohathite ancestor of the prophet 
Samuel (1 Chr. 6 : 36). 

(4. ) The father of Josiah, the priest who 
dwelt in Jerusalem when Darius issued the 



ZEPHATH 



705 



ZICHRI 



decree that the temple should be rebuilt 
(Zech. 6 : 10). 

Ze'phath — beacon; watch-tower — a Ca- 
naanite town; called also Hormah (g.r.) — 
Judg. 1 : 17. It has been identified with 
the pass of es-Sufah, but with greater prob- 
ability with S'beita. 

Zeph^athah, a valley in the west of 
Judah, near Mareshah ; the scene of Asa's 
conflict with Zerah the Ethiopian (2 Chr. 
14 : 9-13). Identified Avith the Wddy Safieh. 

Ze^rah — rising. (1.) An Ethiopian, prob- 
ably Osorkon II., the successor of Shishak 
on the throne of Egypt. With an enormous 
army, the largest we read of in Scripture, 
he invaded the kingdom of Judah in the 
days of Asa (2 Chr. 14 : 9-15). He reached 
Zephathah, and there encountered the 
army of Asa. This is the only instance 
"in all the annals of Judah of a victori- 
ous encounter in the field with a first-class 
heathen power in full force." The Egyp- 
tian host was utterly routed, and the He- 
brews gathered "exceeding much spoil." 
Three hundred years elapsed before an- 
other Egyptian army — that of Necho (b.c. 
609) — came up against Jerusalem. 

(2.) A son of Tamar (Gen. 38 : 30) ; called 
also Zara (Matt. 1 : 3). 

(3. ) A Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. 6 : 21,41). 

Ze^red = Zared — luxuriance ; tvillow 
bush — a brook or valley communicating with 
the Dead Sea near its southern extremity 
(Num. 21 : 12 ; Deut. 2 : 14). It is called the 
"brook of the willows" (Isa. 15:7) and the 
"river of the wilderness " (Amos 6 : 14). It 
has been identified with the Wddy el-Aksy. 

Zer^eda — the fortress — a city on the 
north of Mount Ephraim; the birthplace 
of Jeroboam (1 Kings 11 : 26). It is prob- 
ably the same as Zaretan (Josh. 3 : 16), 
Zererath (Judg. 7 : 22), Zartanah (1 Kings 
4 : 12), or the following. 

Zered^athah, a place in the plain of 
Jordan ; the same as Zarthan (2 Chr. 4 : 17 ; 
1 Kings 7 : 46). Here Solomon erected the 
foundries in which Hiram made the great 
castings of bronze for the temple. 

Zer'erath (Judg. 7 : 22), perhaps iden- 
tical with Zereda or Zeredathah. Some 
identify it with Zahrah, a place about 3 
miles west of Beth-shean. 



Ze^resh — star of Venus — the wife of 
Haman, whom she instigated to prepare a 
gallows for Mordecai (Esther 5 : 10). 

Zeru''ah—sfncA;m— mother of Jeroboam, 
the first king of the ten tribes (1 Kings 
11 : 26). 

Zerub'babel— &orri at Babylon — the son 
of Salathiel or Shealtiel (Hag. 1:1; Zorob- 
abel, Matt. 1 : 12) ; called also the son of 
Pedaiah (1 Chr. 3:17-19) — i.e., according 
to a frequent usage of the word "son;" 
the grandson or the nephew of Salathiel. 
He is also known by the Persian name of 
Sheshbazzar (Ezra 1 : 8, 11). In the first 
year of Cyrus, king of Persia, he led the 
first band of Jews, numbering 42,360 (Ezra 
2 : 64), exclusive of a large number of serv- 
ants, who returned from captivity at the 
close of the seventy years. In the second 
year after the Return, he erected an altar 
and laid the foundation of the temple on 
the ruins of that which had been destroyed 
by Nebuchadnezzar (3 : 8-13 ; ch. 4-6). All 
through the work he occupied a prominent 
place, inasmuch as he was a descendant of 
the royal line of David. 

Zerui'Sih— stricken of the Xorc?— David's 
sister, and the mother of Abishai, Joab, 
and Asahel (1 Chr. 2 : 16), who were the 
three leading heroes of David's army, and 
being his nephews, they were admitted to 
the closest companionship with him. 

Ze^tham — olive planter — a Levite (1 Chr. 
23 : 8). 

Ze^than, a Benjamite (1 Chr. 7 : 10). 

Zi'a— /ear— a Gadite (1 Chr. 5 : 13). 

ZFba — post; statue — "a servant in the 
house of Saul " (2 Sam. 9:2), who informed 
David that Mephibosheth, a son of Jon- 
athan, was alive. He afterwards dealt 
treacherously toward Mephibosheth, whom 
he slanderously misrepresented to David. 

Zib'^eon — robber; or dyed. (1.) A Hiv- 
ite (Gen. 36 : 2). 

(2. ) A Horite, and son of Seir (Gen. 36 : 20). 

ZiWia,— gazelle— Si Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 9). 

Zib'iah, the mother of King Joash 
(2 Kings 12:1; 2 Chr. 24:1). 

Zich^ri — remembered; illustrious. (1.) A 
Benjamite chief (1 Chr. 8 : 19). 

(2.) Another of the same tribe (1 Chr. 
8 : 23). 

46 



ZIDDIM 



706 



ZIMMAH 



Zid^dim — sides — a town of Naphtali 
(Josh. 19 : 35), has been identified with 
Kefr-Hattin, the " village of the Hittites," 
about 5 miles west of Tiberias. 

Zidki'^jah — the Lord is righteous — one 
who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
(Neh. 10 : 1). 

Zi'don — a fishery— 3b town on the Medi- 
terranean coast, about 25 miles north of 
Tyre. It received its name from the 
"first-born" of Canaan, the grandson of 
Noah (Gen. 10 : 15, 19). It was the first 
home of the Phoenicians on the coast of 
Palestine, and from its extensive commer- 
cial relations became a "great" city (Josh, 
11:8; 19:28). It was the mother city of 
Tyre. It lay within the lot of the tribe of 
Asher, but was never subdued ( Jud'g. 1 : 
31). The Zidonians long oppressed Israel 
( Judg. 10 : 12). From the time of David 
its glory began to wane, and Tyre, its 
" virgin daughter " (Isa. 23 : 12), rose to' its 
place of pre-eminence. Solomon entered 
into a matrimonial alliance with the Zi- 
donians, and thus their form of idolatrous 
worship found a place in the land of Israel 
(1 Kings 11 : 1, 33). This city was famous 
for its manufactures and arts, as well as 
for its commerce (1 Kings 5:6; 1 Chr. 
22:4; Ezek. 27:8). It is frequently re- 
ferred to by the prophets (Isa. 23 : 2, 4, 12 ; 
Jer. 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ezek. 27:8; 
28 : 21, 22 ; 32 : 30 ; Joel 3 : 4). Our Lord 
visited the "coasts" of Tyre and Zidon = 
Sidon (g. v.)— Matt. 15:21; Mark 7:24; 
Luke 4 : 26 ; and from this region many 
came forth to hear him preaching (Mark 
3:8; Luke 6 : 17). From Sidon, at which 
the ship put in after leaving Csesarea, Paul 
finally sailed for Rome (Acts 27 : 3, 4). 

This city is now a ruin, called Saida. 
Among its remains many ancient tombs 
have been found. In 1855, the sarcopha- 
gus of Eshmanezer was discovered. From 
a Phoenician inscription on its lid, it ap- 
pears that he was a "king of the Sidon- 
ians," probably in the eleventh century 
B.C., and that his mother was a priestess 
of Ashtoreth, "the goddess of the Sidon- 
ians." In this inscription Baal is men- 
tioned as the chief god of the Sidonians. 

Zit— brightness ; splendour; i.e., "the 



flower month " — mentioned only in 1 Kings 

6 : 1, 37, as the ' ' second month. " It was 
called lyar by the later Jews. (See 
Month.) 

ZViia— drought. (1.) The name of a 
family of Nethinim (Ezra. 2:43; Neh. 

7 : 46). 

(2.) A ruler among the Nethinim (Neh. 
11 : 21). 

Zik'lag, a town in the Negeb, or south 
country of Judah (Josh. 15 : 31), in the 
possession of the Philistines when David 
fled to Gath from Ziph with all his fol- 
lowers. Achish, the king, assigned him 
Ziklag as his place of residence. There he 
dwelt for over a year and four months. 
From this time it pertained to the kings 
of Judah (1 Sam. 27 : 6, 7). During his ab- 
sence with his army to join the Philistine 
expedition against the Israelites (29 : 11), it 
was destroyed by the Amalekites (30 : 1, 2), 
whom David, however, pursued and utterly 
routed, returning all the captives (1 Sam. 
30 : 26-31). Two days after his return from 
this expedition, David received tidings of 
the disastrous battle of Gilboa and of the 
death of Saul (2 Sam. 1 : 1-12). He now left 
Ziklag and returned to Hebron, along with 
his two wives, Ahinoam and Abigail, and 
his band of 600 men. It has been identified 
with 'AsMj, a heap of ruins south of Beer- 
sheba. Conder, however, identifies it with 
Khirhet Zuheilikah, ruins found on three 
hills half a mile apart, some seventeen 
miles north-west of Beersheba, on the con- 
fines of Philistia, Judah, and Amalek. 

Zil^lah — shadow — one of the wives of 
Lamech, of the-^line of Cain, and mother of 
Tubal-cain (Gen. 4 : 19, 22), 

Zil''pah — drooping — Leah 's handmai d, 
and the mother of Gad and Asher (Gen, 
30 : 9-13), 

Zirthai — shadoio {i.e., protection) of 
Jehovah. (1.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 20). 

(2,) One of the captains of the tribe of 
Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag 
(1 Chr, 12 : 20), 

Zim'mah— mwf/iie/- (1-) A Gershonite 
Levite (1 Chr. 6 : 20), 

(2,) Another Gershonite Levite (1 Chr, 
6 : 42). 

(3,) The father of Joah (2 Chr. 29 : 12), 



ZIMRAN 



707 



ZOAN 



Zim^ran — vine-dressers ; celebrated — one 
of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 
25 : 2). 

Zim^ri — praiseworthy. (1.) A son of 
Salu, slain by Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, 
because of his wickedness in bringing a 
Midianitish woman into his tent (Num. 
25 : 6-15). 

(2.) Murdered Elah at Tirzah, and suc- 
ceeded him on the throne of Israel (1 Kings 
16 : 8-10). He reigned only seven days, for 
Omri, whom the army elected as king, laid 
siege to Tirzah, whereupon Zimri set fire 
to the palace and perished amid its ruins 
(11-20). Omri succeeded to the throne only 
after four years of fierce war with Tibni, 
another claimant to the throne. 

Zin — a loio palm-tree — the south-eastern 
corner of the desert et-Tih, the wilderness 
of Paran, between the Gulf of Akabah and 
the head of the Wady Guraiyeh (Num. 13 : 
21). To be distinguished from the wilder- 
ness of Sin {q.v.). 

ZVna, — ornament — one of the sons of 
Shimei (1 Chr. 23 : 10). 

Zi''on — sunny ; height — one of the emin- 
ences on which Jerusalem was built. It 
was surrounded on all sides, except the 
north, by deep valleys, that of the Tyro- 
poeon {q. v. ) separating it from Moriah {q. v. ), 
which it surpasses in height by 105 feet. It 
was the south-western hill of Jerusalem. 

When David took it from the Jebusites 
(Josh. 15 : 68 ; 2 Sam, 5 : 7) he built on it a 
citadel and a palace, and it became "the 
city of David " (1 Kings 8 : 1 ; 2 Kings 19 : 21, 
31 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 5). In the later books of the 
Old Testament this name was sometimes 
used (Ps. 87 : 2 ; 149 : 2 ; Isa. 33 : 14 ; Joel 2 : 1) 
to denote Jerusalem in general, and some- 
times God's chosen Israel (Ps. 51 : 18 ; 87 : 5). 

In the New Testament (see Sion) it is 
used sometimes to denote the Church of 
God (Heb. 12:22), and sometimes the 
heavenly city (Rev. 14 : 1). 

Zi^or — littleness — a city in the mountains 
of Judah (Josh, 15:54); the modern SVair, 
4^ miles north-north-east of Hebron. 

Zipb.—floiving. (1.) A son of Jehaleleel 
(1 Chr. 4 : 16). 

(2.) A city in the south of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 24), probably at the pass of Sufdh. 



(3.) A city in the mountains of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 55), identified with the unin- 
habited ruins of Tell ez-Zif, about 5 miles 
south-east of Hebron. Here David hid 
himself during his wanderings (1 Sam. 23 : 
19 ; Ps. 54, title). 

Zi^phah, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 
4:16). 

Ziph^ron — sweet odour— 2h city on the 
northern border of Palestine (Num. 34 : 9), 
south-east of Hamath. 

Zip'por — a little bird — the father of 
Balak, king of Moab (Num. 22 : 2, 4). 

Zipi^o^r ah— a female bio'd. Reuel's daugh- 
ter, who became the wife of Moses (Ex. 2 : 
21). In consequence of the event recorded 
in Ex. 4 : 24-26, she and her two sons, 
Gershom and Eliezer, when so far on the 
way with Moses toward Egypt, were sent 
back by him to her own kinsfolk, the Mid- 
ianites, with whom they sojourned till 
Moses afterwards joined them (18 : 2-6). 

Zith^ri — the Lord protects — a Levite, son 
of Uzziel (Ex. 6 : 22). 

Ziz — projecting ; afloiver — a cleft or pass, 
probably that near En-gedi, which leads up 
from the Dead Sea (2 Chr. 20 : 16) in the 
direction of Tekoa ; now Tell Hasdsah. 

Zi'za — splendour ; abundance. (1.) A 
Simeonite prince (1 Chr, 4 : 37-43). 

(2.) A son of Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11 : 20). 

Zi^zah, a Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. 23 : 
11). 

Zo'^an — low region — a city on the eastern 
— i.e., "the Tanitic" — branch of the Nile, 
called by the Greeks Tanis. It was built 
seven years after Hebron in Palestine 
(Num. 13 : 22). This great and important 
city was the capital of the Hyksos, or 
Shepherd kings, who ruled Egypt for more 
than five hundred years. It was the fron- 
tier to^^'n of Goshen. Here Pharaoh was 
holding his court at the time of his various 
interviews with Moses and Aaron. "No 
trace of Zoan exists ; Tanis was built over 
it, and city after city has been built over 
the ruins of that" (Harper, Bible and 
Modern Discovery). Extensive mounds of 
ruins, the wreck of the ancient city, now 
mark its site (Isa. 19 : 11, 13 ; 30 : 4 ; Ezek. 
30 : 14). "The whole constitutes one of the 
grandest and oldest ruins in the world." 



ZOAR 



708 



ZUZIMS 



The "field of Zoan" (Ps. 78:12, 43), once 
so fertile a plain as to be compared to the 
garden of the Lord, is now almost wholly 
covered by the Lake Menzaleh. It is the 
modern Sdn or Zdn. 

Zo'SLT — small — a town on the east or 
south-east of the Dead Sea, to which Lot 
and his daughters fled from Sodom (Gen. 
19 : 22, 23). It was originally called Bela 
(14 : 2, 8). It is referred to by the prophets 
Isaiah (15 : 5) and Jeremiah (48 : 34). Its 
ruins are still seen at the opening of the 
ravine of Kerak, the Kir-Moab referred 
to in 2 Kings 3, the modern Tell esh- 
Shaghztr. 

Zo^bah = Aram-Zobah (Ps. 60, title), a 
Syrian province or kingdom to the south of 
Coele-Syria, and extending from the eastern 
slopes of Lebanon north and east toward 
the Euphrates. Saul and David had war 
with the kings of Zobah (1 Sam. 14 : 47 ; 
2 Sam. 8:3; 10 : 6). 

Zo^hax— brightness. (1.) The father of 
Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23 : 8). 

(2. ) One of the sons of Simeon (Gen. 46 : 
10 ; Ex. 6 : 15). 

Zo^heleth — serpent; slipper^/ — a rocky 
plateau near the centre of the village of 
Siloam, and near the fountain of En-rogel, 
to which the women of the village resort 
for water (1 Kings 1 : 5-9). Here Adonijah 
{q.v.) feasted all the royal princes except 
Solomon and the men who took part with 
him in his effort to succeed to the throne. 
While they were assembled here, through 
the intervention of Nathan, Solomon was 
proclaimed king. On hearing this, Adoni- 
jah fled and took refuge in the sanctuary 
(1 Kings 1 : 49-53). He was afterwards 
pardoned. 

Zoheleth projects into or slightly over- 
hangs the Kidron valley. It is now called 
ez-Zehxoell or Zahiveileh. 

Zo'heth — snatching — one of the sons of 
Ishi (1 Chr. 4 : 20). 

Zo^phah — spreading out — a son of Helem 
(1 Chr. 7 : 35), a chief of Asher. 

Zo^phar — chirping — one of Job's friends 



who came to condole with him in his dis- 
tress (Job 2 : 11 ; 11 : 1 ; 20 : 1 ; 42 : 9). He 
is called a Naamathite, or an inhabitant of 
some unknown place called Naamah, ob- 
viously not that mentioned in Josh. 15 : 41. 

Zo^phim, Field of— field of watchers — 
a place in Moab on the range of Pisgah 
(Num. 23 : 1 4). To this place Balak brought 
Balaam, that he might from thence curse 
the children of Israel. Balaam could only 
speak the word of the Lord, and that was 
blessing. It is the modern Tal'at-es-Safa. 
(See Pisgah.) 

Zo^rah— place of wasps — a town in the 
low country of Judah, afterwards given to 
Dan (Josh. 19 : 41 ; Judg. 18 : 2), probably 
the same as Zoreah (Josh. 15 : 33). This 
was Samson's birthplace (Judg. 13 : 2, 25), 
and near it he found a grave (16 : 31). It 
was situated on the crest of a hill overlook- 
ing the valley of Sorek. It was fortified 
by Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11 : 10). It has been 
identified with Sur^ah, in the Wady Stirar, 
8 miles west of Jerusalem. 

Zorob'abel (Matt. 1 : 12 ; Luke 3 : 27). 
See Zeeubbabel. 

Zupb — honeycomb — a Kohathite Levite, 
ancestor of Elkanah and Samuel (1 Sam. 
1:1); called also Zophai (1 Chr. 6 : 26). 

Zuph, Land of (1 Sam. 9 : 5, 6), a dis- 
trict in which lay Samuel's city, Ramah. 
It was probably so named after Elkanah 's 
ancestor, Zuph (1 Chr. 6 : 26, marg. ). 

Zur — rock. (1.) One of the five Midian- 
ite kings whom the Israelites defeated and 
put to death (Num. 31 : 8). 

(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8 : 30). 

Zu'^riel — rock of God — chief of the family 
of the Merarites (Num. 3:35)iin the time 
of the Exodus. 

Zu^rishad^'dai — rock of the Almighty — 
the father of Shelumiel, who was chief of the 
tribe of Simeon when Israel was encamped 
at Sinai (Num. 1 : 6 ; 2 : 12). 

Zu^zims — restless; sprouting — were smit- 
ten "in Ham" by Chedorlaomer and his 
allies (Gen. 14 : 5). Some have identified 
this tribe with the Zamzummims {q.v.). 



APPENDIX. 



-M- 



CONTENTS. 



Cheonological Tables— 

1. The Old Testament to the Death 

of Solomon, . . . . . . 709 

2. The Kingdoms of Judah and 

Israel to the Close of the Old 
Testament, .. .. .. 710 

3. Between the Testaments, . . 718 

4. The New Testament History, . . 719 



II. Miracles recoeded ik the Old 

Testament, . . . . . . 720 

III. Miracles recorded in the Gos- 

pels, 721 

IV. Parables in the Old Testament, 722 

V. Parables in the Gospels, .. 722 

VI. Tables of Weights, Measures, 

AND Money, 723 



I.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 



1. The Old Testament to the Death of Solomon. 
(According to Ussher.) 



B.C. 

4004.. The creation. 

3874..Birthof Seth. 

3382. .Birth of Enoch, the seventh from Adam. 

3317. .Birth of Methuselah. 

3130. .Birth of Lamech. 

3074. .Death of Adam, aged 930 years. 

3017 .. Translation of Enoch in the three hundred 

and sixty-fifth year of his age. 
2948..Birthof Noah. 

2348. .Death of Methuselah, aged 969 years, 
2348.. The deluge. 
2233. .Dispersion of mankind; confusion of 

tongues at Babel. 
2126. .Birth of Terah, Abram's father. 
1998.. Death of Noah, aged 950 years, 350 years 

after the flood. 
1996 . . Birth of Abram. He was 75 years old when 

his father Terah died. 
1922 . . Terah, with his family, leaves Ur of the 

Chaldees, and dwells in Haran. 



B.C. 

1921. .Abram enters the land of Canaan. 

1913.. Abram rescues Lot, who had been taken 
prisoner by Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 4-20). 

1910. .Birth of Ishmael. 

1897. -Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. 

1896. .Isaac born, Abraham being 100 years old. 

1859.. Sarah died at Hebron, in the one hundred 
and twenty-seventh year of her age. 

1821.. Abraham died, aged 175 years, 100 years 
after his entrance into the land of Ca- 
naan. 

1773 . . Ishmael died, aged 137 years. 

1760 . . Jacob fled into Mesopotamia to escape his 
brother's rage. 

1739 . . Jacob returns to Canaan from Mesopotamia. 

1729. .Joseph is sold to the Midianites. 

1716. .Isaac died, aged 180 years. 

1715.. Joseph made governor over the whole of 
Egypt. 

1708 . . The seven years of famine begin. 



710 



B.C. 

1706.. Jacob, with his family, goes down into 

Egypt. 
1689..Death of Jacob. 
1635 . . Joseph dies, aged 110 years. 
1571..Birth of Moses. 
1531. .Moses flees into the land of Midian. 
1491. .Moses returns to Egypt at the command of 

God. 
1491.. Exodus. 

1451.. Death of Miriam, Moses' sister. 
1451 . . In the fifth month of this year Aaron dies 

on Mount Hor, aged 123 years. 
1451 . . In the twelfth month of this year Moses 

dies on Mount Nebo, aged 120 years. 
1451 . . Entrance of the tribes into Canaan. 
1444 . . The first Sabbatical yeai*. From hence the 

year of jubilee is to be reckoned. 
1444 . . The tabernacle set up in Shiloh, where it 

remained 328 years. 
1427 . . Joshua dies, aged 110 years. Then follows 

a period of anarchy and confusion. The 

people sink into idolatry, and are brought 

under subjection to Cushan, king of 

Mesopotamia, for 8 years. 



B.C. 

1400 . . Othniel, the first of the judges, delivers 
Israel. Israel continued to be governed 
by judges for about 450 years, to the time 
of Samuel. 

1091 . . Saul anointed king by Samuel. 

1085. .David, the son of Jesse, born. 

1065 . . David anointed king (1 Sam. 16 : 13). 

1055.. Death of Saul at Gilboa. 

1055 . . David goes to Hebron, and is there anointed 
king by the men of Judah, and there he 
reigns 7J years. 

1048 . . The captains and elders of all the tribes com- 
ing to Hebron anointDavid as king over all 
Israel. Jerusalem now becomes the seat 
of his kingdom. Here he reigned 33 years. 

1023 . . Rebellion of Absalom. 

1015 . . Solomon anointed king by the command of 
his father David. 

1012 . . Solomon begins to build the temple, which 
was finished in 7i years. 

1004 . . The temple dedicated at the Feast of Taber- 
nacles. 
976. .Death of Solomon, after reigning 40 years. 
The kingdom is now divided. 



2. The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel to the Close of the Old Testament. 



Relation of the 

Tivo Kingdoms 

to each other. 


Kingdom of 
Judah. 


B.C. 


Kingdom of 
Israel. 


Contemporane- 
ous Persons and 
Events in Hea- 
then Countries. 


I. Mutual hos- 


Rehoboam. 


976 


Jeroboam. 




tility from B.C. 


Son of Solomon and 




Son of Nebat. Reigned 




976 to B.C. 918. 


Naamah. Eeigned 17 
years. 




22 years. 
Prophet: Ahijah. 






Land invaded and Jeru- 


973 




Shishak, king 




salem plundered by Shi- 






of Egypt. 




shak, and Eehoboam 










made tributary (1 Kings 










14 : 25, 26). 










Prophets : Shemaiah 










and Iddo. 










Abljah or Abijam. 


959 








Son of Rehoboam and 










Maachah. Reigned 3 










years (1 Kings 15 : 1, 2). 










Asa (1 Kings 15 : 9). 


956 




Osorkon II. 




Son of Abijah. Cush- 


955 


Nadab(lKingsl5:25). 


( = probably Ze- 




ite invasion. War with 




Son of Jeroboam. 


rah), king of 




Zerah the Ethiopian (2 




Murdered by Baasha, af- 


Egypt, the in- 




Chr. 14 : 9). Alliance with 




ter a brief reign. 


vader of Judah 




Ben-hadad I. (1 Kings 






(2 Chr. 14 : 9). 




15 : 18). Reigned 41 










years. 










Prophets: Oded, Azar- 










iah, Hanani, and Jehu. 









711 



Relation of the 

Two Kingdoviii 

to each other. 


Kingdom of 
Judah. 


B.C. 


Kingdom, of 
Israel. 


Contemporane- 
ous Persons and 
Events in Hea- 
then Countries. 






953 


Baasha (1 Kings 15 : 28). 

Son of Ahijah of Is- 
sachar. He exterminated 
the entire house of Jero- 
boam (1 Kings 11 : 29-39 ; 
15 : 29). Reigned 24 years. 

Prophet: Jehu. 


Ben-hadad I., 
king of Syria. 






944 




The poet He- 
siod in Greece. 






931 


Elah (1 Kings 16 : 8). 

Son of Baasha. Was 
assassinated, after reign- 
ing 2 years, by Zimri, one 
of his captains, who " de- 
stroyed all the house of 
Baasha " (l Kings 16 : 11). 








929 


Zimri. 

Eeigned only 7 days (1 
Kings 16 : 10). 






■ 


929 


Omri. 

Civil war with Tibni 
for 4 years (1 Kings 16 : 21). 








925 


Omri. 

Reigned alone 6 years 
(1 Kings 16 : 23). 








924 


Samaria made the capi- 
tal (1 Kings 16 : 24). 
Invaded by the Syrians 
(1 Kings 20 : 34). 




II. Alliance 




918 


Ahab (1 Kings 16 : 29, 31). 


Ethbaal, king 


between the 






Son of Omri. He 


of Tyre and Si- 


kingdoms, and 






changed the state re- 


don. 


common hostil- 






ligion, and so "made a 


Ben-hadad II., 


ity to Syria, from 






prodigious step down- 


king of Damas- 


B.C. 918 to B.C. 






wards " by introducing 


cus. 


883. 


Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 
22 : 41). 

Son of Asa and Azubah. 
Joined " affinity with 
Ahab" (2 Chr. 18:1). 
Associated with him his 
son Jehoram, when 16 
years of age, the two reign- 
ing conjointly for 8 years. 

Prophets: Eliezer and 
Jahaziel. 


915 
900 


the impure and debasing 
worship of the Phoenician 
gods. Reigned 22 years. 
Prophets: Elijah and 
Micaiah. 


Homer flour- 
ished. 



712 



Relation of the 

Two Kingdoms 

to each other. 


Kingdom of 
Judah. 


B.C. 


Kingdom of 
Israel: 


Contemporane- 
ous Persons and 
Events in Hea- 
then Countries. 


\ 


900 


Battle at Eamoth-gil- 










ead, in which Ahab was 










slain (1 Kings 22 : 37). 








898 


Ahaziah (1 Kings 22 : 51, 
52). 

Son of Ahab. Eeigned 
2 years. 

Prophet: Elisha. 


Lycurgus in 
Sparta. 






897 


Jehoram or Joram. 

Son of Ahab (2 Kings 
3 : 2). The last king of 
the house of Omri. War 
against Mesha (2 Kings 3 : 
4-27). Was put to death 
by Jehu (2 Kings 9 : 1-23 ; 
comp. 1 Kings 21 : 21), af- 
ter reigning 12 years. 






Jehoram (2 Kings 8 : 16 ; 


892 








2 Chr. 21 : 11-13). 










Son of Jehoshaphat. 










His reign was one of the 










darkest and most unfor- 










tunate in Judean history 










(2Chr.21:12-20). Eeigned 










as sole ruler 8 years. 










Ahaziah. 


884 




Hazael of 




Youngest son of Jeho- 






Syria. 




ram and Athalia (2 Kings 










8:25; 2 Chr. 22:1-3). 










Was put to death by Jehu 










(2 Kings 9 : 24 ; corap. 










2 Chr. 22 : 9), after reign- 










ing 1 year. 








III. Eenewal 


Athaliah (2 Kings 11 : 3). 


883 


Jehu (2 Kings 10 : 36). 




of mutual hostil- 


Daughter of Ahab and 




Son of Nimshi. With 




ities, and grad- 


Jezebel. Usurped the 




him began the most 




ual decline of 


throne, and reigned 6 




powerful and the longest 




both kingdoms 


years. The last survivor 




lived of all the Israelite 




(B.C. 883 to B.C. 


of the house of Omri. Was 




dynasties. Eeigned 28 




588). 


put to death by Jehoiada. 




years. 




1 




Prophet: Jonah. 






Joash or Jehoash (2 


877 




Pygmalion, 




Kings 11 : 4 ; 12 : 1). 






king of Tyre. 




Son of Ahaziah and 










Zibia. Was slain on his 










sick-bed in the castle of 










Millo. Reigned 40 years. 










Prophet: Joel. 


869 




Carthage 
founded by Dido, 
the Phoenician 
queen, 143 years 
after the building 










of the temple. 



713 



Relation of the 

Ttoo Kingdoins 

to each other. 



Kingdom of 
Judah. 



B.C. 



Kingdom of 
Israel. 



Conteinporane- 
ous Persons and 
Events in Hea- 
then Countries. 



Syrians invade Judah. 



Amaziah (2 Kings 14 : 1). 
Son of Joash and Jeho- 
addan. Conquers Edom. 
Defeat at Beth-shemesh 
(2 Kings 14: 13). Eeigned 
29 years. 



855 



840 
839 



838 



823 



820 



814 



Uzziah or Azariah (2 
Kings 15 : 1, 2). 

Son of Amaziah and 
Jecholiah. Reigned 52 
years. 

Prophet: Amos. 



784 



776 



771 



770 



770 



Jehoahaz (2 Kings 13 : 1). 
Eldest son of Jehu. 
Eavages of the Syrians. 
Eeigned 17 years. 

Jehoash or Joash (2 
Kings 13 : 10). 

Defeats the Syrians 
thrice. Conquers Judah. 
Reigned 16 years. 

Death of Elisha (2 
Kings 13 : 14). 



Jeroboam II. (2 Kings 
14 : 23). 
Son of Joash. The 
greatest of all the kings 
of Samaria. Reigned 41 
years. 



Interregnum. 

A period of anarchy 
of 11 years and some 
months. 

Prophet: Hosea. 



Zachariah (2 Kings 15: 
8). 
Son of Jeroboam II. 
Slain by Shallum. 
Reigned 6 months. 

Shallum(2Kingsl5:13). 
Reigned 1 month. 

Menahem (2 Kings 15: 
17). 
Israel invaded by Pul. 
Menahem becomes a 
vassal of Assyria (2 Kings 
15 : 19). 



Ben-hadad 
III., king of 
Syria. 



Empire of the 
Medes founded 
by Arbaces. 

Kingdom of 
Macedon found- 
ed by Caranus, 



The Grecian 
era. Computa- 
tion by Olympi- 
ads, periods of 
4 years, begins. 



Pul, king of 
Assyria. 



714 



Relation of the 

Two Kingdoms 

to each other. 



Kingdom of 
Judah. 



B.C. 



Kingdom of 
Israel. 



Contemporane- 
ous Persons and 
Events in Hea- 
then Countries. 



Jotham (2 Kings 15 : 32, 
33). 

Son of XJzziah and Jeru- 
sha. Reigned 16 years. 

Prophets: Micah and 
Isaiah. 



Ahaz (2 Kings 16 : 1). 

Son of Jotham. The 
party in Jerusalem in 
favour of an alliance with 
Assyria predominates (2 
Kings 16:7). Eeigned 
16 years. 

Prophets : Isaiah and 
Oded. 



Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 1). 

Son of Ahaz and 
Abijah. The party in 
favour of an alliance with 
Egypt predominates till 
the defeat of Tirhakah at 
Eltekeh. From this time 
the views of Isaiah, who 
opposed all alliances with 
foreign powers, prevailed 
during the rest of Heze- 
kiah's reign. 

First invasion of Judah 
by Sennacherib. Heze- 
kiah submits. Eenewed 
invasion. Destruction 
of Sennacherib's army. 

Hezekiah' s illness. 
Eeigned 29 years. 

Prophet: Isaiah. 



761 



759 

758 



752 
747 

742 



740 
734 

730 



727 



726 



721 



714 



712 



Pekahiah. 

Son of Menahem (2 
Kings 15 : 23-26). Eeigned 
2 years. 

Pekah (2 Kings 15 : 27, 28). 
Forms an alliance with 
Eezin. War with Judah. 
The kingdom attacked by 
Tiglath-pileser. Eeigned 
20 years. 



Interregnum of 9 years. 



Hoshea (2 Kings 17 : 1). 

Son of Elah. Enters 
into an alliance with So, 
king of Egypt. The last 
and best king of Israel. 
Eeigned 9 years. 



Fall of Samaria, Israel 
in exile in Assyria, and 
the land peopled by 
colonists from Assyria. 
Destruction of the com- 
monwealth of Israel, af- 
ter a separate existence 
of 253 years (2 Kings 18 : 
10). 



Foundation of 
Eome. 

Nabonassar, 
king of Babylon. 

Eezin, king of 
Syria. 

Tiglath-pile- 
ser, king of As- 
syria. 



Syracuse 
founded. 

So, king of 
Egypt. 



Shalmaneser 
IV. succeeds Tig- 
lath-pileser, and 
besieges Samaria, 
making Hoshea 
tributary. 



Sargon seizes 
the throne of As- 
syria, and takes 
Samaria, the 
siege of which 
was begun by 
Shalmaneser. 

Merodach-bal- 
adan conquers 
Babylon. 



715 



Kingdom of Judah. 



B.C. 



Co7itemporaneous Persons and Events 
in Heathen Countries. 



Manasseh (2 Kings 21 : 1). 

Son of Hezekiah. Great national apos- 
tasy. Carried captive to Babylon (2 Chr 
33 : 11). His repentance and restoration. 
Eeigned 55 years. 

Prophets : Micah, Isaiah, and probably 
Nahum. 



Amon (2 Kings 21 : 19). 
Was murdered after a reign of 2 years. 
Prophet: Nahum. 

Josiah (2 Kings 22 : 1). 
National revival of religion. 



Finding of the book of the law. 
Slain at Megiddo Eeigned 31 years. 
Prophets : Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Ha- 
bakkuk, and Huldah. 

Jehoahaz or Shallum (1 Chr. 3 : 15). 

Josiah's third son. "Did evil in the 
sight of the Lord." Eeigned 3 months, 
when he was deposed by Necho, who took 
him to Egypt (2 Kings 23 : 33). 

Jehoiakim or Eliaklm. 

Josiah's second son. Made king by 
Necho (2 Kings 23 : 36). Judah becomes 
tributary toNebuchadnezzar(2Kings 24:1). 

Commencement of the 70 years' captivity. 



Jehoiakim, despite the warnings of Jere- 
miah, rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, 
who marched at the head of a large army 
into Syria and besieged Jerusalem. Jehoia- 
kim was put to death, and Jehoiakin was 
placed on the throne by Nebuchadnezzai*. 

Jehoiakin (Jeconiah or Coniah). 

Being suspicious of Jehoiakin's loyalty, 
Nebuchadnezzar led an army against Jeru- 
salem and plundered it, carrying away 
many captives (2 Kings 24 : 10-16), among 
whom were the king and all his household. 
He placed Mattaniah on the vacant throne, 
giving him the name of Zedekiah. Second 
conquest of Jerusalem. Eeigned 3 months. 



705 
697 



681 



668-626 
666-612 



642 



640 
629 
625 

621 



612-596 
609 



609 



606 



602 



599 



Sargon murdered, and succeeded by his 
son Sennacherib. 



Sennacherib murdered, and succeeded 
by his son Esarhaddon (2 Kings 19 : 37). 

Assurbanipal, king of Assyria. 

Psammetichus T., king of Egypt, was 
succeeded by his son Necho II. 



Fall of Nineveh. Nabopolassar, father of 
Nebuchadnezzar, independent in Babylon. 



Necho II., king of Egypt. 

Necho II., on his way to assail the 
Babylonians at Carchemish, encountered 
and defeated the army of Josiah near 
Megiddo (q.v.). Josiah was fatally wounded 
(2 Chr. 35 : 24), and Palestine became 
tributary to Egypt. 



Nebuchadnezzar overcame the powerful 
army of the Egyptians, under Necho II., 
at Carchemish (Jer. 46:8-21), on the 
Middle Euphrates. Syria and Palestine 
now became tributary to Babylon (2 Kings 
24 : 1). Daniel and other noble and royal 
youths are taken captive to Babylon, 



716 



Kingdom of Judah. 



B.C. 



Contempora'neous Persons and Events 
in Heathe.n Countries. 



Mattaniah (Zedekiah) 

He rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, 
his suzerain, and formed an alliance with 
Hophra, king of Egypt (2 Kings 24 : 20 ; 
Jer. 44:30; Ezek, 17:15). Nebuchad- 
nezzar came "with all his host" against 
Jerusalem (2 Kings 25 : 1). Egypt proved 
again for the Jews a "bruised reed" (2 
Kings 18 : 21), and failed to help them. 
Jerusalem was besieged for a year and a 
half, and was visited with dire distress, 
famine, and pestilence. The defences of 
the city gave way, and the Babylonian 
army entered it. The doomed city drank 
the cup of God's fury to the dregs. The 
king and all his followers were taken 
captive, and brought to Eiblah. There 
his son was put to death in his presence, 
and his own eyes were then put out, and he 
became a captive in Babylon to the day 
of his death (Jer. 52 : 11). The second 
captivity. Eeigned 11 years. 

Prophet: Ezekiel. 



Gedaliah. 

Appointed governor by Nebuchadnezzar 
(2 Kings 25 : 22). Was killed by Ishmael. 
Jerusalem destroyed. Many of the people 
carried captive to Babylon. The third 
captivity. The rest fled to Egypt (2 Kings 
25 : 26). Judah lies desolate (2 Chr. 36 : 21 ; 
Zech. 7 : 14). 



599 



596-591 

594 
591-572 

588 



Psammetichus II., king of Egypt, 
Solon at Athens, 
Hophra, king of Egypt. 



Palestine. 



562 

558 
559 

555 
538 



Nebuchadnezzar dies, after a reign of 
43 years, and is succeeded by his son Evil- 
merodach- 

Media and Persia united into one king- 
dom under Cyrus. 

Neriglissar (probably = Nergal-shar- 
ezer), Nebuchadnezzar's son-in-law, suc- 
ceeds Evil-merodach. 

Nabonadius, the last king of Babylon. 
Belshazzar, his son, latterly associated 
with him as king. Belshazzar commanded 
at Babylon while his father Nabonadius 
took the field against Cyrus. 

During the siege of Babylon by Cyrus, 
Belshazzar made a great feast, and that 
night the city was taken, and Belshazzar 
was slain, the empire passing to the Medes 
and Persians. Then Darius the Made 
"took the kingdom," Cyrus making him 
governor of the Medo-Persian empire, 
with the title of King. Daniel cast into 
the den of lions. 



717 



Palestine. 


B.C. 


Contemporaneous Persons and Events 
in Heathen Countries. 


Palestine becomes a province of the Per- 


536 


Cyrus's first year, on the death of Darius. 


sian empire. Eeturn of the first caravan 




Issues his edict in favour of the Jewish 


"of the children of the province" — i.e., 




captives (Ezra 1 : 1-4 ; 6 : 3-5 ; comp. Isa. 


of Judea — under Zerubbabel, whom Cyrus 




44 : 28). 


made tirshatha or governor of Judea. 






Only about 50,000 Jews returned on this 






occasion. 






Kebuilding of the temple begun. 


535 




Daniel sees the vision recorded in eh. 


534 




10-12. The Samaritans oppose the build- 






ing of the temple. 








529 


Tarquinius Superbus at Rome. Ahasue- 
rus (Cambyses, Cyrus's son) succeeds Cyrus 
as king of Persia (Ezra 4 : 6). 


Building of the temple suspended. 


521 




Zerubbabel and Jeshua renew the build- 


520 




ing in the second year of Darius, roused 






thereto by the prophets Haggai and Zech- 






ariah. 






Darius discovers and re-enacts Cyrus's 


519 




decree. 








516 


Babylon was destroyed by Darius Hys- 
taspes. 


The temple completed and dedicated in 


515 




the sixth year of Darius. 








490 


Battle of Marathon. 




486 


Xerxes I. (Ahasuerus of Esther). 




483 


In the third year of his reign, he 
holds a great assembly previous to his 
invasion of Greece, and divorces Queen 
Vashti. Probably not till after his return 
from the disastrous invasion did he marry 
Hadassa (Esther). 




480 


Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. 


The Jews are under Persian governors. 


479 


Battle of Platea. Sea-fight of Mycale. 


Many abuses appear among them. 








478 


Esther made queen. 


Ezra obtains a commission from Arta- 


457 




xerxes (Longimanus), and leads a second 






company of exiles back to Jerusalem (Ezra 
7:8). 
Nehemiah, cupbearer of Artaxerxes, ap- 






446 




pointed governor of Jerusalem. Is op- 






posed by Sanballat and Tobiah. 






Nehemiah returns to Persia, 


433 




Nehemiah revisits Jerusalem, and re- 


432 




forms many abuses. 








431 


Peloponnesian War begins. 




423 


Socrates, Xenophon, and Thucydides at 
Athens. 


Death of Nehemiah. 


413 




Ezra and the Great Synagogue, includ- 


397 




ing the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and 






Malachi, probably gathered together the 


354 


Demosthenes. 


several books which form the Old Testa- 






ment canon. 






Temple built on Gerizim by the Samari- 


332 


Alexander the Great takes the city of 


tans. 




Tyre. 



718 



3. Between the Testaments. 

From the death of Nehemiah to the fall of the Medo- Persian empire before the 
Macedonian little is known of the Jews. The high priests were practically the rulers 
of the people. They were assisted by a council of one hundred and twenty members, 
called the Great Synagogue, The royal house of David sank into oblivion, prophecy was 
suspended, and the Jews gradually became more and more exclusive and austere, both 
religiously and socially. 



(1.) The Hellenistic Domination. 

B.C. 

Alexander the Great defeated Darius 
(Codomannus) and founded the Mace- 
donian empire — the Greek empire in 
Asia 331-167 

Death of Alexander the Great at Baby- 
lon 323 

Alexander's four generals (the diadocM) 
divide his empire between them. Pales- 
tine becomes a part of Syria 323 

Judea is annexed to Egypt when the 
Grseco-Egyptian kingdom is founded, and 
the Jews come under the dominion of the 
Ptolemies. The Jews are scattered over 
the heathen world 301-221 

The Old Testament began to be trans- 
lated into Greek by learned Jews in 
Alexandria for the use of the African 
Jews. The translation was probably 
completed during the next century. 
It is called the Septuagint (q.v.) Ver- 
sion 



Antiochus III., the Great, overruns 
Palestine 

Ptolemy IV. of Egypt recovers Pales- 
tine 

The Jews submit to Antiochus the 
Great 



291 
219 
217 
205 



judgment sent upon him for his treat- 
ment of the Jews 



Antiochus the Great defeats the Egyp- 
tians, and Palestine becomes a part of the 
Graeco-Syrian kingdom 197 

Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes) usurps the 
Grseco-Syrian throne 175 

Antiochus cruelly persecutes the Jews, 
ordering all his subjects on pain of death 
to adopt the Grseco-Syrian religion and 
customs 170-167 



(2.) The Period of the Maccabees and 
the Ashmoncean Kings. 

A band of patriotic Jews, headed by 
Matthias the Ashmonsean, rebel against 
the tyranny of Antiochus 1C6 

Antiochus dies at Tabse in Persia, being 
stricken with a loathsome disease (comp. 
Acts 12 : 23), which he recognizes as a 



164 



After a period of varying success, the 
Maccabean commonwealth, introducing 
the era of Jewish independence, is estab- 
lished 143 

The Ashmonsean kings rule over Ju- 
dea 106-65 

Pompey annexes Syria to Rome, and 
Judea becomes from this time a Eoman 
dependency 63 

Julius Csssar appoints Antipater, son 
of Antipas, an Idumsean chief, first 
procurator of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, 
and henceforward the Herodian family 
supplants the Ashmonsean 47 

Antipater makes his son Herod joint 
(with his brother Phasael) tetrarch of 
Judea and Galilee 41 



(3.) The Herodian Kingdom. 

Herod the Great takes Jerusalem, and 
becomes the founder of the Herodian 
kingdom. End of the Ashmonsean 

line 37 

Battle of Actium 31 

Egypt becomes a Eoman province, and 
is the chief seat of the Jewish Disper- 
sion 30 

Herod rebuilds Samaria, and attempts 
to introduce among the Jews Greek and 

Roman customs 27 

Augustus emperor of Rome b.c. 27-a.p. 14 

Herod founds the Grseco-Roman city b.c. 

and port of Csesarea 22 

Erects a temple to Augustus at Pa- 

neas 20 

Begins the rebuilding of the temple ... 18 

Building of Csesarea finished. Tt. is 

dedicated to Augustus 10 

Birth of John the Baptist 5 

Birth of our Lord, as now generally re- 
ceived. Death of Herod the Great at 
Jericho. Archelaus becomes king in his 
stead , 4 



719 



4, The Neio Testament History, 



Palestine. 


B.C. 


Rome. 


Nativity of Christ. See above. 


4 


Cyrenius (Quirinus) prefect (legatus) of 


Antipater murdered by his father. 


2 
A.D. 


Syria — the first time (Luke 2 : 2). 


Nativity of Christ, according to Tertul- 


1 




lian and Eusebius. 






Judea becomes a Roman province, and 


6 




is annexed to the province of Syria. 






Jesus at the age of twelve visits the 


8 


Cyrenius again legatus of Syria. Com- 


temple. 




pletes the " taxing" (Acts 5 : 37). 




14 


Tiberius succeeds Augustus. 


Caiaphas made high priest. 


17 




Pontius Pilate fifth procurator. 


26 




John the Baptist imprisoned and be- 


30 




headed by Herod Antipas. 






Crucifixion of our Lord. The Pente- 


33 




costal effusion. 






Martyrdom of Stephen. Conversion of 


36 




Saul of Tarsus. 






Herod Agrippa I. succeeded his uncle 


37 


Death of Tiberius. Accession of Ca- 


Herod Philip II. in the tetrarchy of Tra- 




ligula. 


chonitis and Ituraea. 






Saul's first visit to Jerusalem (Gal. 1:18). 


40 




Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and 






Perpea, deposed and banished. Was suc- 






ceeded by Herod Agrippa. 






Herod Agrippa I. gained Judea and 


41 


Death of Caligula. Accession of Clau- 


Samaria. Conversion of Cornelius. 




dius. 


The first Gentile church at Antioch. 


43 




Herod Agrippa I., king of Judea and 


44 




Samaria, beheaded James (Zebedee's son) 






—Acts 12 : 2, 23. Herod Agrippa dies at 






Csesarea (Acts 12 : 1, 6, 11, 19, 23). 






Paul's first missionary journey (about 


47 




3 years) — Acts 13-14. '' Saul, who is also 






called Paul "(Acts 13: 9). 






Council at Jerusalem (Acts 15 : 1-35). 


50 




The epistle of the council to the Gentile 






Christians in Syria and Cilicia is probably 






the oldest written document of the Chris- 






tian Church. 






Felix procurator. Paul's second mis- 


51 




sionary journey (more than 3 years) — Acts 






15 : 36-18 : 23. 






Wrote from Corinth the epistles to the 


52 


Decree of Claudius banishing the Jews 


Thessalonians (1 Thess. 1 : 7, 8 ; Acts 18 : 5). 




from Rome. 




54-68 


Nero emperor, successor of Claudius. 


Paul's third missionary journey (about 


54 




4 years)— Acts 18 : 23-21 : 14. 






During his stay at Ephesus (Acts 19) 


57 or 58 




wrote epistle to the Galatians (Acts 20 : 2 ; 






Gal. 6 : 11), and probably First Corinthians 






(1 Cor. 16 : 8). 






Wrote from Macedonia Second Corinth- 


57 




ians (2 Cor. 1 : 23 ; 7 : 5). 






Wrote from Corinth epistle to Romans at 


58 




closeof his stay there(Acts 20:3; lCor.l6:6). 







720 



Palestine. 


A.D. 


Rome. 


Paul visits Jerusalem. Is brought before 


58 




Felix, and imprisoned for two years at 






Csesarea (Acts 21 : 17-26). 






Paul before the procurator Porcius 


60 




Festus. Is sent a prisoner to Rome. 






Arrives at Rome in spring of 


61 




Paul writes from Rome his epistles to 


61-63 




the Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, and 






the Philippians, and probably Hebrews. 






Paul probably released. 


63 




Paul's movements after his release are 


64 


Great fire at Rome. First general per- 


uncertain. Some think that at Corinth 




secution of the Christians. 


he wrote the First Epistle to Timothy and 






the Epistle to Titus. 






Arrested at Ephesus, and sent prisoner 


65 




to Rome. 






"Wrote Second Epistle to Timothy from 


66 




Rome. Was martyred (?). 




- 


Others think that Paul wrote First 


67 




Epistle to Timothy from Macedonia, and 




, 


the Epistle to Tit^ls from Ephesus, and 






that he spent the winter of this year at 






Nicopolis, where he was taken prisoner 






and sent to Rome, whence he wrote the 






Second Epistle to Timothy. Suffered mar- 


68 


Nero killed by his secretary, Epaph- 


tyrdom (?). 




roditus, "in the thirtieth year of his age 
and in the fourteenth of his reign." 




69 


Vespasian emperor. 


Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the 


70 




Roman general. 






John probably writes his Gospel and 


80-90 




Epistles. 








91 


Titus emperor. 


John writes the book of Revelation. 


95 


Domitian emperor. 




96 


Second general persecution of Chris- 
tians. 




97 


Nerva emperor. 


Death of John. 


98 


Trajan emperor. 



II.— MIRACLES EECORDED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



1. The flood Gen. 7, 8. 

2. Destruction of Sodom and 

Gomorrah 19 : 24. 

3. Lot's wife turned into a 

"pillar of salt" 19 : 26. 

4. Birth of Isaac at Gerar 21 : 1, 

5. The burning bush not con- 

sumed Ex. 3 : 3. 

6. Aaron's rod changed into a 

serpent 7 : 10-12. 

7. The ten plagues of Egypt— 

(1) waters become blood, 

(2) frogs, (3) lice, (4) flies, 
(5) murrain, (6) boils, (7) 
thunder and hail, (8) lo- 
custs, (9) darkness, (10) 

death of the first-born ... 7 : 20-12 : 30. 

8. The Red Sea divided ; Israel 

passes through 14 : 21-31. 



9. The waters of Marah sweet- 
ened Ex. 15 : 23-25. 

10. Manna sent daily, except on 

Sabbath. 16 : 14-35. 

11. Water from the rock at Reph- 

idim 17 : 5-7. 

12. Nadab and Abihu consumed 

for offering " strange fire " Lev. 10 : 1, 2. 

13. Some of the people consumed 

by fire at Taberah Num. 11 : 1-3. 

14. The earth opens and swallows 

up Korah and his com- 
pany ; fire and plague fol- 
low at Kadesh 16 : 32. 

15. Aaron's rod budding at 

Kadesh 17:8. 

16. Water from the rock, smitten 

twice by Moses, Desert of 

Zin 20:7-11. 



721 



17. 


The brazen serpent in the 






37. 


Waters of Jericho healed by 








Desert of Zin 


Num. 21 


8,9. 




Elisha's casting salt into 






IS. 


Balaam's ass speaks 


22 


21-35. 




them 2 


Kings 2 : 


21, 22. 


19. 


The Jordan divided, so that 






38. 


Bears cut of the wood de- 








Israel passed over dryshod 


Josh. 3 


14-17. 




stroy forty -two "young 






90 


The walls of Jericho fall 
down 


6 


6-20. 


39. 


men" 


2 


24. 




Water provided for Jehosh- 




21. 


The snn and moon stayed. 








aphat and the allied army 


3 


16-20. 




Hailstorm 


10 


12-14. 


40. 


Tlie widow's oil multiplied . 


4 


2-7. 


22. 


The strength of Samson 


Judg 


14-16. 


41. 


The Shunammite's son given. 






23. 


Water from a hollow place 








and raised from the dead 








" that is in Lehi" 

Dagon falls twice before the 


15 


19. 


42. 


at Shunem 


4 


32-37. 


24. 


The deadly pottage cured 






ark. Emerods on the 








with meal at Gilgal 


4 


38-41. 




Philistines 


1 Sam. 5 


1-12. 


43. 


An hundred men fed with 






25. 


Men of Beth-shemesh smit- 
ten for looking into the 






44. 


twenty loaves at Gilgal. . . 
Naaman cured of leprosy. 


4 


42-44. 




ark 


6 


19. 




Gehazi afldicted with it . . . 


5 


10-27. 


26. 


Thunderstorm causes a panic 






45. 


The iron axe-head made to 








among the Philistines at 








swim, river Jordan 


6 


5-7. 




Eben-ezer 


7 


10-12. 


46. 


Ben-hadad's plans discov- 
ered. Hazael's thoughts, 






27 


Thi;nder and rain in harvest 






at Gilgal 


12 


18. 




etc 


6 


12. 


28. 


Sound in the mulberry trees 






47. 


The Syrian army smitten 








at Rephaim 


2 Sam. 5 


23-25. 


48. 


with blindness at Dothan. 
The Syrian army cured of 


6 


18. 


29. 


Uzzah smitten for touching 






the ark at Perez-uzzah . . . 


6 


6,7. 




blindness at Samaria 


6 


20. 


30. 


Jeroboam's hand withered. 






49. 


Elisha's bones revive the 








His new altar destroyed 








dead 


13 


21. 




at Bethel 1 


Kings 13 


4-6. 


50. 


Sennacherib's army de- 






31. 


Widow of Zarephath's meal 








stroyed, Jerusalem 


19 


35. 




and oil increased 


17 


14-16. 


51. 


Shadow of sun goes back ten 






32. 


Widow's son raised from the 








degrees on the sun-dial of 








dead 


17 


17-24. 




Ahaz, Jerusalem 


20 


9-11. 


33. 


Drought, fire, and rain at 






52. 


Uzziah struck M'ith leprosy. 








Elijah's prayer, and Elijah 








Jerusalem 


2 Chr. 26 


16-21. 




fed by ravens 


17, 


18. 


53. 


Shadrach, Meshach, and 






34. 


Ahaziah's captains consumed 








Abed-nego delivered from 








by fire near Samaria 2 Kings 1 


10-12. 




the fiery furnace, Babylon 


Dan. 3 


10-27. 


35. 


Jordan divided by Elijah and 






54. 


Daniel saved in the lions' den 


6 


16-23. 




Elisha near Jericho 


2 


7,8,14. 


55. 


Jonah in the whale's belly. 






36. 


Elijah carried up into heaven 


2 


11. 




Safely landed 


Jonah 2 


1-10. 



III.— MIRACLES RECORDED IN THE GOSPELS. 

1. Peculiar to Mattheiv. 
(1.) Cure of two blind men 9 : 27-31. | (2.) Piece of money in the fish's mouth 

2. Peculiar to Mark. 

(1.) The deaf and dumb man 7 : 31-37. ] (2.) The blind man of Bethsaida 

3. Peculiar to Luke. 
(4.) The woman with the spirit of in- 



(1.) Jesus passes unseen through the 

crowd 

(2.) The miraculous draught of fishes 

(3.) The raising of the widow's son at 

Nain 



4 : 28-30. 
5 : 4-11. 



7 : 11-18. 

4. Peculiar to John 



firmity 

(5.) The man with the dropsy. 

(6.) The ten lepers 

(7.) The healing of Malchus.. . 



(1.) Water made wine 2 : 1-11. 

(2.) Cure of nobleman's son, Capernaum 4 : 46-54. 
(3.) Impotent man at Bethsaida cured 5 : 1-9. 



(4.) Man born blind cured , 

(5.) Lazarus raised from the dead 

(6.) Draught of fishes 



17 : 24-27. 
8:22-26. 



13 : 11-17. 
14 : 1-6. 
17 : 11-19. 
22 : 50, 51. 



9 : 1-7. 
11 : 38-44. 
21 : 1-14. 

47 



722 



Common to Matthew and Mark. 

(1.) Syrophoenician woman's daughter cured 

(2.) Four thousand fed 

(3.) Fig-tree blasted 



6. Common to Matthew and Luke. 

(1.) Centurion's servant healed 

(2.) Blind and dumb demoniac cured 

7. Common to Mark and Luke. 

Demoniac cured in synagogue at Capernaum. 



Matt. 15 : 28. 
15 : 32. 
21 : 18. 

Matt. 8 : 5. 
12 : 22. 



Common to Mattheio, Mark, and Luke. 

(1.) Peter's wife's mother cured Matt. 8 : 14. 

(2.) The tempest stilled 8 : 23. 

(3.) Demoniacs of Gadara cured 8 : 28. 

(4.) Leper healed 8:2. 

(5.) Jairus's daughter raised 9 : 23. 

(6.) Woman's issue of blood cured 9 : 20. 

(7.) Man sick of the palsy cured 9:2. 

(8.) Man's withered hand cured 12 : 10. 

(9.1 A lunatic child cured 17 : 14. 

(10.) Two blind men cured 20 : 29. 

Common to Matthew, Mark, and John. 

Jesus walks on the sea 



10. 



Common to all the evangelists. 

Jesus feeds 5,000 "in a desert place" Matt. 14 : 15. 



Matt. 14 : 25. 



Mark 6 : 30. 



Mark 7 : 24. 
8:1. 
11 : 12. 

Luke 7 : 1. 
11:14. 



Mark 1:23. I Luke 4: 33. 



Mark 1 : 30. 


Luke 4 : 38 


4:37. 


8:22 


5:1. 


8:26 


1:40. 


5:12 


5:23. 


8:41 


5:25. 


8:43 


2:3. 


5:18 


3:L 


6:6. 


9:14. 


9:37 


10 : 46. 


18:35. 


Mark 6 : 48. 


John 6 : 15 


Luke 9 : 10. 


John 6:1-14 



111 addition to the above miracles wrought by Christ there are foiir miraculous events 
connected with his life : — 



1. The conception by the Holy Ghost Luke 1 : 35. 

2. The transfiguration Matt. 17 : 1-8. 



The resurrection John 21 : 1-14. 

The ascension Luke 2 : 42-51. 



IV.— PARABLES RECORDED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



Spoken by Concerning 


Spoken at 


Recoided 


Balaam . . . The Moabites and Israelites 


Mount Pisgah. . . 
Mount Gerizim.. 

Timnath 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Near Samaria. . . 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Babylon 

Babylon 

Babylon 


Num. 23 : 24. 
Judg 9:7-15. 
Judg. 14 : 14. 
2 Sam. 12 : 1-4. 
14:1. 

1 Kings 20 : 35-49. 

2 Kings 14 : 9. 

Isa. 5 : 1-6. 
Ezek. 19 : 2-9. 

17 : 3-10. 

24 : 3-5. 


Jotham Trees making a king 

Samson Sweetness coming forth from the strong. 

Nathan The poor man's ewe lamb 

Woman ofTekoah . . Two brothers striving 


One of the sons of\ „. .--._.^ prisoner 
the prophets . . . J ^^® escaped prisonei 

Jehoash king oA^^^ ^^.^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ 

Israel 


Isaiah The vineyard yielding wild grapes 

Ezekiel Lion's whelps 

The great eagles and the vine 

The boiling pot 



v.— PARABLES RECORDED IN THE GOSPELS. 

1. Peculiar to Matthew. 



(1.) The tares 13 : 24-30. 

(2.) The hid treasure 13 : 44. 

(3.) The pearl of great price 13 : 45, 46. 

(4.) The drag net 13 : 47-50. 

(5.) The unmerciful servant 18 : 23-35. 

(6.) The labourers in the vineyard. ... 20 : 1-16. 



(7.) The two sons 21 : 28-32. 

(8.) Marriage of the king's son 22 : 1-14. 

(9.) The ten virgins 25 : 1-13. 

(10.) The talents 25:14-30. 

(11.) Sheep and goats 25 : 31-46. 



723 



CL) The seed growing secretly. 



2. Peculiar to Mark. 
4:26-29. 1 (2.) Watchfulness. 



13:34,35. 



3. Peculiar to Lul-e. 



(1.) The two debtors 

(2.) The good Samaritan 

(3.) The importunate friend at mid- 
night 

(4.) The rich fool 

(5.) The servants watching 

(6.) The steward 

(7.) Barren fig-tree 

(8.) The great supper 

(9.) Building a tower, and a king go- 
ing to war 



7; 
10: 

11; 
12; 
12; 
12: 
13; 
14: 



: 41-43. 
25-37. 

5-8. 
: 16-21. 
: 35-40. 
; 42-48. 

6-9. 
; 16-24. 



14 : 28-33. 



(10.) The lost piece of silver 15 : 8-10. 

(11.) The prodigal son 15 : 11-32. 

(12.) The unjust steward 16 : 1-13. 

(13.) The rich man and Lazarus 16 : 19-31. 

(14.) The master and servant 17 : 7-10. 

(15.) The unjust judge and the im- 
portunate widow 18 : 1-8. 

(16.) The Pharisee and publican 18 : 10-14. 

(17.) The pounds 19 : 12-27. 



4. There are no parables, as a special form of allegory, found in John. The word rendered "parable " in 

John 10 : 6 is not the word so rendered in the Synoptics. The word which John uses (paroimia) 
is better translated "allegory." It occurs elsewhere only in John 16:25, 29 and 2 Pet. 2:22, 
where it is rendered "proverb." 

5. Common to Matthew and Luke. 

(1.) The house on the rock and on the sand Matt. 7 : 24-27. 

(2.) Leaven 

(3.) The lost sheep 

6. Common to Matthew, Mark, and Luke. 

(1.) Candle under a bushel Matt. 5 : 15. 

(2.) New cloth and an old garment 9 : 16. 

(3.) New wine in old bottles 9 : 17. 

(4.) The sower 13 : 1-23. 

(5.) The mustard seed 13 : 31, 32. 

(6.) The vineyard 21 : 33-46. 



(7.) The fig-tree 



24:32-35. 



Matt. 7: 24-27. 


Luke 6 : 46-49. 


13 : 33, 34. 


13:18-2L 


18 : 12-14. 


15 : 1-10. 


Mark 4 : 21. 


Luke 8 : 16. 


2:2L 


5:36. 


2:22. 


5 : 37, 38. 


4 : 1-9. 


8 : 4-15. 


4 : 30, 34. 


13 : 18-20. 


12 : 1-12. 


20 : 9-19. 


13 : 28-31. 


21 : 29-33. 



VI.— WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY. 



Equivalents in 
1. Hebreio Measures of Weight. Troy Weight. 

lbs. oz. dwt. grs. 

Gerah 12 

Bekah = 10 gerahs 5 

Shekel = 2 bekahs 10 

Maneh (silver = 60 shekels) 2 6 

Talent 125 



2. Measures of Length. English EQuivALENia 

ft. in. 

Digit (Jer. 52 : 21) 0.912 

Palm = 4 digits (Ex. 25 : 25) 3.648 

Span = 3 palms (Ex. 28 : 16) 10.944 

Cubit = 2 spans (Gen. 6 : 15) 1 9.888 

Pace (2 Sam. 6 : 13) 3 

Fathom (Acts 27 ; 28) 6 0.8 

Reed (Ezek. 40 : 3-5 ; 42 : 16) = 6 cubits 10 11.328 

Furlong or stadium = 600 Greek feet (53i feet less than an English furlong) 606 9 
Mile (Roman) = 1,000 Roman paces = 1,618 English yards. 
Day's journey (Num. 11 : 31 ; Luke 2 : 44), ordinarily about 25 to 30 miles, 
but when the Jews travelled in company, about 10 miles. 



724 

Equivalknts in 
8. Measures of Capacity for Liquids. English Wine Measure. 

galls, pints. 

A caph -. 0.625 

A log (Lev. li : 10, etc. ) . .• 0.833 

A cab (mentioned only 2 Kings 6: 25) 3.33 

A hin (Ex. 29 : 40 ; 30 : 24 ; Num. 15 : 4, 7, 9) 1 2 

A seah ("measure," 2 Kings 7:1, 16), called also (Heb.) shalish— 

i.e., "a third," as being the third part of an ephah (Isa. 40:12; 

Ps.80:5) 2 4 

A bath, the largest liquid measure (1 Kings 7 • 26, 38 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 10 ; Ezra 

7 : 22 ; Isa. 5 : 10). Same as an ephah (Ex. 16 : 36 ; Lev. 5 : 11 ; 6 : 10 ; 

Num. 5 : 15, etc.) 7 4.5 

A kor, " vi?hich is an homer " (Isa. 5 : 10 ; Ezek. 45 : 14) = 10 ephahs 75 5 

Firkin (John 2:6) 9 



Equivalents in 
4. Dry Pleasure, English Corn Measure. 

pecks, yalls. pints. 

Cab (2 Kings 6 : 25 = choenix, " measure " ; Eev. 6:6) 2.833 

Omer (Ex. 16 : 36) = tenth deal = j^^ of an ephah (Ex. 29 : 40 ; 

Lev. 23:13) , 

Seah (plural, "measures," Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam, 25:18; Matt. 13:33) 1 

Ephah = 3 seahs (Ezek. 45 : 11) 3 

Letek = 5 ephas ("' half -homer," Hos. 3:2) 16 

Homer, called also kor = 2 leteks (Num. 11 : 32 ; Hos. 3:2) 32 






5.1 





1 





3 















5. Jewish Money, English Equivalents. 

£ s. d. 

Gerah = oV part of a shekel (Ex. 30 : 13) 1.3687 

JBekah = 1 shekel (Ex. 38 : 26) 1 1.6875 

Shekel (silver at 5s. per oz , Ex. 30 : 13 ; Isa. 7 : 23 ; Matt. 17 : 27).. 2 3.375 

Shekel of gold 1 16 6 

Maneh ("pound,'' 1 Kings 10:17) = 50 shekels 5 14 0.75 

Talent of silver = 60 manehs 342 3 9 

Talent of gold 5475 



6. Roman Money. English Equivalents. 

£ s. d. 
Mite (lepton)—Ma.i-k 12: 42 — the smallest copper coin = about .46875 of 

an English farthing. 
Earthing (quadrans ; Gr. kodrantes)— Matt. 5 : 26 ; Mark 12 ; 42 == 2 mites 
= the fourth of an as. 

Earthing (assarion)— Matt. 10 : 29 ; Luke 12 : 6 = the Roman as 0| 

Penny (denarius = drachma)— Matt. 22:19 7| 

Pound (mma,)— Luke 19 : 13, 16, 18, etc. = 100 drachmae 3 2 6 



THE END. 



h' 



